Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Myoclonus – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537015/

  Myoclonus features diverse causes, anatomic diagnoses, and neurophysiologic presentations, all nonspecific concerning their neuroanatomical source and pathogenesis. […] Myoclonus can be a feature of myriad neurological diseases and disorders. Perhaps most pathognomonically associated with „startle myoclonus” in Creutzfeld-Jakob disease, myoclonus can also be a feature of neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, Parkinson disease, frontotemporal dementia, and disorders of basal ganglia or spinocerebellar degeneration, among others. […] The specific etiologic mechanisms underlying myoclonus remain poorly understood. At present, researchers theorize that myoclonus may emerge as a consequence of motor strip hyperexcitability, abnormalities or deficiencies in neurotransmitter receptors, imbalances between neurotransmitters, or underlying network abnormalities that have yet to be elucidated.

• #2 Myoclonus | National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke

  https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/myoclonus

  Studies suggest that myoclonus usually begins in the cerebral cortex. However, scientists don’t yet fully understand the specific factors that cause myoclonus. They believe some types of stimulus-sensitive myoclonus may involve overexcitability of the parts of the brain that control movement. Laboratory studies suggest that an imbalance between chemicals called neurotransmitters may cause myoclonus.

• #3 Myoclonus | National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke

  https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/myoclonus

  Myoclonus is a type of uncontrollable movement that includes sudden, brief involuntary twitching, jerking, or spasm of a single muscle or a group of muscles. Myoclonus is not a disease itself, but may be a sign of another neurological condition. […] Causes of myoclonic twitches or jerks are: Sudden muscle contractions (tightening), called positive myoclonus; Sudden muscle relaxation, called negative myoclonus. […] Myoclonus usually happens from a disruption of the brain or spinal cord. It can also happen after an injury to the peripheral nerves (nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord). […] Myoclonus may also happen with infection, head or spinal cord injury, stroke, brain tumors, kidney or liver failure, chemical or drug intoxication, lipid storage diseases, autoimmune inflammatory conditions, COVID-19, or metabolic disorders. Prolonged oxygen deprivation to the brain (hypoxia) may lead to post-hypoxic myoclonus. Some genetic disorders, such as Krabbe disease and Wilson disease, can cause myoclonus.

• #4 Myoclonus | Baylor Medicine

  https://www.bcm.edu/healthcare/specialties/neurology/parkinsons-disease-and-movement-disorders/myoclonus

  Myoclonus is the medical term for sudden, rapid, brief, involuntary jerking movement of a body part or the entire body. Many different neurological disorders can cause myoclonus; therefore, neurologists consider it a symptom of disease rather than a specific diagnosis. […] Myoclonus can also be classified by etiology (the underlying cause). […] Physiologic Myoclonus occurs in healthy people and rarely requires treatment. […] Essential myoclonus occurs on its own without an underlying medical condition. […] Epileptic myoclonus is used to denote conditions in which myoclonus occurs in the setting of epilepsy (seizure disorders). […] Secondary myoclonus occurs in the context of an underlying disorder (neurological or non-neurological). There are many potential causes of myoclonus. […] Although some cases of myoclonus are caused by an injury to the peripheral nerves, most forms of myoclonus are caused by a disturbance of the central nervous system. […] The specific mechanisms underlying myoclonus are not yet fully understood. Scientists believe that some types of stimulus-sensitive myoclonus may involve over excitability of the parts of the brain that control movement.

• #5 Myoclonus – Neurologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/neurologic-disorders/movement-and-cerebellar-disorders/myoclonus

  Myoclonus may be classified as physiologic (benign) or pathologic. […] Pathologic myoclonus can result from various disorders and medications. The most common causes are hypoxia, medication toxicity, and metabolic disturbances. […] Etiology of myoclonus may be essential (primary), acquired (most common), or idiopathic. […] Essential (primary) myoclonus has no identifiable cause and/or is suspected to involve genetic factors. […] Acquired myoclonus has multiple causes, including many metabolic disorders. Most cases of myoclonus are acquired. […] Idiopathic myoclonus is myoclonus whose presence is completely unexplained.

• #6 Classification and evaluation of myoclonus – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/classification-and-evaluation-of-myoclonus

  Myoclonic movements have many possible etiologies, anatomic sources, and pathophysiologic features. […] Myoclonus may be classified by clinical presentation, examination findings, clinical neurophysiology testing, and etiology. […] This classification paradigm can help with localization of the underlying lesion, aid in the diagnosis of certain disorders that have a characteristic myoclonus physiology, and guide treatment options that may be useful for some physiologic types of myoclonus but not others.

• #7 Myoclonus | Baylor Medicine

  https://www.bcm.edu/healthcare/specialties/neurology/parkinsons-disease-and-movement-disorders/myoclonus

  Myoclonus is the medical term for sudden, rapid, brief, involuntary jerking movement of a body part or the entire body. Many different neurological disorders can cause myoclonus; therefore, neurologists consider it a symptom of disease rather than a specific diagnosis. […] Myoclonus can also be classified by etiology (the underlying cause). […] Physiologic Myoclonus occurs in healthy people and rarely requires treatment. […] Essential myoclonus occurs on its own without an underlying medical condition. […] Epileptic myoclonus is used to denote conditions in which myoclonus occurs in the setting of epilepsy (seizure disorders). […] Secondary myoclonus occurs in the context of an underlying disorder (neurological or non-neurological). There are many potential causes of myoclonus. […] Although some cases of myoclonus are caused by an injury to the peripheral nerves, most forms of myoclonus are caused by a disturbance of the central nervous system. […] The specific mechanisms underlying myoclonus are not yet fully understood. Scientists believe that some types of stimulus-sensitive myoclonus may involve over excitability of the parts of the brain that control movement.

• #8 Myoclonus | Healthengine Blog

  https://healthinfo.healthengine.com.au/myoclonus

  Myoclonus is then further separated into one of the following categories based on cause: Physiological myoclonus is the most a common type of myoclonus which often occurs in otherwise healthy people. An example of physiological myoclonus is the hiccups which are caused by myoclonus of the diaphragm. […] Essential myoclonus is often described as a condition in itself as in many cases it does not seem to be associated with any other neurological cause. […] Progressive myoclonus epilepsy (PME) describes a large and varied group of progressive disorders that involve myoclonus with the main complaint of epilepsy. […] Symptomatic myoclonus is the classification for myoclonus exhibited as part of the large and diverse array of brain diseases. […] Investigators have further suggested that tremors such as jerky tremor and wrist tremor (axterixis) are types of myoclonus however many still believe that these are completely separate symptoms.

• #9 Myoclonus – Brain, Spinal Cord, and Nerve Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/brain-spinal-cord-and-nerve-disorders/movement-disorders/myoclonus

  Myoclonus may occur normally (for example, jerking of a leg when a person is falling asleep), but it may result from a disorder, such as liver failure, a head injury, low blood sugar, or Parkinson disease or from use of certain medications. […] However, in some cases myoclonus may result from a disorder, such as the following: Liver failure, Kidney failure, Brain damage due to a virus (such as encephalitis due to herpes simplex), Brain damage after cardiac arrest (when the heart’s pumping stops suddenly), Metabolic disorders (such as a high blood sugar level or low blood sugar level or low levels of calcium, magnesium, or sodium), Oxygen deprivation, Head injuries, Dementia with Lewy bodies, Huntington disease, Parkinson disease, Progressive supranuclear palsy, Alzheimer disease (occasionally), Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, Certain seizure disorders (such as juvenile myoclonic epilepsy). […] Myoclonus can occur after a person takes high doses of certain medications such as the following: Antihistamines, Some antidepressants (such as amitriptyline), Some antibiotics (such as penicillin and cephalosporins), Bismuth, Levodopa (used for Parkinson disease), Opioids.

