Materiały źródłowe

• #1

  https://boris.unibe.ch/188789/

  Toxocariasis remains an important neglected parasitic infection representing one of the most common zoonotic infections caused by the parasite Toxocara canis or, less frequently, by Toxocara cati. […] Anthelmintic agents, for example, albendazole or mebendazole, are the recommended treatment, whereas a combination with topical or systemic corticosteroids for specific forms is suggested. Prevention strategies include educational programs, behavioral and hygienic changes, enhancement of the role of veterinarians, and anthelmintic regimens to control active infections.

• #2 CDC – Toxocariasis – General Information

  http://medbox.iiab.me/modules/en-cdc/www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxocariasis/gen_info/faqs.html

  Toxocariasis is an infection transmitted from animals to humans (zoonosis) caused by the parasitic roundworms commonly found in the intestine of dogs (Toxocara canis) and cats (T. cati). […] Visceral toxocariasis is treated with antiparasitic drugs. Treatment of ocular toxocariasis is more difficult and usually consists of measures to prevent progressive damage to the eye. […] See your health care provider to discuss the possibility of infection and, if necessary, to be examined. Your provider may take a sample of your blood for testing. […] Take your pets to the veterinarian to prevent infection with Toxocara. Your veterinarian can recommend a testing and treatment plan for deworming. […] Teach children the importance of washing hands to prevent infection. […] Do not allow children to play in areas that are soiled with pet or other animal feces. […] Clean your pet’s living area at least once a week. Feces should be either buried or bagged and disposed of in the trash. Wash your hands after handling pet waste.

• #3 Toxocariasis – Helminthiases – Parasitic Diseases – Infectious Diseases – Diseases – McMaster Textbook of Internal Medicine

  https://empendium.com/mcmtextbook/chapter/B31.II.18.69.2.

  Toxocariasis is a chronic parasitic zoonosis caused by the larval stage of canine or feline ascarids. The disease involves internal organs and the eye. Humans are accidental intermediate hosts for the parasite. Toxocariasis is epidemiologically one of the most prevalent and ubiquitous human helminth infections across industrialized countries. […] Treatment that includes anthelmintics is advocated for toxocariasis and particularly acute toxocariasis, so as to limit the larvae from reaching the eyes and brain. Specialist consultation is advised. Albendazole and mebendazole are often used. Glucocorticoids (eg, prednisolone) and in some instances ophthalmic surgery are used in more complex infections. […] In the course of albendazole treatment, monitor eosinophilia and blood aminotransferase levels on a regular basis. Treatment should be discontinued if features of liver damage are observed. Fundoscopy should be periodically performed in case of a further decrease of visual acuity. […] Regular deworming of dogs and cats (particularly of young animals), washing of fruits and vegetables prior to consumption, using protective gloves when gardening, removal of dog and cat feces from parks and recreational areas, covering sandboxes to avoid contamination with animal feces.

• #4 Toxocara – Serology | Public Health Ontario

  https://www.publichealthontario.ca/en/Laboratory-Services/Test-Information-Index/Toxocara-Serology

  This page provides routine serology (antibody) testing information for toxocariasis at Public Health Ontario (PHO). The causative agents of toxocariasis include Toxocara canis (canids definitive hosts) and Toxocara cati (felids definitive hosts). Toxocariasis manifestations include visceral larva migrans (VLM), ocular larva migrans (OLM), and neural larva migrans (NLM). […] Testing is only advised for individuals with compatible exposure history and clinical presentation. Toxocara is found worldwide, particularly in children and young adults, and is usually acquired by ingestion of embryonated eggs from the environment (which requires 1 to 4 weeks in the environment for embryonation) or ingestion of larvae in undercooked paratenic hosts (e.g., beef, lamb, chicken, or duck). […] VLM manifestations depend on the organ affected and may include multiple ill-defined visceral granulomatous lesions on imaging, eosinophilia, urticarial rash, fever, anorexia, hepatitis, pneumonitis, myalgia, or carditis. OLM manifestations may include unilateral granulomatous lesions on fundoscopy, uveitis, retinitis, or endophthalmitis. NLM manifestations may include ill-defined lesions on imaging, eosinophilic meningoencephalitis, myelitis, vasculitis, or radiculitis.

• #5 Toxocariasis in North America: A Systematic Review | PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases

  https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0003116

  Toxocariasis is an important neglected tropical disease that can manifest as visceral or ocular larva migrans, or covert toxocariasis. […] Toxocariasis causes significant morbidity and loss of productivity and poses an important, yet largely unaddressed public health problem in areas of high prevalence. […] The current burden of disease due to toxocaraisis in North America is largely unknown. […] Our overall purpose was to assess the available literature on the current burden of disease and to discern the amount of evidence available to inform current or future public health measures to control and prevent toxocariasis. […] Ultimately, more recent and widespread research is needed to determine the true current burden of toxocariasis in North America, but the prevalence estimates gathered during this review preliminarily indicate that the burden of disease is not insignificant. […] There is also urgency to develop improved and more widely accessible diagnostic tests for detecting active infection, and studies to optimize current treatment regimens using anthelminthic drugs.

• #6 Toxocariasis – Helminthiases – Parasitic Diseases – Infectious Diseases – Diseases – McMaster Textbook of Internal Medicine

  https://empendium.com/mcmtextbook/chapter/B31.II.18.69.2.

  Toxocariasis is a chronic parasitic zoonosis caused by the larval stage of canine or feline ascarids. The disease involves internal organs and the eye. Humans are accidental intermediate hosts for the parasite. Toxocariasis is epidemiologically one of the most prevalent and ubiquitous human helminth infections across industrialized countries. […] Treatment that includes anthelmintics is advocated for toxocariasis and particularly acute toxocariasis, so as to limit the larvae from reaching the eyes and brain. Specialist consultation is advised. Albendazole and mebendazole are often used. Glucocorticoids (eg, prednisolone) and in some instances ophthalmic surgery are used in more complex infections. […] In the course of albendazole treatment, monitor eosinophilia and blood aminotransferase levels on a regular basis. Treatment should be discontinued if features of liver damage are observed. Fundoscopy should be periodically performed in case of a further decrease of visual acuity. […] Regular deworming of dogs and cats (particularly of young animals), washing of fruits and vegetables prior to consumption, using protective gloves when gardening, removal of dog and cat feces from parks and recreational areas, covering sandboxes to avoid contamination with animal feces.

• #7 Toxocariasis in humans: clinical expression and treatment dilemma | Journal of Helminthology | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0022149X00701465/type/journal_article

  A new scheme of clarifying clinical forms of toxocariasis is proposed to include: (i) systemic forms: classical VLM and incomplete VLM; (ii) compartmentalized forms: ocular and neurological toxocariasis; (iii) covert toxocariasis; and (iv) asymptomatic toxocariasis. […] Amongst the available drugs albendazole is the most commonly used, although other benzimidazole compounds have a similar efficacy. The recommended dose of albendazole is 15 mg kg-1 body weight daily for 5 days and in some cases with VLM syndrome the treatment needs to be repeated. […] In addition to clinical rationales for the specific treatment of VLM and OLM, preventive treatment needs to be considered bearing in mind the increasing risk of larvae localizing in the brain during the course of an infection. To reduce migration of Toxocara larvae a single course of albendazole is suggested in cases where eosinophilia and serology are at least moderately positive.

• #8 Toxocariasis: Risks, Treatment and Prevention

  https://www.allaboutvision.com/conditions/infections-allergies/toxocariasis/

  Toxocariasis may present in three different ways: […] Ocular toxocariasis occurs most often in older children and adults, and in 90% of cases, only one eye is affected. […] Most of the damage to the ocular system is a result of inflammation that happens when the larvae die. Any resulting vision loss depends on the severity and location of the infection. […] This is the systemic presentation that occurs most often in children younger than 3 years. […] Though rare, long-term complications from visceral toxocariasis are possible. […] In the rare instance that the roundworm larvae invade the central nervous system, your brain and spinal cord may be affected. […] If no symptoms are present, no treatment is necessary. But in cases where treatment is needed, the main goals are to: […] To kill roundworms present with visceral toxocariasis, your doctor may prescribe an antiparasitic medication such as albendazole or mebendazole.

• #9 Toxocariasis: Risks, Treatment and Prevention

  https://www.allaboutvision.com/conditions/infections-allergies/toxocariasis/

  Toxocariasis may present in three different ways: […] Ocular toxocariasis occurs most often in older children and adults, and in 90% of cases, only one eye is affected. […] Most of the damage to the ocular system is a result of inflammation that happens when the larvae die. Any resulting vision loss depends on the severity and location of the infection. […] This is the systemic presentation that occurs most often in children younger than 3 years. […] Though rare, long-term complications from visceral toxocariasis are possible. […] In the rare instance that the roundworm larvae invade the central nervous system, your brain and spinal cord may be affected. […] If no symptoms are present, no treatment is necessary. But in cases where treatment is needed, the main goals are to: […] To kill roundworms present with visceral toxocariasis, your doctor may prescribe an antiparasitic medication such as albendazole or mebendazole.

