Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Toxocariasis – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/nematodes-roundworms/toxocariasis

  The eggs of Toxocara canis, T. cati, and other animal ascarid helminths mature in soil and infect dogs, cats, and other animals. Humans may accidentally ingest eggs in soil contaminated by stool from infected animals or may ingest undercooked infected transfer hosts (eg, rabbits). The eggs hatch in the human small intestine. Larvae penetrate the intestinal wall and may migrate through the liver, lungs, central nervous system (CNS), eyes, or other tissues. Tissue damage is caused by the parasite and the local immune response it elicits. […] The larvae usually do not complete their development in the human body but can remain alive for many months.

• #2 Toxocariasis: Symptoms & Causes

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/23401-toxocariasis

  Toxocariasis is an infection caused by parasitic roundworms that ordinarily affect animals. The larvae of the roundworms commonly found in the intestines of dogs (Toxocara canis) and cats (Toxocara cati) cause the infection. […] If you swallow dirt contaminated with animal poop that contains Toxocara eggs, you can get toxocariasis. After you swallow the eggs, larvae hatch in your intestines. The larvae push through your intestinal walls and spread through your bloodstream. The larvae can affect almost any tissue in your body. Your liver and lungs are most commonly affected. The larvae may live for months, and they can cause damage as they travel through your tissues. The larvae don’t mature into adulthood in humans. […] Visceral toxocariasis occurs when Toxocara larvae travel to various organs in your body. This may include your lungs, liver and central nervous system.

• #3 Toxocariasis: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229855-overview

  Toxocariasis is an infection caused by the ingestion of larvae of the dog roundworm Toxocara canis or the cat roundworm Toxocara cati. The soil of parks and playgrounds is commonly contaminated with the eggs of T canis, and infection may cause human disease that involves the liver, heart, lung, muscle, eye, and brain. […] Disease severity depends not only on the number of larvae ingested but also on the degree of the allergic reaction. Patients with atopy may experience more severe toxocariasis. The pathologic manifestations result from inflammation caused by the immune response directed against the excretory-secretory antigens of larvae. These antigens are released from their outer epicuticle coat, which is readily sloughed off when bound by specific antibodies. These antigens are a mix of glycoproteins, including a potent allergenic component named TBA-1. The inflammatory reaction causes epithelioid cells to surround each larva, and, subsequently, a dense fibrous capsule invests each granuloma.

• #4 Toxocara Canis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538524/

  Clinical disease is due to parasitic nematode larva migration through tissues. The signs and symptoms differ based on the affected organ and the host inflammatory response. There are four types of disease: ocular larva migrans (OLM), visceral larva migrans (VLM), neurotoxocariasis, and covert toxocariasis. […] The larva often accumulate in organs but are not able to complete the life cycle in humans. In the organs, the larva incite a granulomatous reaction or an abscess.

• #5 CDC – DPDx – Toxocariasis

  https://www.cdc.gov/dpdx/toxocariasis/index.html

  Toxocariasis in humans is caused by infection with larvae of Toxocara spp., which are common ascarid roundworms of mammals. […] After ingestion, the eggs hatch and larvae penetrate the intestinal wall and are carried by the circulation to a variety of tissues (liver, heart, lungs, brain, muscle, eyes). […] While the larvae do not undergo any further development in these sites, they can cause local reactions and mechanical damage that causes clinical toxocariasis.

• #6 Toxocariasis: Clinical Aspects, Epidemiology, Medical Ecology, and Molecular Aspects

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC153144/

  Toxocariasis is caused by a series of related nematode species (ascarids) that routinely infect dogs and cats throughout the world. […] Infection in humans, in contrast to their definitive hosts, remains occult, often resulting in disease caused by the migrating larval stages. Visceral larva migrans (VLM) and ocular larva migrans (OLM) are two clinical manifestations that result in definable syndromes and present as serious health problems wherever they occur. […] The ability of a eukaryotic parasite to survive in any mammal for that length of time is unusual. […] To accomplish this daunting feat, all of these parasites have acquired unique mechanisms for evading the host’s immune system. Toxocara spp. are no exception. […] Pathological consequences are largely dependent upon the death of the juveniles. Their death heralds the onset of marked delayed-type and immediate-type hypersensitivity responses.