• #10 Myoclonus | Beacon Health System

  https://www.beaconhealthsystem.org/library/diseases-and-conditions/myoclonus?content_id=CON-20155102

  Myoclonus may be caused by a variety of underlying problems. It is commonly separated into different types based on what is causing it. The cause can help determine treatment. […] Other forms of myoclonus may occur because of a nervous system disorder, such as epilepsy, a metabolic condition, or a reaction to a medicine. […] Essential myoclonus occurs on its own, usually without other symptoms and without being related to any underlying illness. The cause of essential myoclonus is often unknown. In some cases, the cause is hereditary, meaning passed down in families. […] Symptomatic myoclonus results from an underlying medical condition. It is sometimes called secondary myoclonus. Examples include: Head or spinal cord injury, Infection, Kidney or liver failure, Lipid storage disease, Chemical or drug poisoning, Prolonged oxygen deprivation, Medicine reaction, Autoimmune inflammatory conditions, Metabolic disorders, Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). […] Nervous system conditions that result in secondary myoclonus include: Stroke, Brain tumor, Huntington’s disease, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and Lewy body dementia, Corticobasal degeneration, Frontotemporal dementia, Multiple system atrophy.

• #11 Myoclonus: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Types

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/15301-myoclonus-muscle-twitch

  Myoclonus can happen for many reasons. Some of those reasons are normal and expected. Others happen because of specific conditions and disorders that affect various systems in your body. Experts divide myoclonus into four main categories. […] Myoclonus can happen with or because of seizures (especially myoclonic seizures). This includes seizures due to different forms of epilepsy, such as Lennox-Gastaut syndrome or juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. […] When myoclonus is a symptom of another condition, experts call this secondary myoclonus. Secondary myoclonus can happen for a wide range of reasons. Some of these only affect your brain or other areas of your nervous system. Others can affect many systems throughout your body. […] Causes of secondary myoclonus include: Autoimmune diseases: These are conditions where your immune system mistakenly attacks your own body, such as celiac disease. Blood and body chemistry imbalances: These can happen with kidney or liver diseases and conditions affecting your thyroid. It can also happen because of vitamin or mineral deficiencies and electrolyte imbalances. Brain lesions: These are damaged areas of brain tissue. The damage disrupts how these areas work, which in turn causes myoclonus. Examples include damage from lack of oxygen (cerebral hypoxia) or lack of blood flow from a stroke. Degenerative brain diseases: Examples of these include Alzheimers disease and Lewy body dementia. It can also happen with Parkinsons disease-related dementia. Genetic disorders: These conditions happen because of DNA mutations, including mutations you can inherit from your biological parents. Examples include Krabbe disease and Wilson disease. Infections: These often involve viral or bacterial infections that attack your brain or other parts of your nervous system, such as herpes simplex virus or Lyme disease. Nerve and spinal cord injuries: Damage to your spinal cord or nerves can interrupt your brains normal communication with parts of your body. Without that communication, those body parts may act spontaneously, causing myoclonus. Non-medical drugs and substances: Examples include alcohol, amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy, heroin and more. Inhalants like toluene and gasoline can also cause myoclonus. Prescribed medications: Over a dozen different types of medication can cause myoclonus. These include anti-seizure medications, antidepressants, blood pressure medications, antibiotics, opioid painkillers and anesthetics. Poisons and toxins: Poisoning from heavy metals, such as lead, manganese and mercury, can cause myoclonus. It can also happen with other toxins, such as insecticides like methyl bromide. […] Essential myoclonus is a condition that runs in families. This genetic form of myoclonus isnt harmful and usually doesnt get worse over time. But muscle movements may become more noticeable after drinking alcohol.

• #12 Myoclonus-dystonia: MedlinePlus GeneticsLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/myoclonus-dystonia/

  Myoclonus-dystonia is a movement disorder that typically affects the neck, torso, and arms. Individuals with this condition experience quick, involuntary muscle jerks or twitches (myoclonus). […] Mutations in the SGCE gene cause 30 to 50 percent of cases of myoclonus-dystonia. The SGCE gene provides instructions for making a protein called epsilon (ε)-sarcoglycan, whose function is unknown. […] SGCE gene mutations that cause myoclonus-dystonia result in a shortage (deficiency) of functional ε-sarcoglycan protein. This lack of functional protein seems to affect the regions of the brain involved in coordinating and controlling movements (the cerebellum and basal ganglia, respectively). […] Some people with myoclonus-dystonia do not have an identified mutation in any of the known associated genes. The cause of the condition in these individuals is unknown.

• #13 Orphanet: Myoclonus-dystonia syndrome

  https://www.orpha.net/en/disease/detail/36899

  Myoclonus-dystonia syndrome (MDS) is a rare movement disorder characterized by mild to moderate dystonia along with 'lightning-like’ myoclonic jerks. […] The only known causative gene of MDS is the epsilon-sarcoglycan (SGCE) gene (7q21.3), encoding a transmembrane protein that is part of the dystrophin-associated glycoprotein complex found in skeletal and cardiac muscle. […] In one family with MDS, linkage to chromosome 18p has been reported (named DYT15), but the gene has not yet been identified.

• #14

  https://www.dystonia.org.uk/pages/faqs/category/myoclonus-dystonia

  Myoclonus is the term used to describe brief lightning-like jerks by the body. The term is the description of a symptom not an underlying condition and myoclonus has several different causes. […] However, many cases of myoclonus dystonia are inherited, caused by mutations in a specific gene. The fault is found on the DYT11 gene (or SGCE gene). […] There are also a number of families with myoclonus dystonia but no DYT11 mutation, suggesting that there may be other genes that can cause this disorder and that more research needs to be done. […] Sometimes a single case of myoclonus appears although no-one else in the family is affected. This is called a sporadic case. As sporadic cases of myoclonus dystonia have similar symptoms to familial cases it is possible that, even if the DYT11 mutation is not present, many of these will also have a genetic cause that has not yet been identified.

• #15 Myoclonus | Baylor Medicine

  https://www.bcm.edu/healthcare/specialties/neurology/parkinsons-disease-and-movement-disorders/myoclonus

  Myoclonus is the medical term for sudden, rapid, brief, involuntary jerking movement of a body part or the entire body. Many different neurological disorders can cause myoclonus; therefore, neurologists consider it a symptom of disease rather than a specific diagnosis. […] Myoclonus can also be classified by etiology (the underlying cause). […] Physiologic Myoclonus occurs in healthy people and rarely requires treatment. […] Essential myoclonus occurs on its own without an underlying medical condition. […] Epileptic myoclonus is used to denote conditions in which myoclonus occurs in the setting of epilepsy (seizure disorders). […] Secondary myoclonus occurs in the context of an underlying disorder (neurological or non-neurological). There are many potential causes of myoclonus. […] Although some cases of myoclonus are caused by an injury to the peripheral nerves, most forms of myoclonus are caused by a disturbance of the central nervous system. […] The specific mechanisms underlying myoclonus are not yet fully understood. Scientists believe that some types of stimulus-sensitive myoclonus may involve over excitability of the parts of the brain that control movement.

• #16 Myoclonic Seizure: What It Is, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/23172-myoclonic-seizure

  Myoclonic seizures usually occur as a result of epilepsy. This condition makes it easier for your brain cells to malfunction and start sending electrical signals uncontrollably. Many forms of epilepsy are genetic, and people who have them often inherit them from one or both parents. […] The most common types of epilepsy that involve myoclonic seizures include: Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. This type of epilepsy usually starts between ages 12 and 18 and also involves other kinds of seizures. These include absence seizures and tonic-clonic seizures. Its usually an inherited condition. […] Myoclonic seizures can also happen with conditions or circumstances that disrupt how your brain should work. Examples of these include: Brain tumors (including cancer). Cerebral hypoxia (lack of oxygen). Severe concussion and traumatic brain injury. Degenerative brain diseases like Alzheimers disease or frontotemporal dementia. Drugs and alcohol (this includes prescription medications, recreational drugs and even caffeine). Drug or alcohol withdrawal. Infections (especially encephalitis or meningitis; infections can happen because of viruses, bacteria, parasites or fungi). Metabolic problems, especially high blood sugar (hyperglycemia) or low blood sugar (hypoglycemia). Toxic levels of metals like lithium (which treats several mental health conditions when used in prescribed amounts).