• #10 Toxocariasis: Risks, Treatment and Prevention

  https://www.allaboutvision.com/conditions/infections-allergies/toxocariasis/

  Toxocariasis may present in three different ways: […] Ocular toxocariasis occurs most often in older children and adults, and in 90% of cases, only one eye is affected. […] Most of the damage to the ocular system is a result of inflammation that happens when the larvae die. Any resulting vision loss depends on the severity and location of the infection. […] This is the systemic presentation that occurs most often in children younger than 3 years. […] Though rare, long-term complications from visceral toxocariasis are possible. […] In the rare instance that the roundworm larvae invade the central nervous system, your brain and spinal cord may be affected. […] If no symptoms are present, no treatment is necessary. But in cases where treatment is needed, the main goals are to: […] To kill roundworms present with visceral toxocariasis, your doctor may prescribe an antiparasitic medication such as albendazole or mebendazole.

• #11 Toxocara – Serology | Public Health Ontario

  https://www.publichealthontario.ca/en/Laboratory-Services/Test-Information-Index/Toxocara-Serology

  This page provides routine serology (antibody) testing information for toxocariasis at Public Health Ontario (PHO). The causative agents of toxocariasis include Toxocara canis (canids definitive hosts) and Toxocara cati (felids definitive hosts). Toxocariasis manifestations include visceral larva migrans (VLM), ocular larva migrans (OLM), and neural larva migrans (NLM). […] Testing is only advised for individuals with compatible exposure history and clinical presentation. Toxocara is found worldwide, particularly in children and young adults, and is usually acquired by ingestion of embryonated eggs from the environment (which requires 1 to 4 weeks in the environment for embryonation) or ingestion of larvae in undercooked paratenic hosts (e.g., beef, lamb, chicken, or duck). […] VLM manifestations depend on the organ affected and may include multiple ill-defined visceral granulomatous lesions on imaging, eosinophilia, urticarial rash, fever, anorexia, hepatitis, pneumonitis, myalgia, or carditis. OLM manifestations may include unilateral granulomatous lesions on fundoscopy, uveitis, retinitis, or endophthalmitis. NLM manifestations may include ill-defined lesions on imaging, eosinophilic meningoencephalitis, myelitis, vasculitis, or radiculitis.

• #12 Toxocariasis in humans: clinical expression and treatment dilemma | Journal of Helminthology | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0022149X00701465/type/journal_article

  A new scheme of clarifying clinical forms of toxocariasis is proposed to include: (i) systemic forms: classical VLM and incomplete VLM; (ii) compartmentalized forms: ocular and neurological toxocariasis; (iii) covert toxocariasis; and (iv) asymptomatic toxocariasis. […] Amongst the available drugs albendazole is the most commonly used, although other benzimidazole compounds have a similar efficacy. The recommended dose of albendazole is 15 mg kg-1 body weight daily for 5 days and in some cases with VLM syndrome the treatment needs to be repeated. […] In addition to clinical rationales for the specific treatment of VLM and OLM, preventive treatment needs to be considered bearing in mind the increasing risk of larvae localizing in the brain during the course of an infection. To reduce migration of Toxocara larvae a single course of albendazole is suggested in cases where eosinophilia and serology are at least moderately positive.

• #13 Toxocariasis in humans: clinical expression and treatment dilemma | Journal of Helminthology | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0022149X00701465/type/journal_article

  A new scheme of clarifying clinical forms of toxocariasis is proposed to include: (i) systemic forms: classical VLM and incomplete VLM; (ii) compartmentalized forms: ocular and neurological toxocariasis; (iii) covert toxocariasis; and (iv) asymptomatic toxocariasis. […] Amongst the available drugs albendazole is the most commonly used, although other benzimidazole compounds have a similar efficacy. The recommended dose of albendazole is 15 mg kg-1 body weight daily for 5 days and in some cases with VLM syndrome the treatment needs to be repeated. […] In addition to clinical rationales for the specific treatment of VLM and OLM, preventive treatment needs to be considered bearing in mind the increasing risk of larvae localizing in the brain during the course of an infection. To reduce migration of Toxocara larvae a single course of albendazole is suggested in cases where eosinophilia and serology are at least moderately positive.

• #14 Toxocariasis – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/nematodes-roundworms/toxocariasis

  Asymptomatic patients and patients with mild visceral larva migrans (VLM) symptoms do not require anthelmintic therapy because infection is usually self-limited. […] For patients with moderate to severe symptoms, albendazole or mebendazole is used, but the optimal duration of therapy has not been determined. […] Corticosteroids are indicated for patients with severe symptoms to reduce inflammation. […] Ophthalmologic expertise is essential in the care of ocular larva migrans (OLM). Corticosteroids, both local and oral, are indicated to reduce inflammation within the eye. […] The role of anthelmintic therapy is uncertain. Albendazole used with corticosteroids may reduce recurrences, but comparative data are not available on the optimal dose and duration of therapy, and there is no evidence that albendazole improves visual outcome. […] For ocular larva migrans, systemic and local corticosteroids, sometimes albendazole, and depending on the circumstances laser therapy, cryotherapy, or surgical procedures.

• #15 Toxocariasis | Concise Medical Knowledge

  https://www.lecturio.com/concepts/toxocariasis/

  Patients with mild symptoms do not require therapy, since the disease is self-limited. […] Patients with moderate to severe disease may be given: Anthelmintic therapy: Albendazole, Mebendazole. […] Prednisone for severe respiratory, myocardial, or CNS disease. […] Management of ocular larva migrans includes antihelmintic therapy and Prednisone for sight-threatening inflammation. […] Proper disposal of dog and cat feces, deworming pets, good hygiene practices, and covering sandboxes when not in use are important for prevention.

• #16 Toxocariasis – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/nematodes-roundworms/toxocariasis

  Asymptomatic patients and patients with mild visceral larva migrans (VLM) symptoms do not require anthelmintic therapy because infection is usually self-limited. […] For patients with moderate to severe symptoms, albendazole or mebendazole is used, but the optimal duration of therapy has not been determined. […] Corticosteroids are indicated for patients with severe symptoms to reduce inflammation. […] Ophthalmologic expertise is essential in the care of ocular larva migrans (OLM). Corticosteroids, both local and oral, are indicated to reduce inflammation within the eye. […] The role of anthelmintic therapy is uncertain. Albendazole used with corticosteroids may reduce recurrences, but comparative data are not available on the optimal dose and duration of therapy, and there is no evidence that albendazole improves visual outcome. […] For ocular larva migrans, systemic and local corticosteroids, sometimes albendazole, and depending on the circumstances laser therapy, cryotherapy, or surgical procedures.

• #17 Toxocariasis | Concise Medical Knowledge

  https://www.lecturio.com/concepts/toxocariasis/

  Patients with mild symptoms do not require therapy, since the disease is self-limited. […] Patients with moderate to severe disease may be given: Anthelmintic therapy: Albendazole, Mebendazole. […] Prednisone for severe respiratory, myocardial, or CNS disease. […] Management of ocular larva migrans includes antihelmintic therapy and Prednisone for sight-threatening inflammation. […] Proper disposal of dog and cat feces, deworming pets, good hygiene practices, and covering sandboxes when not in use are important for prevention.

• #18 Toxocariasis (for Parents) – Humana – Kentucky

  https://kidshealth.org/HumanaKentucky/en/parents/toxocariasis.html?WT.ac=pairedLink

  A child with mild symptoms might not need treatment because the infection will go away on its own when the larvae die. […] Kids with symptoms that affect the lungs, eye, or other important organs may be treated with anti-parasite drugs that will kill the larvae. […] Doctors sometimes also give steroids to ease inflammation in the damaged organs. They also might refer a child to a specialist (like an ophthalmologist if the eye is involved).

• #19 Toxocariasis – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/nematodes-roundworms/toxocariasis

  Asymptomatic patients and patients with mild visceral larva migrans (VLM) symptoms do not require anthelmintic therapy because infection is usually self-limited. […] For patients with moderate to severe symptoms, albendazole or mebendazole is used, but the optimal duration of therapy has not been determined. […] Corticosteroids are indicated for patients with severe symptoms to reduce inflammation. […] Ophthalmologic expertise is essential in the care of ocular larva migrans (OLM). Corticosteroids, both local and oral, are indicated to reduce inflammation within the eye. […] The role of anthelmintic therapy is uncertain. Albendazole used with corticosteroids may reduce recurrences, but comparative data are not available on the optimal dose and duration of therapy, and there is no evidence that albendazole improves visual outcome. […] For ocular larva migrans, systemic and local corticosteroids, sometimes albendazole, and depending on the circumstances laser therapy, cryotherapy, or surgical procedures.