• #7

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40475-013-0012-5

  While Toxocara larvae are unable to moult, grow or replicate in the human host, parasites can remain viable for at least 7 years after infection. During this time they can migrate through tissues, causing mechanical and immunopathological damage. The extraordinary survival capacity of Toxocara larvae has been attributed to two molecular strategies evolved by the parasite. The first is the release of excretory-secretory products including lectins, mucins and enzymes that interact with and modulate host immunity, such as by interfering with leucocyte extravasation into affected sites. The second is the production of a loosely attached mucin-rich surface coat to which host antibodies and cells adhere, which the parasite can detach, leaving behind an inflammatory reaction around a newly vacated focus.

• #8 Toxocariasis: Clinical Aspects, Epidemiology, Medical Ecology, and Molecular Aspects

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC153144/

  Investigations into the molecular biology of Toxocara have mainly focused on the secreted proteins of the migrating juvenile stages. These proteins have proven useful in immunodiagnosis of VLM, and OLM. Speculation favors these same proteins in aiding the worm regarding its capacity to evade potentially protective immune responses. […] The fact that many of the excretory-secretory proteins from the juvenile stages constitute a family of at least six highly antigenic mucins associated with the cuticular surface reinforces this concept.

• #9 Who Let the Dogs Out? Unmasking the Neglected: A Semi-Systematic Review on the Enduring Impact of Toxocariasis, a Prevalent Zoonotic Infection

  https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/20/21/6972

  It is well established that, primarily, the host’s inflammatory immune response to Toxocara is the pathophysiologic pillar of the pathology seen in toxocariasis, rather than mechanical damage associated with migrating larvae. […] The elevated CD4+ Th2 activity leads to the production and release of inflammatory mediators—especially interleukin (IL)-4, -5, -10, and -13—triggering the production of immunoglobulin (Ig)E antibodies and the differentiation of eosinophils. […] The pathophysiology of eosinophil-associated tissue and organ damage is complex. […] The cardinal involvement of eosinophils in the development of tissue remodeling and fibrosis is mediated through remodeling and fibrogenic growth factors, such as IL-3, IL-5, and the granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF).

• #10 Ocular toxocariasis: a neglected parasitic disease in Egypt | Bulletin of the National Research Centre | Full Text

  https://bnrc.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s42269-019-0185-8

  Ocular toxocariasis is caused by the migration of Toxocara larvae into the posterior segment of the eye. Based on studies executed in animal models, the migration route of Toxocara larvae may follow several pathways. The most common one is via the brain to the cerebrospinal fluid and then to the choroid. The other possible pathways are via the brain to the optic nerve or via the arteries from the internal carotid artery to the ophthalmic artery, retinal central artery, or ciliary artery. Migrated larvae secrete enzymes, waste products, and cuticular components, which cause tissue damage, necrosis, and marked inflammatory reaction, with eosinophils as the most component. These eosinophils release toxic proteins which contribute to the pathology and symptomatology of toxocariasis. The typical pathological finding in ocular toxocariasis is eosinophilic granulomas with central necrosis and remnants of Toxocara larva surrounded by a mixed inflammatory infiltrate with numerous eosinophils.

• #11 Neglected Parasitic Infections in the United States: Toxocariasis in: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Volume 90 Issue 5 (2014)

  https://www.ajtmh.org/view/journals/tpmd/90/5/article-p810.xml

  Toxocariasis is a preventable parasitic disease that is caused by the dog and cat roundworms Toxocara cani and T. cati, respectively. […] In addition, research needs to be conducted to better understand the pathophysiology and clinical course of toxocariasis. […] Once ingested, the larvae can burrow into and travel through blood vessels to various body organs causing an inflammatory reaction; in humans, Toxocara larvae do not undergo further growth or maturation into adult worms. […] Eosinophilia, hypergammaglobulinemia, and increased isohemagglutinin A and B titers are laboratory findings associated with acute Toxocara infection. […] Numerous questions remain surrounding the pathophysiology and clinical manifestations of the disease. Why some patients remain asymptomatic or have nonspecific self-limited symptoms and severe clinical manifestations develop in others is not fully understood.