• #17 Myoclonic Seizures: Triggers, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/myoclonic-epilepsy-4175105

  Genetic factors usually cause this type of seizure. The seizures usually begin in childhood, with the most common form known as juvenile myoclonic epilepsy (JME). […] Myoclonic seizures are caused by abnormal electrical activity in the brain. This is what leads to myoclonic muscle motion. Other factors can influence this activity. They include: Tiredness, Alcohol, Fever, Infection, Photic (light) stimulation, Stress. […] Certain types of epilepsy can lead to myoclonic seizures. Epileptic myoclonus occurs when someone who has epilepsy experiences myoclonus, and it may be the primary manifestation of their epilepsy, or it may occur alongside other types of seizures, such as tonic-clonic, atonic, or absence seizures. […] Several epilepsy syndromes cause myoclonic seizures. Together, they are often known as progressive myoclonic epilepsy.

• #18 A recurrent de novo mutation in KCNC1 causes progressive myoclonus epilepsy | Nature Genetics

  https://www.nature.com/articles/ng.3144

  Progressive myoclonus epilepsies (PMEs) are a group of rare, inherited disorders manifesting with action myoclonus, tonic-clonic seizures and ataxia. […] Remarkably, a recurrent de novo mutation, c.959GA (p.Arg320His), in KCNC1 was identified as a new major cause for PME. […] These findings provide insights into the molecular genetic basis of PME and show the role of de novo mutations in this disease entity.

• #19 Myoclonus: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Types

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/15301-myoclonus-muscle-twitch

  Myoclonus can happen for many reasons. Some of those reasons are normal and expected. Others happen because of specific conditions and disorders that affect various systems in your body. Experts divide myoclonus into four main categories. […] Myoclonus can happen with or because of seizures (especially myoclonic seizures). This includes seizures due to different forms of epilepsy, such as Lennox-Gastaut syndrome or juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. […] When myoclonus is a symptom of another condition, experts call this secondary myoclonus. Secondary myoclonus can happen for a wide range of reasons. Some of these only affect your brain or other areas of your nervous system. Others can affect many systems throughout your body. […] Causes of secondary myoclonus include: Autoimmune diseases: These are conditions where your immune system mistakenly attacks your own body, such as celiac disease. Blood and body chemistry imbalances: These can happen with kidney or liver diseases and conditions affecting your thyroid. It can also happen because of vitamin or mineral deficiencies and electrolyte imbalances. Brain lesions: These are damaged areas of brain tissue. The damage disrupts how these areas work, which in turn causes myoclonus. Examples include damage from lack of oxygen (cerebral hypoxia) or lack of blood flow from a stroke. Degenerative brain diseases: Examples of these include Alzheimers disease and Lewy body dementia. It can also happen with Parkinsons disease-related dementia. Genetic disorders: These conditions happen because of DNA mutations, including mutations you can inherit from your biological parents. Examples include Krabbe disease and Wilson disease. Infections: These often involve viral or bacterial infections that attack your brain or other parts of your nervous system, such as herpes simplex virus or Lyme disease. Nerve and spinal cord injuries: Damage to your spinal cord or nerves can interrupt your brains normal communication with parts of your body. Without that communication, those body parts may act spontaneously, causing myoclonus. Non-medical drugs and substances: Examples include alcohol, amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy, heroin and more. Inhalants like toluene and gasoline can also cause myoclonus. Prescribed medications: Over a dozen different types of medication can cause myoclonus. These include anti-seizure medications, antidepressants, blood pressure medications, antibiotics, opioid painkillers and anesthetics. Poisons and toxins: Poisoning from heavy metals, such as lead, manganese and mercury, can cause myoclonus. It can also happen with other toxins, such as insecticides like methyl bromide. […] Essential myoclonus is a condition that runs in families. This genetic form of myoclonus isnt harmful and usually doesnt get worse over time. But muscle movements may become more noticeable after drinking alcohol.

• #20 Myoclonic Seizures: Triggers, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/myoclonic-epilepsy-4175105

  JME is most strongly linked to a defect in the GABRA1 gene. This gene codes for the 1 subunit, an essential part of the GABA receptor in the brain. […] Mutations in the EFHC1 gene can also cause JME. […] Myoclonic seizures are not life-threatening on their own. However, some rare progressive conditions that feature myoclonic seizures as a symptom can be associated with a shortened life expectancy. […] Mitochondrial diseases impair the body’s ability to produce energy. These rare, inherited conditions begin with symptoms of low energy and myopathy or muscle disease. They can also cause brain dysfunction, also known as encephalopathy. […] Batten disease refers to a group of inherited diseases. […] Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome (LGS) is a neurological disorder. […] Dravet syndrome is a severe disorder that causes multiple seizure types, including myoclonic seizures.

• #21 Myoclonus – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537015/

  The array of underlying etiologies of myoclonus is strikingly diverse. […] Secondary myoclonus is also known as symptomatic myoclonus. Recall that symptomatic myoclonus is a clinical sign accompanying a comorbid primary neurological or other medical condition. […] Drug-induced myoclonus is potentially fully treatable, with resolution of symptoms upon withdrawal of the offending agent(s). […] Myoclonus can cause serious disability. Despite the availability of a diverse array of pharmacological and other interventions that are at least partially effective, the treatment of myoclonus remains challenging.

• #22 Myoclonus | Beacon Health System

  https://www.beaconhealthsystem.org/library/diseases-and-conditions/myoclonus?content_id=CON-20155102

  Myoclonus may be caused by a variety of underlying problems. It is commonly separated into different types based on what is causing it. The cause can help determine treatment. […] Other forms of myoclonus may occur because of a nervous system disorder, such as epilepsy, a metabolic condition, or a reaction to a medicine. […] Essential myoclonus occurs on its own, usually without other symptoms and without being related to any underlying illness. The cause of essential myoclonus is often unknown. In some cases, the cause is hereditary, meaning passed down in families. […] Symptomatic myoclonus results from an underlying medical condition. It is sometimes called secondary myoclonus. Examples include: Head or spinal cord injury, Infection, Kidney or liver failure, Lipid storage disease, Chemical or drug poisoning, Prolonged oxygen deprivation, Medicine reaction, Autoimmune inflammatory conditions, Metabolic disorders, Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). […] Nervous system conditions that result in secondary myoclonus include: Stroke, Brain tumor, Huntington’s disease, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and Lewy body dementia, Corticobasal degeneration, Frontotemporal dementia, Multiple system atrophy.

• #23 Myoclonus – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537015/

  Myoclonus features diverse causes, anatomic diagnoses, and neurophysiologic presentations, all nonspecific concerning their neuroanatomical source and pathogenesis. […] Myoclonus can be a feature of myriad neurological diseases and disorders. Perhaps most pathognomonically associated with „startle myoclonus” in Creutzfeld-Jakob disease, myoclonus can also be a feature of neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, Parkinson disease, frontotemporal dementia, and disorders of basal ganglia or spinocerebellar degeneration, among others. […] The specific etiologic mechanisms underlying myoclonus remain poorly understood. At present, researchers theorize that myoclonus may emerge as a consequence of motor strip hyperexcitability, abnormalities or deficiencies in neurotransmitter receptors, imbalances between neurotransmitters, or underlying network abnormalities that have yet to be elucidated.