• #20 EPIDEMIOLOGY

  https://www.aao.org/education/topic-detail/ocular-toxocariasis-asia-pacific

  Ocular toxocariasis is an uncommon disease that affects mostly children and young adults, resulting in significant vision loss. […] Medical and surgical therapies are used to treat this condition. The goal of treatment is foremost vision preservation, as the prognosis for visual recovery is typically guarded. […] First-line treatment: 5-day course of albendazole (10 mg/kg/day). […] If inflammation persists and the disease appears to be progressing, surgical therapy should be considered. […] Visual acuity recovery is directly related to the anatomical location of the lesions, the degree of retinal detachment, and compromise of the photoreceptors, external limiting membrane, and optic nerve. Vision loss can therefore be variable, from mild to severe. […] Early treatment should be performed to decrease complications and provide better visual outcomes.

• #21

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00436-011-2772-y

  Toxocariasis is a helminthozoonotic disease caused by ascarid larvae of Toxocara genus: Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati. In the reported study, the clinical course of toxocariasis and administered therapy were evaluated in 103 children. In all the children, antiparasitic treatment was implemented, repeated several times in some of them. After therapy, the mean titer of specific antibodies, the number of children with abdominal pains and enlarged lymphatic nodes were decreased, while headaches maintained at unchanged levels. Due to risk of ocular form, which may develop in any stage of the disease, irrespectively of specific antibodies concentrations, it seems justified to implement antiparasitic treatment in all children infected with T. canis. […] In all 103 children, antiparasitic treatment was implemented. Some children required repeated courses: Within the analyzed time span in 103 children, 72 were qualified for two courses, 46 for three courses, and 40 for more. Treatment regime was created on an individual basis. The following antihelmintics were used: albendazole (Zentel) for 35 days or albendazole for 3 days and then after 3 weeks mebendazole (Vermox) for 3 days, or 6 days of mebendazole. Albendazole was administered in the dose of 400 mg/day and mebendazole in the dose of 100-200 mg/day. Ocular forms of toxocariasis were treated in cooperation with ophthalmologists, and several courses of treatment were used, i.e., thiabendazole (Mintezol 50 mg/kg/day for 7 days), albendazole, and/or mebendazole in combination with steroids.

• #22

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00436-011-2772-y

  Toxocariasis is a helminthozoonotic disease caused by ascarid larvae of Toxocara genus: Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati. In the reported study, the clinical course of toxocariasis and administered therapy were evaluated in 103 children. In all the children, antiparasitic treatment was implemented, repeated several times in some of them. After therapy, the mean titer of specific antibodies, the number of children with abdominal pains and enlarged lymphatic nodes were decreased, while headaches maintained at unchanged levels. Due to risk of ocular form, which may develop in any stage of the disease, irrespectively of specific antibodies concentrations, it seems justified to implement antiparasitic treatment in all children infected with T. canis. […] In all 103 children, antiparasitic treatment was implemented. Some children required repeated courses: Within the analyzed time span in 103 children, 72 were qualified for two courses, 46 for three courses, and 40 for more. Treatment regime was created on an individual basis. The following antihelmintics were used: albendazole (Zentel) for 35 days or albendazole for 3 days and then after 3 weeks mebendazole (Vermox) for 3 days, or 6 days of mebendazole. Albendazole was administered in the dose of 400 mg/day and mebendazole in the dose of 100-200 mg/day. Ocular forms of toxocariasis were treated in cooperation with ophthalmologists, and several courses of treatment were used, i.e., thiabendazole (Mintezol 50 mg/kg/day for 7 days), albendazole, and/or mebendazole in combination with steroids.

• #23

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00436-011-2772-y

  Toxocariasis is a helminthozoonotic disease caused by ascarid larvae of Toxocara genus: Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati. In the reported study, the clinical course of toxocariasis and administered therapy were evaluated in 103 children. In all the children, antiparasitic treatment was implemented, repeated several times in some of them. After therapy, the mean titer of specific antibodies, the number of children with abdominal pains and enlarged lymphatic nodes were decreased, while headaches maintained at unchanged levels. Due to risk of ocular form, which may develop in any stage of the disease, irrespectively of specific antibodies concentrations, it seems justified to implement antiparasitic treatment in all children infected with T. canis. […] In all 103 children, antiparasitic treatment was implemented. Some children required repeated courses: Within the analyzed time span in 103 children, 72 were qualified for two courses, 46 for three courses, and 40 for more. Treatment regime was created on an individual basis. The following antihelmintics were used: albendazole (Zentel) for 35 days or albendazole for 3 days and then after 3 weeks mebendazole (Vermox) for 3 days, or 6 days of mebendazole. Albendazole was administered in the dose of 400 mg/day and mebendazole in the dose of 100-200 mg/day. Ocular forms of toxocariasis were treated in cooperation with ophthalmologists, and several courses of treatment were used, i.e., thiabendazole (Mintezol 50 mg/kg/day for 7 days), albendazole, and/or mebendazole in combination with steroids.

• #24 Clinical Care of Toxocariasis | Parasites – Toxocariasis | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/toxocariasis/hcp/clinical-care/index.html

  Treat visceral toxocariasis with antiparasitic drugs. […] Treatment of ocular toxocariasis usually consists of measures to prevent eye damage. […] Monitor patients on long-term treatment by serial blood cell counts. […] In addition to antiparasitic therapy, symptomatic therapy including steroid treatment to control inflammation may be indicated. […] For ocular toxocariasis, the goal of treatment is to minimize damage to the eye. […] Control of inflammation in the eye by use of topical or systemic steroids may be indicated. […] Prescribe albendazole only if the potential benefits to the woman justify the potential risks to the fetus. […] Prescribe mebendazole only if the potential benefits to the woman justify the potential risks to the fetus.

• #25 Toxocariasis – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/nematodes-roundworms/toxocariasis

  Asymptomatic patients and patients with mild visceral larva migrans (VLM) symptoms do not require anthelmintic therapy because infection is usually self-limited. […] For patients with moderate to severe symptoms, albendazole or mebendazole is used, but the optimal duration of therapy has not been determined. […] Corticosteroids are indicated for patients with severe symptoms to reduce inflammation. […] Ophthalmologic expertise is essential in the care of ocular larva migrans (OLM). Corticosteroids, both local and oral, are indicated to reduce inflammation within the eye. […] The role of anthelmintic therapy is uncertain. Albendazole used with corticosteroids may reduce recurrences, but comparative data are not available on the optimal dose and duration of therapy, and there is no evidence that albendazole improves visual outcome. […] For ocular larva migrans, systemic and local corticosteroids, sometimes albendazole, and depending on the circumstances laser therapy, cryotherapy, or surgical procedures.

• #26 Toxocariasis – Helminthiases – Parasitic Diseases – Infectious Diseases – Diseases – McMaster Textbook of Internal Medicine

  https://empendium.com/mcmtextbook/chapter/B31.II.18.69.2.

  Toxocariasis is a chronic parasitic zoonosis caused by the larval stage of canine or feline ascarids. The disease involves internal organs and the eye. Humans are accidental intermediate hosts for the parasite. Toxocariasis is epidemiologically one of the most prevalent and ubiquitous human helminth infections across industrialized countries. […] Treatment that includes anthelmintics is advocated for toxocariasis and particularly acute toxocariasis, so as to limit the larvae from reaching the eyes and brain. Specialist consultation is advised. Albendazole and mebendazole are often used. Glucocorticoids (eg, prednisolone) and in some instances ophthalmic surgery are used in more complex infections. […] In the course of albendazole treatment, monitor eosinophilia and blood aminotransferase levels on a regular basis. Treatment should be discontinued if features of liver damage are observed. Fundoscopy should be periodically performed in case of a further decrease of visual acuity. […] Regular deworming of dogs and cats (particularly of young animals), washing of fruits and vegetables prior to consumption, using protective gloves when gardening, removal of dog and cat feces from parks and recreational areas, covering sandboxes to avoid contamination with animal feces.

• #27 Toxocariasis Treatment & Management: Medical Care, Surgical Care, Consultations

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229855-treatment

  Chemotherapy is the treatment of choice in most patients with liver, lung, or eye involvement. […] Treatment includes mebendazole, thiabendazole, corticosteroids, and specific organ treatment. The prognosis of toxocariasis is generally favorable. […] A consultation with an ophthalmologist is indicated in cases of ocular larva migrans. […] Consultation with a neurologist is indicated in cases of brain involvement with neurologic symptoms or seizures. […] Consultation with an infectious disease specialist may be indicated when questions exist regarding the indications for and selection of treatment for visceral larva migrans. […] For ocular involvement, monthly or bimonthly funduscopic examinations are recommended, according to the patient’s state of remission. […] In a patient with acute symptoms of toxocariasis (ie, dyspnea, chest tightness) due to lung involvement, hospitalization may be necessary.

• #28 Toxocariasis Treatment & Management: Medical Care, Surgical Care, Consultations

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229855-treatment

  In a patient with liver or ocular involvement, hospitalization may be needed for diagnostic and/or therapeutic procedures such as biopsy or laser surgery. […] Continue antihelmintic therapy for 1 month after completing a course of steroids. If symptoms persist after a full course of anthelmintic therapy, extend steroid administration and taper according to lung symptoms.