• #12

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40475-013-0012-5

  The human immune response in toxocariasis is characterized by a T-helper type-2 (Th2) response to the parasites excretory-secretory antigens, resulting in marked eosinophilia, production of cytokines including IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13, and IgG/IgE hypergammaglobulinaemia. The clinical manifestations of larval migration vary widely depending on the number of larvae ingested, the age of the host, the location of the migrating larvae, and other host-parasite interaction factors which are only partially understood. The liver, lungs, and central nervous system, including the eyes, appear to be the organs most sensitive to invasion. In self-limited infections, the larvae become encapsulated in the musculature and liver, and symptoms subside. Migration of larvae through tissues can lead to eosinophilic infiltration, granuloma formation, or eosinophilic abscess. The characteristic pathological finding in OLM and VLM is eosinophilic granulomas with central necrosis surrounded by a mixed inflammatory infiltrate with numerous eosinophils. […] Except for mechanical injury caused by migrating larvae, such as in the eye or brain, an immunopathogenic mechanism underlies most clinical manifestations of toxocariasis.

• #13 Ocular Toxocariasis | Treatment & Management | Point of Care

  https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/140071

  The body tries to contain the infection by inciting an eosinophilic granuloma around the parasite. It tries to contain the Toxocara parasite within the granuloma. Toxocariasis can manifest in the form of visceral larva migrans and ocular toxocariasis. The clinical manifestation depends upon host immunity, the severity of inflammatory response, the quantity of larva ingested, and organ localization. Eosinophilia is often present in Toxocara infection. The greater the degree of exposure greater is the eosinophil count.

• #14 Toxocariasis: America’s Most Common Neglected Infection of Poverty and a Helminthiasis of Global Importance? | PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases

  https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0000400

  There are two classical clinical syndromes resulting from infection. Visceral larva migrans occurs most commonly in young children and results in hepatitis and pneumonitis as the larvae migrate through the liver and lungs, respectively. […] The full clinical presentation of toxocariasis includes hepatomegaly and pulmonary infiltrates or nodules accompanied by cough, wheezing, eosinophilia, lymphadenopathy, and fever. […] Larval entry into the central nervous system can also result in meningoencephalitis and cerebritis manifesting as seizures. […] Ocular larva migrans occurs more frequently in older children and adolescents and may result from the migration of even a single larva in the eye. […] The resulting inflammation presents clinically as either a granuloma or a granulomatous larval track in the retina or as a condition of the vitreous that resembles endophthalmitis.

• #15 Visceral Larva Migrans: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1000527-overview

  Children contract Toxocara infections by ingesting embryonated eggs. The larvae hatch in the small intestine, invade the mucosa, and enter the portal system. The liver traps some larvae, but other larvae proceed to the lungs and the circulatory system, where they can disseminate to virtually every organ. In particular, the larvae often deposit in the liver, lungs, eye, heart, and brain. However, the parasite cannot complete its life cycle in humans. Larvae persist in tissues, provoking a granulomatous reaction and eventually dying. As a result, abscesses or granulomas form. Clinical manifestations depend on the tissue damage caused by the invading larvae and the associated immune-mediated inflammatory response.

• #16 Toxocariasis: a silent threat with a progressive public health impact | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text

  https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-018-0437-0

  Toxocariasis is a neglected parasitic zoonosis that afflicts millions of the pediatric and adolescent populations worldwide, especially in impoverished communities. This disease is caused by infection with the larvae of Toxocara canis and T. cati, the most ubiquitous intestinal nematode parasite in dogs and cats, respectively. […] Following ingestion of embryonated eggs, larvae hatch in the small intestine, penetrate the intestinal wall, gain access to circulation, migrate throughout the body, leading to a marked inflammatory response and various clinical symptoms, depending on the organ involved. […] Although infection in humans can be asymptomatic, Toxocara parasite has a notorious tendency to cause extra-intestinal pathologies. […] The severity of disease is dependent on the parasite burden, the duration of larval migration, and age- and immune-mediated responses of the affected individuals.

• #17 Ocular toxocariasis: a neglected parasitic disease in Egypt | Bulletin of the National Research Centre | Full Text

  https://bnrc.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s42269-019-0185-8

  Ocular toxocariasis is usually due to a single Toxocara larva invading the eye. This results in a low-level immune response which is insufficiently activated to kill the larva and allows its persistence in the eye for years. During this long period, it can migrate through ocular tissues causing mechanical and immunopathological damage. Thus, the pathogenesis of ocular toxocariasis in the human depends on the inflammatory reactions activated by the existence of larva in the eye, the host immune response, the number of the larvae present in the eye, the incidence of reinfection, and the host sensitization to the secreted or excreted products by the larvae.