• #24 Myoclonus | Beacon Health System

  https://www.beaconhealthsystem.org/library/diseases-and-conditions/myoclonus?content_id=CON-20155102

  Myoclonus may be caused by a variety of underlying problems. It is commonly separated into different types based on what is causing it. The cause can help determine treatment. […] Other forms of myoclonus may occur because of a nervous system disorder, such as epilepsy, a metabolic condition, or a reaction to a medicine. […] Essential myoclonus occurs on its own, usually without other symptoms and without being related to any underlying illness. The cause of essential myoclonus is often unknown. In some cases, the cause is hereditary, meaning passed down in families. […] Symptomatic myoclonus results from an underlying medical condition. It is sometimes called secondary myoclonus. Examples include: Head or spinal cord injury, Infection, Kidney or liver failure, Lipid storage disease, Chemical or drug poisoning, Prolonged oxygen deprivation, Medicine reaction, Autoimmune inflammatory conditions, Metabolic disorders, Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). […] Nervous system conditions that result in secondary myoclonus include: Stroke, Brain tumor, Huntington’s disease, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and Lewy body dementia, Corticobasal degeneration, Frontotemporal dementia, Multiple system atrophy.

• #25 Table: Some Causes of Myoclonus-MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/multimedia/table/some-causes-of-myoclonus

  Some Causes of Myoclonus […] Degeneration of the basal ganglia […] Dementia with Lewy bodies […] Huntington disease […] Parkinson disease […] Progressive supranuclear palsy […] Multiple system atrophy […] Dementias […] Alzheimer disease […] Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease […] Progressive myoclonic encephalopathies (eg, mitochondrial disorders, certain types of epilepsy, such as sialidosis, neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis, Lafora disease, Unverricht-Lundborg disease) […] Metabolic disturbances […] Hypercapnia […] Hyperglycemia, nonketotic […] Hypocalcemia […] Hypoglycemia […] Hypomagnesemia […] Hyponatremia […] Liver failure […] Uremia […] Physical and hypoxic encephalopathies […] Electric shock […] Heatstroke […] Hypoxia […] Traumatic brain injury […] Toxic encephalopathies

• #26 Myoclonus: Types, Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/multiple-sclerosis/myoclonus-muscle-twitching

  Myoclonus often happens because your nervous system isn’t working the way it should. Various things, such as neurological disorders, genetic conditions, brain injuries, and exposure to toxins, can cause your nerve cells to misfire and send wrong signals to some of your muscles. […] Doctors are aware that several parts of your brain are involved. But more research needs to be done to pinpoint what happens, or doesn’t happen, to cause myoclonus. An imbalance of brain chemicals may make the regions of your brain that control movement more active than they need to be. But other times, there’s no clear cause. […] If you have multiple sclerosis (MS), myoclonus could be due to lesions on your brain or spinal cord. […] Other nervous system conditions that can cause myoclonus include: Stroke, Brain tumor, Alzheimers disease, Parkinsons disease, Lewy body dementia, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD).

• #27 Myoclonus: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Types

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/15301-myoclonus-muscle-twitch

  Myoclonus can happen for many reasons. Some of those reasons are normal and expected. Others happen because of specific conditions and disorders that affect various systems in your body. Experts divide myoclonus into four main categories. […] Myoclonus can happen with or because of seizures (especially myoclonic seizures). This includes seizures due to different forms of epilepsy, such as Lennox-Gastaut syndrome or juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. […] When myoclonus is a symptom of another condition, experts call this secondary myoclonus. Secondary myoclonus can happen for a wide range of reasons. Some of these only affect your brain or other areas of your nervous system. Others can affect many systems throughout your body. […] Causes of secondary myoclonus include: Autoimmune diseases: These are conditions where your immune system mistakenly attacks your own body, such as celiac disease. Blood and body chemistry imbalances: These can happen with kidney or liver diseases and conditions affecting your thyroid. It can also happen because of vitamin or mineral deficiencies and electrolyte imbalances. Brain lesions: These are damaged areas of brain tissue. The damage disrupts how these areas work, which in turn causes myoclonus. Examples include damage from lack of oxygen (cerebral hypoxia) or lack of blood flow from a stroke. Degenerative brain diseases: Examples of these include Alzheimers disease and Lewy body dementia. It can also happen with Parkinsons disease-related dementia. Genetic disorders: These conditions happen because of DNA mutations, including mutations you can inherit from your biological parents. Examples include Krabbe disease and Wilson disease. Infections: These often involve viral or bacterial infections that attack your brain or other parts of your nervous system, such as herpes simplex virus or Lyme disease. Nerve and spinal cord injuries: Damage to your spinal cord or nerves can interrupt your brains normal communication with parts of your body. Without that communication, those body parts may act spontaneously, causing myoclonus. Non-medical drugs and substances: Examples include alcohol, amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy, heroin and more. Inhalants like toluene and gasoline can also cause myoclonus. Prescribed medications: Over a dozen different types of medication can cause myoclonus. These include anti-seizure medications, antidepressants, blood pressure medications, antibiotics, opioid painkillers and anesthetics. Poisons and toxins: Poisoning from heavy metals, such as lead, manganese and mercury, can cause myoclonus. It can also happen with other toxins, such as insecticides like methyl bromide. […] Essential myoclonus is a condition that runs in families. This genetic form of myoclonus isnt harmful and usually doesnt get worse over time. But muscle movements may become more noticeable after drinking alcohol.

• #28 Table: Some Causes of Myoclonus-MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/multimedia/table/some-causes-of-myoclonus

  Some Causes of Myoclonus […] Degeneration of the basal ganglia […] Dementia with Lewy bodies […] Huntington disease […] Parkinson disease […] Progressive supranuclear palsy […] Multiple system atrophy […] Dementias […] Alzheimer disease […] Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease […] Progressive myoclonic encephalopathies (eg, mitochondrial disorders, certain types of epilepsy, such as sialidosis, neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis, Lafora disease, Unverricht-Lundborg disease) […] Metabolic disturbances […] Hypercapnia […] Hyperglycemia, nonketotic […] Hypocalcemia […] Hypoglycemia […] Hypomagnesemia […] Hyponatremia […] Liver failure […] Uremia […] Physical and hypoxic encephalopathies […] Electric shock […] Heatstroke […] Hypoxia […] Traumatic brain injury […] Toxic encephalopathies

• #29 FF #114 Myoclonus | Palliative Care Network of Wisconsin

  https://www.mypcnow.org/fast-fact/myoclonus/

  Myoclonus is an abnormal movement described as a sudden, brief, shock-like, involuntary movement caused by active muscle contraction (positive myoclonus) or inhibition of ongoing muscle contraction (negative myoclonus). […] The etiologies of myoclonus are numerous. Near the end of life, metabolic abnormalities and medication-induced myoclonus predominate. Metabolic causes include liver failure, renal failure, hyponatremia, and hypoglycemia. The medications and toxins associated with myoclonus include opioids, anticonvulsants (gabapentin, phenytoin, valproate, lamotrigine, and phenobarbitol), tricyclic antidepressants and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, contrast dye, anesthetics, antibiotics (penicillins, cephalosporins, imipenem, and quinolones), cannabinoids and the chemotherapeutic agent ifosfamide. Opioid-induced myoclonus occurs commonly and is often misdiagnosed.

• #30 Myoclonus: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Types

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/15301-myoclonus-muscle-twitch

  Myoclonus can happen for many reasons. Some of those reasons are normal and expected. Others happen because of specific conditions and disorders that affect various systems in your body. Experts divide myoclonus into four main categories. […] Myoclonus can happen with or because of seizures (especially myoclonic seizures). This includes seizures due to different forms of epilepsy, such as Lennox-Gastaut syndrome or juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. […] When myoclonus is a symptom of another condition, experts call this secondary myoclonus. Secondary myoclonus can happen for a wide range of reasons. Some of these only affect your brain or other areas of your nervous system. Others can affect many systems throughout your body. […] Causes of secondary myoclonus include: Autoimmune diseases: These are conditions where your immune system mistakenly attacks your own body, such as celiac disease. Blood and body chemistry imbalances: These can happen with kidney or liver diseases and conditions affecting your thyroid. It can also happen because of vitamin or mineral deficiencies and electrolyte imbalances. Brain lesions: These are damaged areas of brain tissue. The damage disrupts how these areas work, which in turn causes myoclonus. Examples include damage from lack of oxygen (cerebral hypoxia) or lack of blood flow from a stroke. Degenerative brain diseases: Examples of these include Alzheimers disease and Lewy body dementia. It can also happen with Parkinsons disease-related dementia. Genetic disorders: These conditions happen because of DNA mutations, including mutations you can inherit from your biological parents. Examples include Krabbe disease and Wilson disease. Infections: These often involve viral or bacterial infections that attack your brain or other parts of your nervous system, such as herpes simplex virus or Lyme disease. Nerve and spinal cord injuries: Damage to your spinal cord or nerves can interrupt your brains normal communication with parts of your body. Without that communication, those body parts may act spontaneously, causing myoclonus. Non-medical drugs and substances: Examples include alcohol, amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy, heroin and more. Inhalants like toluene and gasoline can also cause myoclonus. Prescribed medications: Over a dozen different types of medication can cause myoclonus. These include anti-seizure medications, antidepressants, blood pressure medications, antibiotics, opioid painkillers and anesthetics. Poisons and toxins: Poisoning from heavy metals, such as lead, manganese and mercury, can cause myoclonus. It can also happen with other toxins, such as insecticides like methyl bromide. […] Essential myoclonus is a condition that runs in families. This genetic form of myoclonus isnt harmful and usually doesnt get worse over time. But muscle movements may become more noticeable after drinking alcohol.