• #29 Toxocariasis | Concise Medical Knowledge

  https://www.lecturio.com/concepts/toxocariasis/

  Patients with mild symptoms do not require therapy, since the disease is self-limited. […] Patients with moderate to severe disease may be given: Anthelmintic therapy: Albendazole, Mebendazole. […] Prednisone for severe respiratory, myocardial, or CNS disease. […] Management of ocular larva migrans includes antihelmintic therapy and Prednisone for sight-threatening inflammation. […] Proper disposal of dog and cat feces, deworming pets, good hygiene practices, and covering sandboxes when not in use are important for prevention.

• #30 Toxocariasis Treatment & Management: Medical Care, Surgical Care, Consultations

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229855-treatment

  In a patient with liver or ocular involvement, hospitalization may be needed for diagnostic and/or therapeutic procedures such as biopsy or laser surgery. […] Continue antihelmintic therapy for 1 month after completing a course of steroids. If symptoms persist after a full course of anthelmintic therapy, extend steroid administration and taper according to lung symptoms.

• #31 EPIDEMIOLOGY

  https://www.aao.org/education/topic-detail/ocular-toxocariasis-asia-pacific

  Ocular toxocariasis is an uncommon disease that affects mostly children and young adults, resulting in significant vision loss. […] Medical and surgical therapies are used to treat this condition. The goal of treatment is foremost vision preservation, as the prognosis for visual recovery is typically guarded. […] First-line treatment: 5-day course of albendazole (10 mg/kg/day). […] If inflammation persists and the disease appears to be progressing, surgical therapy should be considered. […] Visual acuity recovery is directly related to the anatomical location of the lesions, the degree of retinal detachment, and compromise of the photoreceptors, external limiting membrane, and optic nerve. Vision loss can therefore be variable, from mild to severe. […] Early treatment should be performed to decrease complications and provide better visual outcomes.

• #32 Toxocariasis: Risks, Treatment and Prevention

  https://www.allaboutvision.com/conditions/infections-allergies/toxocariasis/

  For ocular toxocariasis, steroids are the most common form of intervention. […] To prevent vision loss, it is critical to get proper treatment and follow all instructions for your care. […] About 25% of patients with ocular toxocariasis require surgery, either to remove larvae or treat eye problems resulting from the infection. […] The success rate of surgery ranges from 83% to 100%. […] Even though toxocariasis is rare and often harmless, it is important to see your doctor if you or your child experiences any of the symptoms described above. […] Getting your annual comprehensive eye exam is also very important, as it gives your eye doctor the chance to identify any clinical signs that may not cause noticeable symptoms. […] Remember: Ocular toxocariasis can cause vision loss if not diagnosed and treated.

• #33 Clinical Care of Toxocariasis | Parasites – Toxocariasis | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/toxocariasis/hcp/clinical-care/index.html

  Treat visceral toxocariasis with antiparasitic drugs. […] Treatment of ocular toxocariasis usually consists of measures to prevent eye damage. […] Monitor patients on long-term treatment by serial blood cell counts. […] In addition to antiparasitic therapy, symptomatic therapy including steroid treatment to control inflammation may be indicated. […] For ocular toxocariasis, the goal of treatment is to minimize damage to the eye. […] Control of inflammation in the eye by use of topical or systemic steroids may be indicated. […] Prescribe albendazole only if the potential benefits to the woman justify the potential risks to the fetus. […] Prescribe mebendazole only if the potential benefits to the woman justify the potential risks to the fetus.

• #34 Toxocariasis – EyeWiki

  https://eyewiki.org/Toxocariasis

  Ocular toxocariasis is a rare infection caused by roundworms, Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati. […] Management includes quieting inflammation, eliminating the offending organism, and repairing vitreoretinal sequelae. […] The use of these drugs is unproven in the case of ocular toxocariasis. There is some support for the use of albendazole or thiabendazole to eradicate the organism. […] Management of this disease focuses on three main points: Minimizing inflammation, Eliminating the offending organism, Addressing vitreal and retinal complications secondary to infection. […] There is no standard protocol for medical follow up specific to ocular toxocariasis. Patients are typically followed as those with other forms of uveitic disease. […] The CDC reports that 25% of patients presenting with new cases of ocular toxocariasis require surgery.

• #35 Neglected parasitic infection: Ocular toxocariasis case report – IJOOO

  https://www.ijooo.org/html-article/16472

  Medical therapy involves first line treatment of 5 day course of albendazole (10mg/kg/day) along with systemic or periocular corticosteroids to suppress the immune response. Surgical options are pars plana vitrectomy with cryotherapy applied at the areas of exudation at pars plana or endolaser indicated for treatment of ocular granulomas. In this case pars plana vitrectomy was done to remove vitreous band so as to relieve the traction and peripheral laser photocoagulation was performed. […] To conclude, ocular toxocariasis is common in developing countries but the incidence is under reported. The diagnosis requires fundoscopic findings, serology, IgG positivity of vitreous. Ocular toxocariasis may cause morbidity if diagnosis is not established, leading to delay or failure to initiate prompt treatment.

• #36 Clinical Care of Toxocariasis | Parasites – Toxocariasis | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/toxocariasis/hcp/clinical-care/index.html

  Treat visceral toxocariasis with antiparasitic drugs. […] Treatment of ocular toxocariasis usually consists of measures to prevent eye damage. […] Monitor patients on long-term treatment by serial blood cell counts. […] In addition to antiparasitic therapy, symptomatic therapy including steroid treatment to control inflammation may be indicated. […] For ocular toxocariasis, the goal of treatment is to minimize damage to the eye. […] Control of inflammation in the eye by use of topical or systemic steroids may be indicated. […] Prescribe albendazole only if the potential benefits to the woman justify the potential risks to the fetus. […] Prescribe mebendazole only if the potential benefits to the woman justify the potential risks to the fetus.

• #37 Toxocariasis – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/nematodes-roundworms/toxocariasis

  Asymptomatic patients and patients with mild visceral larva migrans (VLM) symptoms do not require anthelmintic therapy because infection is usually self-limited. […] For patients with moderate to severe symptoms, albendazole or mebendazole is used, but the optimal duration of therapy has not been determined. […] Corticosteroids are indicated for patients with severe symptoms to reduce inflammation. […] Ophthalmologic expertise is essential in the care of ocular larva migrans (OLM). Corticosteroids, both local and oral, are indicated to reduce inflammation within the eye. […] The role of anthelmintic therapy is uncertain. Albendazole used with corticosteroids may reduce recurrences, but comparative data are not available on the optimal dose and duration of therapy, and there is no evidence that albendazole improves visual outcome. […] For ocular larva migrans, systemic and local corticosteroids, sometimes albendazole, and depending on the circumstances laser therapy, cryotherapy, or surgical procedures.

• #38 Toxocariasis – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/nematodes-roundworms/toxocariasis

  Asymptomatic patients and patients with mild visceral larva migrans (VLM) symptoms do not require anthelmintic therapy because infection is usually self-limited. […] For patients with moderate to severe symptoms, albendazole or mebendazole is used, but the optimal duration of therapy has not been determined. […] Corticosteroids are indicated for patients with severe symptoms to reduce inflammation. […] Ophthalmologic expertise is essential in the care of ocular larva migrans (OLM). Corticosteroids, both local and oral, are indicated to reduce inflammation within the eye. […] The role of anthelmintic therapy is uncertain. Albendazole used with corticosteroids may reduce recurrences, but comparative data are not available on the optimal dose and duration of therapy, and there is no evidence that albendazole improves visual outcome. […] For ocular larva migrans, systemic and local corticosteroids, sometimes albendazole, and depending on the circumstances laser therapy, cryotherapy, or surgical procedures.

• #39 Neglected parasitic infection: Ocular toxocariasis case report – IJOOO

  https://www.ijooo.org/html-article/16472

  Medical therapy involves first line treatment of 5 day course of albendazole (10mg/kg/day) along with systemic or periocular corticosteroids to suppress the immune response. Surgical options are pars plana vitrectomy with cryotherapy applied at the areas of exudation at pars plana or endolaser indicated for treatment of ocular granulomas. In this case pars plana vitrectomy was done to remove vitreous band so as to relieve the traction and peripheral laser photocoagulation was performed. […] To conclude, ocular toxocariasis is common in developing countries but the incidence is under reported. The diagnosis requires fundoscopic findings, serology, IgG positivity of vitreous. Ocular toxocariasis may cause morbidity if diagnosis is not established, leading to delay or failure to initiate prompt treatment.