• #18 EPIDEMIOLOGY

  https://www.aao.org/topic-detail/ocular-toxocariasis-europe

  Ocular toxocariasis is an uncommon disease that affects mostly children and young adults, resulting in significant vision loss. It is caused by invasion of the second-stage larvae of two intestinal roundworms: Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati (a common parasite of dogs and cats, respectively). […] Humans acquire the infection by accidental ingestion of contaminated soil or food with Toxocara eggs, or the oral-fecal route; the roundworm parasites complete their life cycles in the small intestines entering circulation and migration to different organs. […] Disease can present as immediate and delayed hypersensitivity responses, depending on tissue type and host damage. […] Liver, lungs, and central nervous system are commonly infected by visceral larvae migrans (VLM), and the eyes by ocular larvae migrans (OLM). […] In OLM, larvae migrate to the eye through: (1) the central retinal artery reaching the posterior pole, (2) the long ciliary arteries, or (3) the vitreous reaching the pars plana, producing inflammation and formation of granuloma. […] OLM is usually unilateral.

• #19 EPIDEMIOLOGY

  https://www.aao.org/education/topic-detail/ocular-toxocariasis-asia-pacific

  Ocular toxocariasis is an uncommon disease that affects mostly children and young adults, resulting in significant vision loss. It is caused by invasion of the second-stage larvae of two intestinal roundworms: Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati (a common parasite of dogs and cats, respectively). […] Disease can present as immediate and delayed hypersensitivity responses, depending on tissue type and host damage. […] Liver, lungs, and central nervous system are commonly infected by visceral larvae migrans (VLM), and the eyes by ocular larvae migrans (OLM). […] In OLM, larvae migrate to the eye through: (1) the central retinal artery reaching the posterior pole, (2) the long ciliary arteries, or (3) the vitreous reaching the pars plana, producing inflammation and formation of granuloma. […] OLM is usually unilateral.

• #20 Clinical spectrum of symptoms in cerebral Toxocariasis (Review)

  https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/etm.2021.9953

  The cells mainly involved in the defense process against the penetration of pathogens and parasites into the brain are astrocytes, which also modulate neuroinflammation. Through these processes, astrocytes maintain homeostasis in the brain. Taking into consideration the disruptions that occur in the neurotoxocariasis pathology, it is assumed that the function of astrocytes is impaired. […] The clinical intensity and type of manifestations in neurotoxocariasis are related to the quantity of the larvae that penetrate the blood-brain barrier and also are related to the severity of the destruction and inflammatory response. […] The cerebral localization of Toxocara infection is revealed through presentation of meningitis, encephalitis, meningoencephalitis, encephalomyelitis, and meningoencephalomyelitis, but cerebral abscesses have been reported in several cases.

• #21 Who Let the Dogs Out? Unmasking the Neglected: A Semi-Systematic Review on the Enduring Impact of Toxocariasis, a Prevalent Zoonotic Infection

  https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/20/21/6972

  The release of antigens from dying helminths can enhance these reactions during specific therapy with anthelmintics, making steroids a well-considerable complementary therapy. […] The pathophysiology of neurotoxocariasis (NT) is complex and involves various factors, including the T helper type 2-driven immune response with subsequent production and release of IL-5 and IgE. […] The release of major basic protein and eosinophilic cationic protein and the production of anticardiolipin antibodies, associated with chronic inflammation, significantly contribute to the development of ischemic lesions observed in this specific patient population.

• #22 Clinical spectrum of symptoms in cerebral Toxocariasis (Review)

  https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/etm.2021.9953

  Another important factor to be taken into consideration as a symptom of neurotoxocariasis is the presence of epileptic seizures, as demonstrated in a study by Luna et al. […] Neurotoxocariasis represents a rare diagnosis. It is possible to be underdiagnosed especially due to the vague and wide-ranging characteristics of the symptomatology aggravated by an insufficiency of supporting diagnostic investigations. […] Therefore, a classification of brain imaging conclusions have been described in connection with neurotoxocariasis, firstly being assessed by computed tomography and currently with the aid of magnetic resonance imaging.

• #23 Genetic blueprint of the zoonotic pathogen Toxocara canis | Nature Communications

  https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms7145

  The T. canis secretome (870 molecules) is rich in peptidases proposed to be associated with the penetration and degradation of host tissues, and an assemblage of molecules suggested to modulate or suppress host-immune responses. These secreted peptidases are likely to play key roles in these processes in T. canis and might represent important drug or vaccine targets. […] We predicted the secretome of T. canis to comprise at least 870 ES proteins with a diverse array of functions. Many secreted peptidases (representing the degradome) and their respective inhibitors have known roles in the penetration of tissue barriers and feeding by parasitic worms, including T. canis. T. canis larvae invade various tissues, including muscles, brain and eyes, and cause clinical disease. Such larvae have an exceptional ability to evade or block host attack and can survive for many years in tissues. This ability is associated with the deployment of molecules excreted or secreted by the parasite or released from its surface coat.