• #31 What Is Myoclonus?

  https://www.icliniq.com/articles/neurological-health/myoclonus

  The common causes of secondary myoclonus are: Autoimmune Diseases: These are the conditions in which the immune system attacks the body itself, for example, in celiac disease. […] Brain Lesions: These are the damaged portions of brain tissue. The damage disrupts the working of these areas, which results in myoclonus. […] Degenerative Brain Diseases: Examples of these diseases are Alzheimers disease, Lewy body dementia, etc. It can also occur along with Parkinsons disease-related dementia. […] Genetic Disorders: These conditions occur due to mutations in DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), including mutations that can be acquired from the parents. […] Infections: Frequently seen infections are viral or bacterial infections that attack the brain or other parts of the nervous system, for example, herpes simplex virus or Lyme disease.

• #32 Table: Some Causes of Myoclonus-MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/multimedia/table/some-causes-of-myoclonus

  Some Causes of Myoclonus […] Degeneration of the basal ganglia […] Dementia with Lewy bodies […] Huntington disease […] Parkinson disease […] Progressive supranuclear palsy […] Multiple system atrophy […] Dementias […] Alzheimer disease […] Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease […] Progressive myoclonic encephalopathies (eg, mitochondrial disorders, certain types of epilepsy, such as sialidosis, neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis, Lafora disease, Unverricht-Lundborg disease) […] Metabolic disturbances […] Hypercapnia […] Hyperglycemia, nonketotic […] Hypocalcemia […] Hypoglycemia […] Hypomagnesemia […] Hyponatremia […] Liver failure […] Uremia […] Physical and hypoxic encephalopathies […] Electric shock […] Heatstroke […] Hypoxia […] Traumatic brain injury […] Toxic encephalopathies

• #33 Myoclonus | Beacon Health System

  https://www.beaconhealthsystem.org/library/diseases-and-conditions/myoclonus?content_id=CON-20155102

  Myoclonus may be caused by a variety of underlying problems. It is commonly separated into different types based on what is causing it. The cause can help determine treatment. […] Other forms of myoclonus may occur because of a nervous system disorder, such as epilepsy, a metabolic condition, or a reaction to a medicine. […] Essential myoclonus occurs on its own, usually without other symptoms and without being related to any underlying illness. The cause of essential myoclonus is often unknown. In some cases, the cause is hereditary, meaning passed down in families. […] Symptomatic myoclonus results from an underlying medical condition. It is sometimes called secondary myoclonus. Examples include: Head or spinal cord injury, Infection, Kidney or liver failure, Lipid storage disease, Chemical or drug poisoning, Prolonged oxygen deprivation, Medicine reaction, Autoimmune inflammatory conditions, Metabolic disorders, Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). […] Nervous system conditions that result in secondary myoclonus include: Stroke, Brain tumor, Huntington’s disease, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and Lewy body dementia, Corticobasal degeneration, Frontotemporal dementia, Multiple system atrophy.

• #34

  https://www.aurorahealthcare.org/services/neuroscience/neurology/neurological-conditions/neuromuscular-disorders/myoclonus

  Myoclonus may happen due to underlying conditions such as brain tumors, exposure to certain chemicals or medications, head or spinal cord injuries, infections, kidney or liver failure, lack of oxygen to the brain (hypoxia), metabolic disorders, or stroke. […] While we don’t know how to stop muscle twitching or what causes myoclonus, researchers have identified potential starting points in the brain. […] The cerebral cortex, a part of the brain, is the most common origin of myoclonus, closely followed by the brain stem. Current research suggests that muscle twitching causes may be linked to overexcitability of parts of the brain responsible for movement and imbalances in neurotransmitters.

• #35 Table: Some Causes of Myoclonus-MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/multimedia/table/some-causes-of-myoclonus

  Some Causes of Myoclonus […] Degeneration of the basal ganglia […] Dementia with Lewy bodies […] Huntington disease […] Parkinson disease […] Progressive supranuclear palsy […] Multiple system atrophy […] Dementias […] Alzheimer disease […] Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease […] Progressive myoclonic encephalopathies (eg, mitochondrial disorders, certain types of epilepsy, such as sialidosis, neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis, Lafora disease, Unverricht-Lundborg disease) […] Metabolic disturbances […] Hypercapnia […] Hyperglycemia, nonketotic […] Hypocalcemia […] Hypoglycemia […] Hypomagnesemia […] Hyponatremia […] Liver failure […] Uremia […] Physical and hypoxic encephalopathies […] Electric shock […] Heatstroke […] Hypoxia […] Traumatic brain injury […] Toxic encephalopathies

• #36 Myoclonus: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Types

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/15301-myoclonus-muscle-twitch

  Myoclonus can happen for many reasons. Some of those reasons are normal and expected. Others happen because of specific conditions and disorders that affect various systems in your body. Experts divide myoclonus into four main categories. […] Myoclonus can happen with or because of seizures (especially myoclonic seizures). This includes seizures due to different forms of epilepsy, such as Lennox-Gastaut syndrome or juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. […] When myoclonus is a symptom of another condition, experts call this secondary myoclonus. Secondary myoclonus can happen for a wide range of reasons. Some of these only affect your brain or other areas of your nervous system. Others can affect many systems throughout your body. […] Causes of secondary myoclonus include: Autoimmune diseases: These are conditions where your immune system mistakenly attacks your own body, such as celiac disease. Blood and body chemistry imbalances: These can happen with kidney or liver diseases and conditions affecting your thyroid. It can also happen because of vitamin or mineral deficiencies and electrolyte imbalances. Brain lesions: These are damaged areas of brain tissue. The damage disrupts how these areas work, which in turn causes myoclonus. Examples include damage from lack of oxygen (cerebral hypoxia) or lack of blood flow from a stroke. Degenerative brain diseases: Examples of these include Alzheimers disease and Lewy body dementia. It can also happen with Parkinsons disease-related dementia. Genetic disorders: These conditions happen because of DNA mutations, including mutations you can inherit from your biological parents. Examples include Krabbe disease and Wilson disease. Infections: These often involve viral or bacterial infections that attack your brain or other parts of your nervous system, such as herpes simplex virus or Lyme disease. Nerve and spinal cord injuries: Damage to your spinal cord or nerves can interrupt your brains normal communication with parts of your body. Without that communication, those body parts may act spontaneously, causing myoclonus. Non-medical drugs and substances: Examples include alcohol, amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy, heroin and more. Inhalants like toluene and gasoline can also cause myoclonus. Prescribed medications: Over a dozen different types of medication can cause myoclonus. These include anti-seizure medications, antidepressants, blood pressure medications, antibiotics, opioid painkillers and anesthetics. Poisons and toxins: Poisoning from heavy metals, such as lead, manganese and mercury, can cause myoclonus. It can also happen with other toxins, such as insecticides like methyl bromide. […] Essential myoclonus is a condition that runs in families. This genetic form of myoclonus isnt harmful and usually doesnt get worse over time. But muscle movements may become more noticeable after drinking alcohol.