• #40 Toxocariasis Treatment & Management: Medical Care, Surgical Care, Consultations

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229855-treatment

  Chemotherapy is the treatment of choice in most patients with liver, lung, or eye involvement. […] Treatment includes mebendazole, thiabendazole, corticosteroids, and specific organ treatment. The prognosis of toxocariasis is generally favorable. […] A consultation with an ophthalmologist is indicated in cases of ocular larva migrans. […] Consultation with a neurologist is indicated in cases of brain involvement with neurologic symptoms or seizures. […] Consultation with an infectious disease specialist may be indicated when questions exist regarding the indications for and selection of treatment for visceral larva migrans. […] For ocular involvement, monthly or bimonthly funduscopic examinations are recommended, according to the patient’s state of remission. […] In a patient with acute symptoms of toxocariasis (ie, dyspnea, chest tightness) due to lung involvement, hospitalization may be necessary.

• #41

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00436-011-2772-y

  Toxocariasis is a helminthozoonotic disease caused by ascarid larvae of Toxocara genus: Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati. In the reported study, the clinical course of toxocariasis and administered therapy were evaluated in 103 children. In all the children, antiparasitic treatment was implemented, repeated several times in some of them. After therapy, the mean titer of specific antibodies, the number of children with abdominal pains and enlarged lymphatic nodes were decreased, while headaches maintained at unchanged levels. Due to risk of ocular form, which may develop in any stage of the disease, irrespectively of specific antibodies concentrations, it seems justified to implement antiparasitic treatment in all children infected with T. canis. […] In all 103 children, antiparasitic treatment was implemented. Some children required repeated courses: Within the analyzed time span in 103 children, 72 were qualified for two courses, 46 for three courses, and 40 for more. Treatment regime was created on an individual basis. The following antihelmintics were used: albendazole (Zentel) for 35 days or albendazole for 3 days and then after 3 weeks mebendazole (Vermox) for 3 days, or 6 days of mebendazole. Albendazole was administered in the dose of 400 mg/day and mebendazole in the dose of 100-200 mg/day. Ocular forms of toxocariasis were treated in cooperation with ophthalmologists, and several courses of treatment were used, i.e., thiabendazole (Mintezol 50 mg/kg/day for 7 days), albendazole, and/or mebendazole in combination with steroids.

• #42 Toxocariasis: Risks, Treatment and Prevention

  https://www.allaboutvision.com/conditions/infections-allergies/toxocariasis/

  For ocular toxocariasis, steroids are the most common form of intervention. […] To prevent vision loss, it is critical to get proper treatment and follow all instructions for your care. […] About 25% of patients with ocular toxocariasis require surgery, either to remove larvae or treat eye problems resulting from the infection. […] The success rate of surgery ranges from 83% to 100%. […] Even though toxocariasis is rare and often harmless, it is important to see your doctor if you or your child experiences any of the symptoms described above. […] Getting your annual comprehensive eye exam is also very important, as it gives your eye doctor the chance to identify any clinical signs that may not cause noticeable symptoms. […] Remember: Ocular toxocariasis can cause vision loss if not diagnosed and treated.

• #43 Toxocariasis – EyeWiki

  https://eyewiki.org/Toxocariasis

  Ocular toxocariasis is a rare infection caused by roundworms, Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati. […] Management includes quieting inflammation, eliminating the offending organism, and repairing vitreoretinal sequelae. […] The use of these drugs is unproven in the case of ocular toxocariasis. There is some support for the use of albendazole or thiabendazole to eradicate the organism. […] Management of this disease focuses on three main points: Minimizing inflammation, Eliminating the offending organism, Addressing vitreal and retinal complications secondary to infection. […] There is no standard protocol for medical follow up specific to ocular toxocariasis. Patients are typically followed as those with other forms of uveitic disease. […] The CDC reports that 25% of patients presenting with new cases of ocular toxocariasis require surgery.

• #44 Neglected parasitic infection: Ocular toxocariasis case report – IJOOO

  https://www.ijooo.org/html-article/16472

  Medical therapy involves first line treatment of 5 day course of albendazole (10mg/kg/day) along with systemic or periocular corticosteroids to suppress the immune response. Surgical options are pars plana vitrectomy with cryotherapy applied at the areas of exudation at pars plana or endolaser indicated for treatment of ocular granulomas. In this case pars plana vitrectomy was done to remove vitreous band so as to relieve the traction and peripheral laser photocoagulation was performed. […] To conclude, ocular toxocariasis is common in developing countries but the incidence is under reported. The diagnosis requires fundoscopic findings, serology, IgG positivity of vitreous. Ocular toxocariasis may cause morbidity if diagnosis is not established, leading to delay or failure to initiate prompt treatment.

• #45 Neglected parasitic infection: Ocular toxocariasis case report – IJOOO

  https://www.ijooo.org/html-article/16472

  Medical therapy involves first line treatment of 5 day course of albendazole (10mg/kg/day) along with systemic or periocular corticosteroids to suppress the immune response. Surgical options are pars plana vitrectomy with cryotherapy applied at the areas of exudation at pars plana or endolaser indicated for treatment of ocular granulomas. In this case pars plana vitrectomy was done to remove vitreous band so as to relieve the traction and peripheral laser photocoagulation was performed. […] To conclude, ocular toxocariasis is common in developing countries but the incidence is under reported. The diagnosis requires fundoscopic findings, serology, IgG positivity of vitreous. Ocular toxocariasis may cause morbidity if diagnosis is not established, leading to delay or failure to initiate prompt treatment.

• #46 Neglected parasitic infection: Ocular toxocariasis case report – IJOOO

  https://www.ijooo.org/html-article/16472

  Medical therapy involves first line treatment of 5 day course of albendazole (10mg/kg/day) along with systemic or periocular corticosteroids to suppress the immune response. Surgical options are pars plana vitrectomy with cryotherapy applied at the areas of exudation at pars plana or endolaser indicated for treatment of ocular granulomas. In this case pars plana vitrectomy was done to remove vitreous band so as to relieve the traction and peripheral laser photocoagulation was performed. […] To conclude, ocular toxocariasis is common in developing countries but the incidence is under reported. The diagnosis requires fundoscopic findings, serology, IgG positivity of vitreous. Ocular toxocariasis may cause morbidity if diagnosis is not established, leading to delay or failure to initiate prompt treatment.

• #47 Toxocariasis – EyeWiki

  https://eyewiki.org/Toxocariasis

  During surgery, it is important to just circumcise the membranes instead of delaminating or peeling them as they tend to me quite adherent. […] There is no established protocol for surgical follow up of toxocariasis patients. […] Prognosis is typically excellent for those patients without sequelae. These cases are mostly self limited or controlled with medical management.

• #48 Toxocariasis – EyeWiki

  https://eyewiki.org/Toxocariasis

  Ocular toxocariasis is a rare infection caused by roundworms, Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati. […] Management includes quieting inflammation, eliminating the offending organism, and repairing vitreoretinal sequelae. […] The use of these drugs is unproven in the case of ocular toxocariasis. There is some support for the use of albendazole or thiabendazole to eradicate the organism. […] Management of this disease focuses on three main points: Minimizing inflammation, Eliminating the offending organism, Addressing vitreal and retinal complications secondary to infection. […] There is no standard protocol for medical follow up specific to ocular toxocariasis. Patients are typically followed as those with other forms of uveitic disease. […] The CDC reports that 25% of patients presenting with new cases of ocular toxocariasis require surgery.

• #49 Toxocariasis Treatment & Management: Medical Care, Surgical Care, Consultations

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229855-treatment

  Chemotherapy is the treatment of choice in most patients with liver, lung, or eye involvement. […] Treatment includes mebendazole, thiabendazole, corticosteroids, and specific organ treatment. The prognosis of toxocariasis is generally favorable. […] A consultation with an ophthalmologist is indicated in cases of ocular larva migrans. […] Consultation with a neurologist is indicated in cases of brain involvement with neurologic symptoms or seizures. […] Consultation with an infectious disease specialist may be indicated when questions exist regarding the indications for and selection of treatment for visceral larva migrans. […] For ocular involvement, monthly or bimonthly funduscopic examinations are recommended, according to the patient’s state of remission. […] In a patient with acute symptoms of toxocariasis (ie, dyspnea, chest tightness) due to lung involvement, hospitalization may be necessary.

• #50 Toxocariasis: Risks, Treatment and Prevention

  https://www.allaboutvision.com/conditions/infections-allergies/toxocariasis/

  For ocular toxocariasis, steroids are the most common form of intervention. […] To prevent vision loss, it is critical to get proper treatment and follow all instructions for your care. […] About 25% of patients with ocular toxocariasis require surgery, either to remove larvae or treat eye problems resulting from the infection. […] The success rate of surgery ranges from 83% to 100%. […] Even though toxocariasis is rare and often harmless, it is important to see your doctor if you or your child experiences any of the symptoms described above. […] Getting your annual comprehensive eye exam is also very important, as it gives your eye doctor the chance to identify any clinical signs that may not cause noticeable symptoms. […] Remember: Ocular toxocariasis can cause vision loss if not diagnosed and treated.