• #24 Human toxocariasis and atopy | Parasite

  https://www.parasite-journal.org/articles/parasite/full_html/2020/01/parasite200021/parasite200021.html

  Bivariate analysis of various clinical variables followed by MRA revealed that the clinical pictures in our patients were not dependent on atopy. First, the signs or symptoms observed during the course of common/covert toxocariasis are not specific. Therefore, it may be suspected that other disease conditions could have caused some clinical manifestations. For example, a prospective study on the causes of pruritus sine materia in 95 patients found that toxocariasis accounted for only 8.4% of the cases. Second, in the wake of the well-known hygiene hypothesis, a theory arose about the relationship between helminthiases and atopy. Briefly, the intense Th2-skewed immunological response that is a hallmark of these infections appears to protect the host from developing allergic symptoms. Further investigations suggested that during the course of chronic helminthiases, immunoregulation was boosted due to certain mechanisms, such as the development of regulatory T and B cells inducing immune hyporesponsiveness.

• #25 Human toxocariasis and atopy | Parasite

  https://www.parasite-journal.org/articles/parasite/full_html/2020/01/parasite200021/parasite200021.html

  In conclusion, our study suggests that atopy does not influence the clinical and laboratory picture of patients with toxocaral disease, but does not provide any clarification about the reported increased seroprevalence of toxocariasis in atopic subjects. However, the presence in our study of a recruitment bias of unknown origin, affecting the sex ratio in the group of nonatopic patients, requires that these results be considered with caution.

• #26 Neglected Parasitic Infections in the United States: Toxocariasis in: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Volume 90 Issue 5 (2014)

  https://www.ajtmh.org/view/journals/tpmd/90/5/article-p810.xml

  Long-term medical consequences of Toxocara infection, such as asthma and neurocognitive delays, should be a research priority. […] Presently, diagnostic testing for Toxocara infection is limited to antibody testing, which cannot differentiate current active disease and past infection. […] Development of a test that can accurately diagnose recent infection will help clinicians confirm active Toxocara infection in patients and potentially lead to initiation of treatment to prevent clinical disease.

• #27 Toxocariasis in North America: A Systematic Review | PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases

  https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0003116

  Toxocariasis causes significant morbidity and loss of productivity and poses an important, yet largely unaddressed public health problem in areas of high prevalence. Most notably, infection with Toxocara spp. has been associated with reduced cognitive function in children; Walsh and colleagues found that infected children scored significantly lower on math, reading, digit span, and block design tests than uninfected children. Infected children were significantly more likely to be in a lower socioeconomic class than uninfected children, though the difference in performance persisted when socioeconomic class was controlled for, suggesting that toxocariasis, like many other neglected tropical diseases, may play a role in perpetuating poverty and contribute to health disparities in endemic areas. It has been suggested that toxocariasis may even partially account for the achievement gap noted among socioeconomically disadvantaged students. Medically, toxocariasis has also been proposed to be a potential cause of asthma, has been associated with seizures, and is an important cause of blindness.

• #28

  https://journals.lww.com/sjkd/fulltext/2019/30060/toxocariasis_and_nephrotic_syndrome.33.aspx

  Toxocariasis is a helminthic zoonosis with a worldwide distribution, and until now, it continues to be an almost unknown disease among the general population and even among health professionals. […] The relationship between toxocariasis infection and glomerular disease is still unclear. […] The relationship between toxocariasis and glomerular disease is still unclear. Some authors suggested that immunomediated mechanism might possibly be involved in the genesis of kidney damage observed in this parasitic zoonosis. Toxocariasis should be considered as a possible cause, although rare of nephrotic syndrome, especially in the presence of a marked eosinophilia.

• #29 Toxocariasis in North America: A Systematic Review | PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases

  https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0003116

  The detection of antibodies against Toxocara antigens in sera is associated with past exposure to T. canis and T. cati eggs and the resulting parasite larval migrations. However, because Toxocara larvae can remain in a developmentally arrested state and live with minimal metabolic activity in mammalian tissues for years, seropositivity enzyme immunoassay titers can remain positive for years – may also be indicative of active infection. This finding can help explain the associations noted in case-control studies conducted in Mexico between Toxocara seropositivity and conditions such as asthma and ankylosing spondylitis, and psychiatric illness, and US NHANES data linking toxocariasis to pulmonary disease and cognitive deficits.