• #37 What Is Myoclonus?

  https://www.icliniq.com/articles/neurological-health/myoclonus

  The common causes of secondary myoclonus are: Autoimmune Diseases: These are the conditions in which the immune system attacks the body itself, for example, in celiac disease. […] Brain Lesions: These are the damaged portions of brain tissue. The damage disrupts the working of these areas, which results in myoclonus. […] Degenerative Brain Diseases: Examples of these diseases are Alzheimers disease, Lewy body dementia, etc. It can also occur along with Parkinsons disease-related dementia. […] Genetic Disorders: These conditions occur due to mutations in DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), including mutations that can be acquired from the parents. […] Infections: Frequently seen infections are viral or bacterial infections that attack the brain or other parts of the nervous system, for example, herpes simplex virus or Lyme disease.

• #38 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Opsoclonus-Myoclonus-Syndrome.aspx

  On the basis of paraneoplastic or infectious etiologies, the pathophysiology is assumed to be immunological. […] OMS can occur due to a variety of reasons, including paraneoplastic, parainfectious, toxic-metabolic, and idiopathic causes. […] Several cell surface autoantibodies, including antibodies against Ri (ANNA-2), Hu (ANNA-1), Yo (PCA-1), Ma1, and Ma2, have been linked to paraneoplastic OMS. […] In addition to autoantibodies against neuronal tissues in patients with OMS, other evidence for an autoimmune process includes the presence of B-cell activating factor (BAFF). […] Adult OMS can also manifest as a paraneoplastic illness, most commonly in conjunction with small-cell lung or breast cancer. However, at least half of the cases appear to be idiopathic or parainfectious. […] They propose that the immune response, in this case, was triggered by immunological alterations during pregnancy and the postpartum period, presumably as a result of fetal tissue exposure (fetal microchimerism). […] Although immunotherapy achieves complete remission in the majority of patients with OMS, identifying the exact immunological processes involved is required, which could lead to improved outcomes and a better knowledge of how immune mechanisms affect neuronal function.

• #39 Myoclonus – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537015/

  The array of underlying etiologies of myoclonus is strikingly diverse. […] Secondary myoclonus is also known as symptomatic myoclonus. Recall that symptomatic myoclonus is a clinical sign accompanying a comorbid primary neurological or other medical condition. […] Drug-induced myoclonus is potentially fully treatable, with resolution of symptoms upon withdrawal of the offending agent(s). […] Myoclonus can cause serious disability. Despite the availability of a diverse array of pharmacological and other interventions that are at least partially effective, the treatment of myoclonus remains challenging.

• #40 Myoclonus – Brain, Spinal Cord, and Nerve Disorders – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/brain-spinal-cord-and-nerve-disorders/movement-disorders/myoclonus

  Myoclonus may occur normally (for example, jerking of a leg when a person is falling asleep), but it may result from a disorder, such as liver failure, a head injury, low blood sugar, or Parkinson disease or from use of certain medications. […] However, in some cases myoclonus may result from a disorder, such as the following: Liver failure, Kidney failure, Brain damage due to a virus (such as encephalitis due to herpes simplex), Brain damage after cardiac arrest (when the heart’s pumping stops suddenly), Metabolic disorders (such as a high blood sugar level or low blood sugar level or low levels of calcium, magnesium, or sodium), Oxygen deprivation, Head injuries, Dementia with Lewy bodies, Huntington disease, Parkinson disease, Progressive supranuclear palsy, Alzheimer disease (occasionally), Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, Certain seizure disorders (such as juvenile myoclonic epilepsy). […] Myoclonus can occur after a person takes high doses of certain medications such as the following: Antihistamines, Some antidepressants (such as amitriptyline), Some antibiotics (such as penicillin and cephalosporins), Bismuth, Levodopa (used for Parkinson disease), Opioids.

• #41 FF #114 Myoclonus | Palliative Care Network of Wisconsin

  https://www.mypcnow.org/fast-fact/myoclonus/

  Myoclonus is an abnormal movement described as a sudden, brief, shock-like, involuntary movement caused by active muscle contraction (positive myoclonus) or inhibition of ongoing muscle contraction (negative myoclonus). […] The etiologies of myoclonus are numerous. Near the end of life, metabolic abnormalities and medication-induced myoclonus predominate. Metabolic causes include liver failure, renal failure, hyponatremia, and hypoglycemia. The medications and toxins associated with myoclonus include opioids, anticonvulsants (gabapentin, phenytoin, valproate, lamotrigine, and phenobarbitol), tricyclic antidepressants and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, contrast dye, anesthetics, antibiotics (penicillins, cephalosporins, imipenem, and quinolones), cannabinoids and the chemotherapeutic agent ifosfamide. Opioid-induced myoclonus occurs commonly and is often misdiagnosed.

• #42 Table: Some Causes of Myoclonus-MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/multimedia/table/some-causes-of-myoclonus

  DDT […] Heavy metals (including bismuth) […] Methyl bromide […] Viral encephalopathies […] Encephalitis lethargica […] Herpes simplex encephalitis […] Postinfectious encephalitis […] Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis […] Drugs at toxic or high doses […] Antihistamines […] Carbamazepine […] Cephalosporins […] Lithium […] MAO inhibitors […] Penicillin […] Phenytoin […] Tricyclic antidepressants […] SSRIs […] Valproate.

• #43 Drug-Induced Myoclonus: A Systematic Review

  https://www.mdpi.com/1648-9144/61/1/131

  Myoclonus can be primary or secondary to infectious, metabolic, endocrine pathology, degenerative, inflammatory, toxic, genetic, and pharmacological causes. […] Many examples of drug-induced myoclonus (DIM) are transient and occur in the setting of diffuse encephalopathy associated with drug toxicity, acute metabolic abnormalities, or infectious disorders. […] The subclasses of medications with level A evidence were intravenous anesthetics (etomidate), cephalosporins (ceftazidime, cefepime), fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin), selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (citalopram, escitalopram, paroxetine, sertraline), tricyclic antidepressant (amitriptyline), glutamate antagonist (amantadine), atypical antipsychotics (clozapine, quetiapine), antiseizure medications (carbamazepine, oxcarbazepine, phenytoin, gabapentin, pregabalin, valproate), pure opioid agonist (fentanyl, morphine), bismuth salts, and mood stabilizers (lithium).

• #44 Drugs That Cause Myoclonus: What You Need To Know

  https://drchandrilchugh.com/myoclonus/drugs-that-cause-myoclonus-what-you-need-to-know/

  Myoclonus is when your muscles suddenly contract and relax. These jerks can range from small twitches to big, disruptive movements. It can be caused by many things like brain problems, changes in your body’s metabolism, or certain drugs. […] Various medications have been tied to causing myoclonus as a side effect. The drug groups often involved are: Antiepileptic Drugs: Medicines for epilepsy, like carbamazepine, lamotrigine, and pregabalin, can lead to myoclonus. The mix of carbamazepine and clobazam can result in negative myoclonus. Meanwhile, lamotrigine might worsen or trigger myoclonus in those with epilepsy. […] Myoclonus might happen because of some drugs. These include medicines for seizures, depression, psychosis, and strong painkillers. […] The reasons why some drugs cause myoclonus are not fully clear. But, we do have some ideas. These include problems with certain brain chemicals like gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and serotonin.

• #45 Myoclonus | National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke

  https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/myoclonus

  Myoclonus is a type of uncontrollable movement that includes sudden, brief involuntary twitching, jerking, or spasm of a single muscle or a group of muscles. Myoclonus is not a disease itself, but may be a sign of another neurological condition. […] Causes of myoclonic twitches or jerks are: Sudden muscle contractions (tightening), called positive myoclonus; Sudden muscle relaxation, called negative myoclonus. […] Myoclonus usually happens from a disruption of the brain or spinal cord. It can also happen after an injury to the peripheral nerves (nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord). […] Myoclonus may also happen with infection, head or spinal cord injury, stroke, brain tumors, kidney or liver failure, chemical or drug intoxication, lipid storage diseases, autoimmune inflammatory conditions, COVID-19, or metabolic disorders. Prolonged oxygen deprivation to the brain (hypoxia) may lead to post-hypoxic myoclonus. Some genetic disorders, such as Krabbe disease and Wilson disease, can cause myoclonus.