• #51 Toxocariasis – Helminthiases – Parasitic Diseases – Infectious Diseases – Diseases – McMaster Textbook of Internal Medicine

  https://empendium.com/mcmtextbook/chapter/B31.II.18.69.2.

  Toxocariasis is a chronic parasitic zoonosis caused by the larval stage of canine or feline ascarids. The disease involves internal organs and the eye. Humans are accidental intermediate hosts for the parasite. Toxocariasis is epidemiologically one of the most prevalent and ubiquitous human helminth infections across industrialized countries. […] Treatment that includes anthelmintics is advocated for toxocariasis and particularly acute toxocariasis, so as to limit the larvae from reaching the eyes and brain. Specialist consultation is advised. Albendazole and mebendazole are often used. Glucocorticoids (eg, prednisolone) and in some instances ophthalmic surgery are used in more complex infections. […] In the course of albendazole treatment, monitor eosinophilia and blood aminotransferase levels on a regular basis. Treatment should be discontinued if features of liver damage are observed. Fundoscopy should be periodically performed in case of a further decrease of visual acuity. […] Regular deworming of dogs and cats (particularly of young animals), washing of fruits and vegetables prior to consumption, using protective gloves when gardening, removal of dog and cat feces from parks and recreational areas, covering sandboxes to avoid contamination with animal feces.

• #52 Toxocariasis: Risks, Treatment and Prevention

  https://www.allaboutvision.com/conditions/infections-allergies/toxocariasis/

  Toxocariasis may present in three different ways: […] Ocular toxocariasis occurs most often in older children and adults, and in 90% of cases, only one eye is affected. […] Most of the damage to the ocular system is a result of inflammation that happens when the larvae die. Any resulting vision loss depends on the severity and location of the infection. […] This is the systemic presentation that occurs most often in children younger than 3 years. […] Though rare, long-term complications from visceral toxocariasis are possible. […] In the rare instance that the roundworm larvae invade the central nervous system, your brain and spinal cord may be affected. […] If no symptoms are present, no treatment is necessary. But in cases where treatment is needed, the main goals are to: […] To kill roundworms present with visceral toxocariasis, your doctor may prescribe an antiparasitic medication such as albendazole or mebendazole.

• #53 Toxocara – Serology | Public Health Ontario

  https://www.publichealthontario.ca/en/Laboratory-Services/Test-Information-Index/Toxocara-Serology

  This page provides routine serology (antibody) testing information for toxocariasis at Public Health Ontario (PHO). The causative agents of toxocariasis include Toxocara canis (canids definitive hosts) and Toxocara cati (felids definitive hosts). Toxocariasis manifestations include visceral larva migrans (VLM), ocular larva migrans (OLM), and neural larva migrans (NLM). […] Testing is only advised for individuals with compatible exposure history and clinical presentation. Toxocara is found worldwide, particularly in children and young adults, and is usually acquired by ingestion of embryonated eggs from the environment (which requires 1 to 4 weeks in the environment for embryonation) or ingestion of larvae in undercooked paratenic hosts (e.g., beef, lamb, chicken, or duck). […] VLM manifestations depend on the organ affected and may include multiple ill-defined visceral granulomatous lesions on imaging, eosinophilia, urticarial rash, fever, anorexia, hepatitis, pneumonitis, myalgia, or carditis. OLM manifestations may include unilateral granulomatous lesions on fundoscopy, uveitis, retinitis, or endophthalmitis. NLM manifestations may include ill-defined lesions on imaging, eosinophilic meningoencephalitis, myelitis, vasculitis, or radiculitis.

• #54 Toxocara – Serology | Public Health Ontario

  https://www.publichealthontario.ca/en/Laboratory-Services/Test-Information-Index/Toxocara-Serology

  This page provides routine serology (antibody) testing information for toxocariasis at Public Health Ontario (PHO). The causative agents of toxocariasis include Toxocara canis (canids definitive hosts) and Toxocara cati (felids definitive hosts). Toxocariasis manifestations include visceral larva migrans (VLM), ocular larva migrans (OLM), and neural larva migrans (NLM). […] Testing is only advised for individuals with compatible exposure history and clinical presentation. Toxocara is found worldwide, particularly in children and young adults, and is usually acquired by ingestion of embryonated eggs from the environment (which requires 1 to 4 weeks in the environment for embryonation) or ingestion of larvae in undercooked paratenic hosts (e.g., beef, lamb, chicken, or duck). […] VLM manifestations depend on the organ affected and may include multiple ill-defined visceral granulomatous lesions on imaging, eosinophilia, urticarial rash, fever, anorexia, hepatitis, pneumonitis, myalgia, or carditis. OLM manifestations may include unilateral granulomatous lesions on fundoscopy, uveitis, retinitis, or endophthalmitis. NLM manifestations may include ill-defined lesions on imaging, eosinophilic meningoencephalitis, myelitis, vasculitis, or radiculitis.

• #55 Toxocariasis Treatment & Management: Medical Care, Surgical Care, Consultations

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229855-treatment

  Chemotherapy is the treatment of choice in most patients with liver, lung, or eye involvement. […] Treatment includes mebendazole, thiabendazole, corticosteroids, and specific organ treatment. The prognosis of toxocariasis is generally favorable. […] A consultation with an ophthalmologist is indicated in cases of ocular larva migrans. […] Consultation with a neurologist is indicated in cases of brain involvement with neurologic symptoms or seizures. […] Consultation with an infectious disease specialist may be indicated when questions exist regarding the indications for and selection of treatment for visceral larva migrans. […] For ocular involvement, monthly or bimonthly funduscopic examinations are recommended, according to the patient’s state of remission. […] In a patient with acute symptoms of toxocariasis (ie, dyspnea, chest tightness) due to lung involvement, hospitalization may be necessary.

• #56 Toxocariasis – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/nematodes-roundworms/toxocariasis

  Asymptomatic patients and patients with mild visceral larva migrans (VLM) symptoms do not require anthelmintic therapy because infection is usually self-limited. […] For patients with moderate to severe symptoms, albendazole or mebendazole is used, but the optimal duration of therapy has not been determined. […] Corticosteroids are indicated for patients with severe symptoms to reduce inflammation. […] Ophthalmologic expertise is essential in the care of ocular larva migrans (OLM). Corticosteroids, both local and oral, are indicated to reduce inflammation within the eye. […] The role of anthelmintic therapy is uncertain. Albendazole used with corticosteroids may reduce recurrences, but comparative data are not available on the optimal dose and duration of therapy, and there is no evidence that albendazole improves visual outcome. […] For ocular larva migrans, systemic and local corticosteroids, sometimes albendazole, and depending on the circumstances laser therapy, cryotherapy, or surgical procedures.

• #57 Clinical Care of Toxocariasis | Parasites – Toxocariasis | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/toxocariasis/hcp/clinical-care/index.html

  Treat visceral toxocariasis with antiparasitic drugs. […] Treatment of ocular toxocariasis usually consists of measures to prevent eye damage. […] Monitor patients on long-term treatment by serial blood cell counts. […] In addition to antiparasitic therapy, symptomatic therapy including steroid treatment to control inflammation may be indicated. […] For ocular toxocariasis, the goal of treatment is to minimize damage to the eye. […] Control of inflammation in the eye by use of topical or systemic steroids may be indicated. […] Prescribe albendazole only if the potential benefits to the woman justify the potential risks to the fetus. […] Prescribe mebendazole only if the potential benefits to the woman justify the potential risks to the fetus.

• #58 Clinical Care of Toxocariasis | Parasites – Toxocariasis | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/toxocariasis/hcp/clinical-care/index.html

  Treat visceral toxocariasis with antiparasitic drugs. […] Treatment of ocular toxocariasis usually consists of measures to prevent eye damage. […] Monitor patients on long-term treatment by serial blood cell counts. […] In addition to antiparasitic therapy, symptomatic therapy including steroid treatment to control inflammation may be indicated. […] For ocular toxocariasis, the goal of treatment is to minimize damage to the eye. […] Control of inflammation in the eye by use of topical or systemic steroids may be indicated. […] Prescribe albendazole only if the potential benefits to the woman justify the potential risks to the fetus. […] Prescribe mebendazole only if the potential benefits to the woman justify the potential risks to the fetus.

• #59 Comprehensive Control of Toxocariasis in Communities | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/1180844

  With the purpose of understanding the complexity of actions aimed at controlling the main zoonotic soil-transmitted helminthiasis in the world, this book chapter is proposed around the comprehensive control of toxocariasis in urban communities. […] Control strategies will be discussed in the various links of its transmission/infection chain, demonstrating that preventive medicine supported by selective strategic deworming in canines and felines within their various age ranges is the fundamental pillar in the fight against this parasitosis. […] The aim of this book chapter is to provide complementary information to the existing classic information regarding the understanding of the importance of toxocariasis in public health and possible comprehensive control mechanisms of this parasite within urban communities.