• #30 SciELO Brazil – TOXOCARIASIS: SEROLOGICAL DIAGNOSIS BY INDIRECT ANTIBODY COMPETITION ELISA TOXOCARIASIS: SEROLOGICAL DIAGNOSIS BY INDIRECT ANTIBODY COMPETITION ELISA

  https://www.scielo.br/j/rimtsp/a/tvkJPCyZcX78JbMrrG9cdjf/?format=html&lang=en

  Toxocariasis is caused by infection of man by Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati larvae, the common roundworm of dogs and cats. Because larvae are difficult to detect in tissues, diagnosis is mostly based on serology. Non specific reactions are observed mainly due to cross-reactivity with Ascaris sp antigens. […] This investigation aimed at developing and evaluating an indirect antibody competition ELISA (IACE) employing a specific rabbit IgG anti-Toxocara canis excretory-secretory antigens as the competition antibody, in order to improve indirect ELISA specificity performed for toxocariasis diagnosis. For that, the rabbit IgG was previously absorbed by Ascaris suum adult antigens. […] Evaluation of the true sensitivity and specificity of serology tests for toxocariasis in human populations is not possible because of the lack of parasitological methods to definitively diagnose the disease and to exclude infections in controls.

• #31

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40475-013-0001-8

  Arrested larvae are long-lived, surviving in human tissue for months to years and continuing to release antigens that serve as ongoing stimulus for immune response. […] The development of novel tests utilizing recombinant antigens to detect specific antibodies represents the single greatest opportunity for improved diagnostics of human toxocariasis. […] The TES-Ag comprises approximately 10 major proteins based on polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and approximately 50 proteins when characterized by 2D gel electrophoresis. […] The genes for many of the proteins identified by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) have been cloned and expressed in bacterial or eukaryotic expression systems. […] Several of the recombinant forms of the TES-Ag have been analyzed for diagnostic utility. […] These shortcomings are driving research to identify better diagnostic tools for human toxocariasis.

• #32 Toxocariasis: a silent threat with a progressive public health impact | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text

  https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-018-0437-0

  Misdiagnosis due to the nonspecific clinical presentation may lead to prolonged morbidity and development of health complications. […] The mainstay of toxocariasis therapies includes anthelmintics (e.g. albendazole [ABZ], mebendazole [MBZ] and thiabendazole) and anti-inflammatory drugs. […] These drugs are used to achieve a clinical resolution or to reduce the damage caused by larval migration to various organs, particularly the brain and eyes. […] Despite the lack of an optimal treatment for OT, some patients can be treated successfully with anthelmintic drugs or surgically, depending on the severity of intraocular inflammation and retinal comorbidities. […] Combinations of corticosteroids with DEC, MBZ, orthiabendazole have been used for the treatment of NT. […] Although NT may resolve from treatment using ABZ, MBZ, thiabendazole and DEC, ABZ used for at least three weeks, which often needed to be repeated is the preferable choice because it can penetrate the CSF with a minimal toxicity. […] Despite extraordinary progress during the past two decades, toxocariasis continues to pose a significant challenge to the public health.

• #33 Comprehensive Control of Toxocariasis in Communities | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/1180844

  Without a doubt, the staging of a vaccine for the prevention and control of Toxocara spp. will be the fundamental pillar of a complete comprehensive plan for toxocariasis. […] Reverse vaccinology allows the development of effective vaccines based on the genomic information of the infectious agent. […] These studies allowed us to establish plausible bases for the identification of proteins of immunological interest for the generation of vaccines using the reverse vaccinology methodology.

• #34 Genetic blueprint of the zoonotic pathogen Toxocara canis | Nature Communications

  https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms7145

  Overall, the present genomic and transcriptomic data sets reveal that, on a global scale, T. canis possesses a major arsenal of ES proteins that are involved in manipulating, blocking and/or evading immune responses in host animals. A detailed understanding of the roles of these molecules could pave the way to new intervention strategies, such as vaccination. […] The present draft genome and transcriptomes of T. canis should accelerate post-genomic explorations. For instance, a systems biology-based approach should now facilitate many aspects of the developmental and reproductive biology, molecular biology and biochemistry of T. canis, as well as parasite-host interactions and the pathogenesis of toxocariasis to be explored.

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