• #46 Myoclonus: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Types

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/15301-myoclonus-muscle-twitch

  Myoclonus can happen for many reasons. Some of those reasons are normal and expected. Others happen because of specific conditions and disorders that affect various systems in your body. Experts divide myoclonus into four main categories. […] Myoclonus can happen with or because of seizures (especially myoclonic seizures). This includes seizures due to different forms of epilepsy, such as Lennox-Gastaut syndrome or juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. […] When myoclonus is a symptom of another condition, experts call this secondary myoclonus. Secondary myoclonus can happen for a wide range of reasons. Some of these only affect your brain or other areas of your nervous system. Others can affect many systems throughout your body. […] Causes of secondary myoclonus include: Autoimmune diseases: These are conditions where your immune system mistakenly attacks your own body, such as celiac disease. Blood and body chemistry imbalances: These can happen with kidney or liver diseases and conditions affecting your thyroid. It can also happen because of vitamin or mineral deficiencies and electrolyte imbalances. Brain lesions: These are damaged areas of brain tissue. The damage disrupts how these areas work, which in turn causes myoclonus. Examples include damage from lack of oxygen (cerebral hypoxia) or lack of blood flow from a stroke. Degenerative brain diseases: Examples of these include Alzheimers disease and Lewy body dementia. It can also happen with Parkinsons disease-related dementia. Genetic disorders: These conditions happen because of DNA mutations, including mutations you can inherit from your biological parents. Examples include Krabbe disease and Wilson disease. Infections: These often involve viral or bacterial infections that attack your brain or other parts of your nervous system, such as herpes simplex virus or Lyme disease. Nerve and spinal cord injuries: Damage to your spinal cord or nerves can interrupt your brains normal communication with parts of your body. Without that communication, those body parts may act spontaneously, causing myoclonus. Non-medical drugs and substances: Examples include alcohol, amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy, heroin and more. Inhalants like toluene and gasoline can also cause myoclonus. Prescribed medications: Over a dozen different types of medication can cause myoclonus. These include anti-seizure medications, antidepressants, blood pressure medications, antibiotics, opioid painkillers and anesthetics. Poisons and toxins: Poisoning from heavy metals, such as lead, manganese and mercury, can cause myoclonus. It can also happen with other toxins, such as insecticides like methyl bromide. […] Essential myoclonus is a condition that runs in families. This genetic form of myoclonus isnt harmful and usually doesnt get worse over time. But muscle movements may become more noticeable after drinking alcohol.

• #47 Myoclonus & Startle

  https://www.movementdisorders.org/MDS/About/Movement-Disorder-Overviews/Myoclonus–Startle.htm

  Myoclonus is characterized by sudden, brief, involuntary jerks of a muscle or group of muscles. A wide variety of both acquired and genetic causes are associated with myoclonus, making the diagnostic process of finding the etiology challenging. […] In cortical and subcortical myoclonus, an acquired cause is common and characterized by an acute or subacute onset and/or fast progression of disease. Medication or toxic agents induced myoclonus should be considered first, especially if the jerky movements started more or less acutely at the start of treatment, because cessation or detoxification will ameliorate the symptoms. […] Only cortical and subcortical myoclonus are associated with genetic disorders and in most cases next generation sequencing (NGS) is indicated after ruling out an acquired cause. However, keep in mind the mitochondrial disorders (e.g. MERRF) and neurodegenerative disorders (e.g. Alzheimers disease) for mitochondrial defects are not identified with NGS and in only a small percentage of neurodegenerative disorders the underlying defect is known.

• #48 Myoclonus – Neurologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/neurologic-disorders/movement-and-cerebellar-disorders/myoclonus

  Myoclonus may be classified as physiologic (benign) or pathologic. […] Pathologic myoclonus can result from various disorders and medications. The most common causes are hypoxia, medication toxicity, and metabolic disturbances. […] Etiology of myoclonus may be essential (primary), acquired (most common), or idiopathic. […] Essential (primary) myoclonus has no identifiable cause and/or is suspected to involve genetic factors. […] Acquired myoclonus has multiple causes, including many metabolic disorders. Most cases of myoclonus are acquired. […] Idiopathic myoclonus is myoclonus whose presence is completely unexplained.

• #49 Functional Jerks and Twitches – Functional Neurological Disorder (FND)

  https://neurosymptoms.org/en/symptoms/fnd-symptoms/functional-jerks-and-twitches/

  Functional myoclonus refers to sudden jerky or shock-like movements that occur as part of a functional movement disorder. […] Myoclonus is a symptom found in a wide range of neurological diseases as well as some normal states. […] Functional myoclonus often begins quite suddenly (in around two-thirds of cases) but may be gradual. It affects patients somewhat later than some of the other symptoms described on this website. […] Functional myoclonus may occur as part of complex regional pain syndrome. […] After experiencing myoclonus from a medical problem such as a side effect of a medication, a faint with some jerky movements, an infection, or a period of hospitalisation in intensive care. […] We know that many patients with functional myoclonus do have stress as a cause of their symptoms, but many don’t.

• #50 Myoclonus | Neupsy Key

  https://neupsykey.com/myoclonus-8/

  Myoclonus can be classified by site of origin, clinical features, response to stimulus, and etiology. […] Myoclonus can be classified into the following etiologic categories: 1. Physiologic myoclonus 2. Essential myoclonus 3. Epileptic myoclonus 4. Symptomatic myoclonus. […] Symptomatic myoclonus occurs as part of an encephalopathic process due to many different neurological conditions such as dementias, spinocerebellar degenerations, storage diseases, focal brain damage, and toxic, infectious, metabolic, and physical encephalopathies. […] Whipple disease is an infectious condition which has facial myoclonus known as oculofacial-masticatory myorhythmia. […] Serotonin syndrome is a type of toxic encephalopathy and is caused by medications that produce extreme serotonergic stimulation.

• #51 Myoclonus – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537015/

  Myoclonus features diverse causes, anatomic diagnoses, and neurophysiologic presentations, all nonspecific concerning their neuroanatomical source and pathogenesis. […] Myoclonus can be a feature of myriad neurological diseases and disorders. Perhaps most pathognomonically associated with „startle myoclonus” in Creutzfeld-Jakob disease, myoclonus can also be a feature of neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, Parkinson disease, frontotemporal dementia, and disorders of basal ganglia or spinocerebellar degeneration, among others. […] The specific etiologic mechanisms underlying myoclonus remain poorly understood. At present, researchers theorize that myoclonus may emerge as a consequence of motor strip hyperexcitability, abnormalities or deficiencies in neurotransmitter receptors, imbalances between neurotransmitters, or underlying network abnormalities that have yet to be elucidated.

• #52 Myoclonus | National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke

  https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/myoclonus

  Studies suggest that myoclonus usually begins in the cerebral cortex. However, scientists don’t yet fully understand the specific factors that cause myoclonus. They believe some types of stimulus-sensitive myoclonus may involve overexcitability of the parts of the brain that control movement. Laboratory studies suggest that an imbalance between chemicals called neurotransmitters may cause myoclonus.

• #53 Drug-Induced Myoclonus: A Systematic Review

  https://www.mdpi.com/1648-9144/61/1/131

  The neurotransmitters likely involved in DIM are serotonin, dopamine, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and glutamate. […] Myoclonus caused by most medications cannot be hypothesized because the reports did not include electrodiagnostic studies. […] Increased serotonergic transmission may be the most commonly proposed pathophysiological mechanism for developing myoclonus. […] The direct neurotoxic effect leads to glutamate receptor hyperexcitability, glycine-mediated disinhibition, antagonism of GABAergic activity, and serotonergic and dopaminergic pathways.