• #60 Comprehensive Control of Toxocariasis in Communities | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/1180844

  The education of communities, from their state, governmental, and social leaders to family core, must be sensitized. Topics on zoonotic soil-transmitted helminthiasis, responsible ownership of dogs and cats, collection of feces and its correct disposal, selective strategic deworming for Toxocara in dogs and cats according to their age. […] The biggest problem to control within the life cycle of Toxocara refers to avoiding vertical transmission of the parasite, especially in bitches, which can transmit L3 to their offspring in utero and through the milk. […] Without a doubt, the staging of a vaccine for the prevention and control of Toxocara spp. will be the fundamental pillar of a complete comprehensive plan for toxocariasis. […] The step to follow in integrated control is active epidemiological surveillance. Serial coproparasitological tests in dogs and cats are indicated to evaluate the effectiveness of antiparasitic agents and their frequency of use.

• #61 Roundworms in Small Animals – Digestive System – Merck Veterinary Manual

  https://www.merckvetmanual.com/digestive-system/gastrointestinal-parasites-of-small-animals/roundworms-in-small-animals

  Infections with all roundworms are often subclinical. Disease is most common in young puppies and kittens. The first indication of infection in young animals is lack of growth and loss of condition. Infected animals have a dull coat and often are pot-bellied. Worms may be vomited and are often voided in the feces. Diarrhea with mucus may be evident. […] In dogs, compounds approved for treatment of roundworm infections include fenbendazole, milbemycin, moxidectin, piperazine, and pyrantel. […] Multiple anthelmintics are available for treatment and prevention programs. […] All dogs and cats should be treated preventively for roundworms.

• #62 Comprehensive Control of Toxocariasis in Communities | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/1180844

  The current guidelines of associations, the European Scientific Counsel of Companion Animal Parasites (ESCCAP), the Tropical Council for Companion Animal Parasites (TroCCAP), and the Companion Animal Parasite Council (CAPC) recommend serial anthelmintic treatment. […] These deworming times are subject to: 1. Transplacentally parasitized puppies from 14 days of age begin to eliminate eggs through their feces. […] Although it is not common to find effective disinfectants in the control of Toxocara eggs spread throughout the environment, in homes where there are puppies or/and kittens, there must be hygiene protocols for common family areas to which these animals have access. […] This initial activity is vital to stop high loads of embryonated eggs in the environment of the urban community, in addition to reducing risks of contamination of spaces within homes where puppies and kittens are present. […] The current guidelines of associations, the European Scientific Counsel of Companion Animal Parasites (ESCCAP), the Tropical Council for Companion Animal Parasites (TroCCAP), and the Companion Animal Parasite Council (CAPC) recommend serial anthelmintic treatment.

• #63 Comprehensive Control of Toxocariasis in Communities | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/1180844

  The current guidelines of associations, the European Scientific Counsel of Companion Animal Parasites (ESCCAP), the Tropical Council for Companion Animal Parasites (TroCCAP), and the Companion Animal Parasite Council (CAPC) recommend serial anthelmintic treatment. […] These deworming times are subject to: 1. Transplacentally parasitized puppies from 14 days of age begin to eliminate eggs through their feces. […] Although it is not common to find effective disinfectants in the control of Toxocara eggs spread throughout the environment, in homes where there are puppies or/and kittens, there must be hygiene protocols for common family areas to which these animals have access. […] This initial activity is vital to stop high loads of embryonated eggs in the environment of the urban community, in addition to reducing risks of contamination of spaces within homes where puppies and kittens are present. […] The current guidelines of associations, the European Scientific Counsel of Companion Animal Parasites (ESCCAP), the Tropical Council for Companion Animal Parasites (TroCCAP), and the Companion Animal Parasite Council (CAPC) recommend serial anthelmintic treatment.

• #64

  https://www.vin.com/apputil/content/defaultadv1.aspx?pId=11196&meta=generic&catId=30753&id=3854131&ind=270&objTypeID=17

  For adult female dogs it is advisable to have periodic treatments at least every six months in order to prevent transplacentally and lactogenic transmission using drugs able to eliminate the worms (specially macrocyclic lactones). […] In human beings the hygiene aspect must be considered, specially in children in their play yards, meaning hand washing, in order to eliminate contamination, stray animal contact must be avoided and the owned pets must be kept dewormed. General population must know the infectious status in order to be cautious so the health committee and small animal clinicians should give the proper information.

• #65 Comprehensive Control of Toxocariasis in Communities | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/1180844

  The education of communities, from their state, governmental, and social leaders to family core, must be sensitized. Topics on zoonotic soil-transmitted helminthiasis, responsible ownership of dogs and cats, collection of feces and its correct disposal, selective strategic deworming for Toxocara in dogs and cats according to their age. […] The biggest problem to control within the life cycle of Toxocara refers to avoiding vertical transmission of the parasite, especially in bitches, which can transmit L3 to their offspring in utero and through the milk. […] Without a doubt, the staging of a vaccine for the prevention and control of Toxocara spp. will be the fundamental pillar of a complete comprehensive plan for toxocariasis. […] The step to follow in integrated control is active epidemiological surveillance. Serial coproparasitological tests in dogs and cats are indicated to evaluate the effectiveness of antiparasitic agents and their frequency of use.

• #66 Toxocariasis | Rady Children’s Hospital

  https://www.rchsd.org/health-article/toxocariasis/

  Toxocariasis (tox-oh-keh-RYE-eh-sis) is a human infection caused by a type of worm that can live in the intestines of dogs and cats. It is most common in young children and pet owners, but anyone can get it. […] A child with mild symptoms might not need treatment because the infection will go away on its own when the larvae die. Kids with symptoms that affect the lungs, eye, or other important organs may be treated with anti-parasite drugs that will kill the larvae. […] To help protect your kids from exposure to the eggs or larvae that cause toxocariasis: Take your pets to the veterinarian to be dewormed, especially puppies younger than 6 months old. Clean and disinfect your pets living area often and wash your hands well after. Everyone in the family should wash their hands well after playing with pets or other animals, after playing outside, and before touching or eating food. Teach young children not to put dirty hands in their mouth and not to eat dirt or soil. Keep kids away from areas with pet and animal poop. If you have a sandbox, keep pets away from it and cover it when its not in use. Wash, peel, or cook all fruits and vegetables before eating them. Cook meat well before eating it.

• #67 Toxocariasis | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/toxocariasis

  The mainstay of treatment includes anthelmintics (eg, albendazole, mebendazole or tiabendazole) and anti-inflammatory drugs. These drugs are used to achieve a clinical resolution or to reduce the damage caused by larval migration to various organs, particularly the brain and eyes. […] Most patients recover without treatment. […] Anthelmintics. Albendazole or mebendazole are usually used in advanced or highly symptomatic cases or where there is organ damage. […] Corticosteroids play a role in suppressing intense allergic manifestations of the disease. […] Surgical intervention may be required. […] Corticosteroids have an important role. […] In the ocular form, outcome is variable but uniocular visual loss is not uncommon. […] In the visceral form, outcome is usually good but marked organ damage and even death can occur in extreme cases. […] Removal of pet faeces (’poop scoops’, bins, and enforcement fines). […] Personal hygiene. […] Wearing gloves when gardening. […] Vegetables to be eaten raw should be washed. […] Regular worming of pets, especially puppies.

• #68 Toxocariasis | Rady Children’s Hospital

  https://www.rchsd.org/health-article/toxocariasis/

  Toxocariasis (tox-oh-keh-RYE-eh-sis) is a human infection caused by a type of worm that can live in the intestines of dogs and cats. It is most common in young children and pet owners, but anyone can get it. […] A child with mild symptoms might not need treatment because the infection will go away on its own when the larvae die. Kids with symptoms that affect the lungs, eye, or other important organs may be treated with anti-parasite drugs that will kill the larvae. […] To help protect your kids from exposure to the eggs or larvae that cause toxocariasis: Take your pets to the veterinarian to be dewormed, especially puppies younger than 6 months old. Clean and disinfect your pets living area often and wash your hands well after. Everyone in the family should wash their hands well after playing with pets or other animals, after playing outside, and before touching or eating food. Teach young children not to put dirty hands in their mouth and not to eat dirt or soil. Keep kids away from areas with pet and animal poop. If you have a sandbox, keep pets away from it and cover it when its not in use. Wash, peel, or cook all fruits and vegetables before eating them. Cook meat well before eating it.

• #69 Toxocariasis | Rady Children’s Hospital

  https://www.rchsd.org/health-article/toxocariasis/

  Toxocariasis (tox-oh-keh-RYE-eh-sis) is a human infection caused by a type of worm that can live in the intestines of dogs and cats. It is most common in young children and pet owners, but anyone can get it. […] A child with mild symptoms might not need treatment because the infection will go away on its own when the larvae die. Kids with symptoms that affect the lungs, eye, or other important organs may be treated with anti-parasite drugs that will kill the larvae. […] To help protect your kids from exposure to the eggs or larvae that cause toxocariasis: Take your pets to the veterinarian to be dewormed, especially puppies younger than 6 months old. Clean and disinfect your pets living area often and wash your hands well after. Everyone in the family should wash their hands well after playing with pets or other animals, after playing outside, and before touching or eating food. Teach young children not to put dirty hands in their mouth and not to eat dirt or soil. Keep kids away from areas with pet and animal poop. If you have a sandbox, keep pets away from it and cover it when its not in use. Wash, peel, or cook all fruits and vegetables before eating them. Cook meat well before eating it.