• #54 Myoclonus | MedLink Neurology

  https://www.medlink.com/handouts/myoclonus-2

  Studies suggest that the following locations in the brain are involved in myoclonus: Cerebral cortex, the most common origin for myoclonus […] However, the specific mechanisms underlying myoclonus are not yet fully understood. Scientists believe that some types of stimulus-sensitive myoclonus may involve overexcitability of the parts of the brain that control movement. […] Abnormalities or deficiencies in receptors for certain neurotransmitters may contribute to some forms of myoclonus, including receptors for: Serotonin, which is involved in managing mood, cognition, reward, learning, memory, physiological processes, etc. […] More research is needed to determine how these receptor abnormalities cause or contribute to myoclonus.

• #55 What Is Myoclonus? Types, Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment

  https://resources.healthgrades.com/right-care/brain-and-nerves/myoclonus

  Brain or nerve damage can cause cortical reflex myoclonus. This myoclonus occurs due to damage or disruption in areas of the brain known as the cerebral cortex. […] Epileptic myoclonus occurs when people with epilepsy experience myoclonus as a symptom of their seizures. […] Some cases of essential myoclonus seem to run in families. In other cases, people don’t have any family history of myoclonus. Often, the cause of essential myoclonus is unknown. […] Reticular reflex myoclonus occurs due to impulses that start in the brainstem, which controls breathing, heartbeat, and other vital functions. […] Peripheral myoclonus occurs when the peripheral nerves trigger erratic muscle contractions. […] Spinal myoclonus is a rare form of myoclonus that develops due to spinal cord damage, including spinal injury or surgery, a type of severe inflammation called meningitis around your spinal cord, and spinal cord tumors.

• #56 What Is Myoclonus? Types, Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment

  https://resources.healthgrades.com/right-care/brain-and-nerves/myoclonus

  Brain or nerve damage can cause cortical reflex myoclonus. This myoclonus occurs due to damage or disruption in areas of the brain known as the cerebral cortex. […] Epileptic myoclonus occurs when people with epilepsy experience myoclonus as a symptom of their seizures. […] Some cases of essential myoclonus seem to run in families. In other cases, people don’t have any family history of myoclonus. Often, the cause of essential myoclonus is unknown. […] Reticular reflex myoclonus occurs due to impulses that start in the brainstem, which controls breathing, heartbeat, and other vital functions. […] Peripheral myoclonus occurs when the peripheral nerves trigger erratic muscle contractions. […] Spinal myoclonus is a rare form of myoclonus that develops due to spinal cord damage, including spinal injury or surgery, a type of severe inflammation called meningitis around your spinal cord, and spinal cord tumors.

• #57 Myoclonus – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/myoclonus/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20350462

  To diagnose myoclonus, your health care provider reviews your medical history and symptoms and conducts a physical examination. […] You may have tests to find the cause and rule out other potential causes of myoclonus. […] Your health care provider may suggest genetic testing to help identify possible causes of myoclonus. […] Treatment of myoclonus works best if you can stop the problem that’s causing it. […] For example, treatment may focus on another condition, a medicine or a toxin that is causing the myoclonus. […] Most of the time, however, the underlying cause can’t be cured or eliminated. […] There are no drugs specifically designed to treat myoclonus. […] But treatments for other diseases may help relieve myoclonus symptoms. […] Medicines that health care providers commonly prescribe for myoclonus include: […] Drugs used to control epileptic seizures may help reduce myoclonus symptoms. […] If myoclonus symptoms are caused by a tumor or lesion in the brain or spinal cord, surgery may be an option. […] Deep brain stimulation has been tried in some people with myoclonus and other movement disorders.

• #58 Myoclonus – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/myoclonus/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20350462

  To diagnose myoclonus, your health care provider reviews your medical history and symptoms and conducts a physical examination. […] You may have tests to find the cause and rule out other potential causes of myoclonus. […] Your health care provider may suggest genetic testing to help identify possible causes of myoclonus. […] Treatment of myoclonus works best if you can stop the problem that’s causing it. […] For example, treatment may focus on another condition, a medicine or a toxin that is causing the myoclonus. […] Most of the time, however, the underlying cause can’t be cured or eliminated. […] There are no drugs specifically designed to treat myoclonus. […] But treatments for other diseases may help relieve myoclonus symptoms. […] Medicines that health care providers commonly prescribe for myoclonus include: […] Drugs used to control epileptic seizures may help reduce myoclonus symptoms. […] If myoclonus symptoms are caused by a tumor or lesion in the brain or spinal cord, surgery may be an option. […] Deep brain stimulation has been tried in some people with myoclonus and other movement disorders.

• #59 Myoclonus – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537015/

  The array of underlying etiologies of myoclonus is strikingly diverse. […] Secondary myoclonus is also known as symptomatic myoclonus. Recall that symptomatic myoclonus is a clinical sign accompanying a comorbid primary neurological or other medical condition. […] Drug-induced myoclonus is potentially fully treatable, with resolution of symptoms upon withdrawal of the offending agent(s). […] Myoclonus can cause serious disability. Despite the availability of a diverse array of pharmacological and other interventions that are at least partially effective, the treatment of myoclonus remains challenging.

• #60 Myoclonus | National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke

  https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/myoclonus

  Myoclonus is a type of uncontrollable movement that includes sudden, brief involuntary twitching, jerking, or spasm of a single muscle or a group of muscles. Myoclonus is not a disease itself, but may be a sign of another neurological condition. […] Causes of myoclonic twitches or jerks are: Sudden muscle contractions (tightening), called positive myoclonus; Sudden muscle relaxation, called negative myoclonus. […] Myoclonus usually happens from a disruption of the brain or spinal cord. It can also happen after an injury to the peripheral nerves (nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord). […] Myoclonus may also happen with infection, head or spinal cord injury, stroke, brain tumors, kidney or liver failure, chemical or drug intoxication, lipid storage diseases, autoimmune inflammatory conditions, COVID-19, or metabolic disorders. Prolonged oxygen deprivation to the brain (hypoxia) may lead to post-hypoxic myoclonus. Some genetic disorders, such as Krabbe disease and Wilson disease, can cause myoclonus.

• #61 Myoclonus | MedLink Neurology

  https://www.medlink.com/articles/myoclonus

  Each of these myoclonus categories is elaborated below, including insights into common etiologies within each category. […] The physiological classification of myoclonus in clinical neurophysiology is based on identifying its neuroanatomic source. […] Myoclonus can take on various forms, each exhibiting distinct characteristics and underlying mechanisms. It is crucial to understand these differences for accurate diagnosis and effective management. […] The prognosis depends on the underlying disorder causing myoclonus. […] Myoclonus has also been described in patients with Parkinson disease, with or without dementia. […] Myoclonus can also be classified based on its distribution within the body: focal or segmental (confined to a specific region), multifocal (involving various body parts, not necessarily simultaneously), or generalized (affecting an entire body part in a single jerk). […] The classification of myoclonus can be approached from various angles, including clinical presentation, etiology, examination findings, or physiological characteristics.

• #62 Myoclonus – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537015/

  Myoclonus features diverse causes, anatomic diagnoses, and neurophysiologic presentations, all nonspecific concerning their neuroanatomical source and pathogenesis. […] Myoclonus can be a feature of myriad neurological diseases and disorders. Perhaps most pathognomonically associated with „startle myoclonus” in Creutzfeld-Jakob disease, myoclonus can also be a feature of neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, Parkinson disease, frontotemporal dementia, and disorders of basal ganglia or spinocerebellar degeneration, among others. […] The specific etiologic mechanisms underlying myoclonus remain poorly understood. At present, researchers theorize that myoclonus may emerge as a consequence of motor strip hyperexcitability, abnormalities or deficiencies in neurotransmitter receptors, imbalances between neurotransmitters, or underlying network abnormalities that have yet to be elucidated.

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