• #70

  https://www.vin.com/apputil/content/defaultadv1.aspx?pId=11196&meta=generic&catId=30753&id=3854131&ind=270&objTypeID=17

  For adult female dogs it is advisable to have periodic treatments at least every six months in order to prevent transplacentally and lactogenic transmission using drugs able to eliminate the worms (specially macrocyclic lactones). […] In human beings the hygiene aspect must be considered, specially in children in their play yards, meaning hand washing, in order to eliminate contamination, stray animal contact must be avoided and the owned pets must be kept dewormed. General population must know the infectious status in order to be cautious so the health committee and small animal clinicians should give the proper information.

• #71 Comprehensive Control of Toxocariasis in Communities | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/1180844

  The current guidelines of associations, the European Scientific Counsel of Companion Animal Parasites (ESCCAP), the Tropical Council for Companion Animal Parasites (TroCCAP), and the Companion Animal Parasite Council (CAPC) recommend serial anthelmintic treatment. […] These deworming times are subject to: 1. Transplacentally parasitized puppies from 14 days of age begin to eliminate eggs through their feces. […] Although it is not common to find effective disinfectants in the control of Toxocara eggs spread throughout the environment, in homes where there are puppies or/and kittens, there must be hygiene protocols for common family areas to which these animals have access. […] This initial activity is vital to stop high loads of embryonated eggs in the environment of the urban community, in addition to reducing risks of contamination of spaces within homes where puppies and kittens are present. […] The current guidelines of associations, the European Scientific Counsel of Companion Animal Parasites (ESCCAP), the Tropical Council for Companion Animal Parasites (TroCCAP), and the Companion Animal Parasite Council (CAPC) recommend serial anthelmintic treatment.

• #72 CDC – Toxocariasis – General Information

  http://medbox.iiab.me/modules/en-cdc/www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxocariasis/gen_info/faqs.html

  Toxocariasis is an infection transmitted from animals to humans (zoonosis) caused by the parasitic roundworms commonly found in the intestine of dogs (Toxocara canis) and cats (T. cati). […] Visceral toxocariasis is treated with antiparasitic drugs. Treatment of ocular toxocariasis is more difficult and usually consists of measures to prevent progressive damage to the eye. […] See your health care provider to discuss the possibility of infection and, if necessary, to be examined. Your provider may take a sample of your blood for testing. […] Take your pets to the veterinarian to prevent infection with Toxocara. Your veterinarian can recommend a testing and treatment plan for deworming. […] Teach children the importance of washing hands to prevent infection. […] Do not allow children to play in areas that are soiled with pet or other animal feces. […] Clean your pet’s living area at least once a week. Feces should be either buried or bagged and disposed of in the trash. Wash your hands after handling pet waste.

• #73 CDC – Toxocariasis – General Information

  http://medbox.iiab.me/modules/en-cdc/www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxocariasis/gen_info/faqs.html

  Toxocariasis is an infection transmitted from animals to humans (zoonosis) caused by the parasitic roundworms commonly found in the intestine of dogs (Toxocara canis) and cats (T. cati). […] Visceral toxocariasis is treated with antiparasitic drugs. Treatment of ocular toxocariasis is more difficult and usually consists of measures to prevent progressive damage to the eye. […] See your health care provider to discuss the possibility of infection and, if necessary, to be examined. Your provider may take a sample of your blood for testing. […] Take your pets to the veterinarian to prevent infection with Toxocara. Your veterinarian can recommend a testing and treatment plan for deworming. […] Teach children the importance of washing hands to prevent infection. […] Do not allow children to play in areas that are soiled with pet or other animal feces. […] Clean your pet’s living area at least once a week. Feces should be either buried or bagged and disposed of in the trash. Wash your hands after handling pet waste.

• #74 Toxocariasis | Rady Children’s Hospital

  https://www.rchsd.org/health-article/toxocariasis/

  Toxocariasis (tox-oh-keh-RYE-eh-sis) is a human infection caused by a type of worm that can live in the intestines of dogs and cats. It is most common in young children and pet owners, but anyone can get it. […] A child with mild symptoms might not need treatment because the infection will go away on its own when the larvae die. Kids with symptoms that affect the lungs, eye, or other important organs may be treated with anti-parasite drugs that will kill the larvae. […] To help protect your kids from exposure to the eggs or larvae that cause toxocariasis: Take your pets to the veterinarian to be dewormed, especially puppies younger than 6 months old. Clean and disinfect your pets living area often and wash your hands well after. Everyone in the family should wash their hands well after playing with pets or other animals, after playing outside, and before touching or eating food. Teach young children not to put dirty hands in their mouth and not to eat dirt or soil. Keep kids away from areas with pet and animal poop. If you have a sandbox, keep pets away from it and cover it when its not in use. Wash, peel, or cook all fruits and vegetables before eating them. Cook meat well before eating it.

• #75 CDC – Toxocariasis – General Information

  http://medbox.iiab.me/modules/en-cdc/www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxocariasis/gen_info/faqs.html

  Toxocariasis is an infection transmitted from animals to humans (zoonosis) caused by the parasitic roundworms commonly found in the intestine of dogs (Toxocara canis) and cats (T. cati). […] Visceral toxocariasis is treated with antiparasitic drugs. Treatment of ocular toxocariasis is more difficult and usually consists of measures to prevent progressive damage to the eye. […] See your health care provider to discuss the possibility of infection and, if necessary, to be examined. Your provider may take a sample of your blood for testing. […] Take your pets to the veterinarian to prevent infection with Toxocara. Your veterinarian can recommend a testing and treatment plan for deworming. […] Teach children the importance of washing hands to prevent infection. […] Do not allow children to play in areas that are soiled with pet or other animal feces. […] Clean your pet’s living area at least once a week. Feces should be either buried or bagged and disposed of in the trash. Wash your hands after handling pet waste.

• #76 Toxocariasis | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/toxocariasis

  The mainstay of treatment includes anthelmintics (eg, albendazole, mebendazole or tiabendazole) and anti-inflammatory drugs. These drugs are used to achieve a clinical resolution or to reduce the damage caused by larval migration to various organs, particularly the brain and eyes. […] Most patients recover without treatment. […] Anthelmintics. Albendazole or mebendazole are usually used in advanced or highly symptomatic cases or where there is organ damage. […] Corticosteroids play a role in suppressing intense allergic manifestations of the disease. […] Surgical intervention may be required. […] Corticosteroids have an important role. […] In the ocular form, outcome is variable but uniocular visual loss is not uncommon. […] In the visceral form, outcome is usually good but marked organ damage and even death can occur in extreme cases. […] Removal of pet faeces (’poop scoops’, bins, and enforcement fines). […] Personal hygiene. […] Wearing gloves when gardening. […] Vegetables to be eaten raw should be washed. […] Regular worming of pets, especially puppies.

• #77 Toxocariasis | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/toxocariasis

  The mainstay of treatment includes anthelmintics (eg, albendazole, mebendazole or tiabendazole) and anti-inflammatory drugs. These drugs are used to achieve a clinical resolution or to reduce the damage caused by larval migration to various organs, particularly the brain and eyes. […] Most patients recover without treatment. […] Anthelmintics. Albendazole or mebendazole are usually used in advanced or highly symptomatic cases or where there is organ damage. […] Corticosteroids play a role in suppressing intense allergic manifestations of the disease. […] Surgical intervention may be required. […] Corticosteroids have an important role. […] In the ocular form, outcome is variable but uniocular visual loss is not uncommon. […] In the visceral form, outcome is usually good but marked organ damage and even death can occur in extreme cases. […] Removal of pet faeces (’poop scoops’, bins, and enforcement fines). […] Personal hygiene. […] Wearing gloves when gardening. […] Vegetables to be eaten raw should be washed. […] Regular worming of pets, especially puppies.

• #78 Toxocariasis | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/toxocariasis

  The mainstay of treatment includes anthelmintics (eg, albendazole, mebendazole or tiabendazole) and anti-inflammatory drugs. These drugs are used to achieve a clinical resolution or to reduce the damage caused by larval migration to various organs, particularly the brain and eyes. […] Most patients recover without treatment. […] Anthelmintics. Albendazole or mebendazole are usually used in advanced or highly symptomatic cases or where there is organ damage. […] Corticosteroids play a role in suppressing intense allergic manifestations of the disease. […] Surgical intervention may be required. […] Corticosteroids have an important role. […] In the ocular form, outcome is variable but uniocular visual loss is not uncommon. […] In the visceral form, outcome is usually good but marked organ damage and even death can occur in extreme cases. […] Removal of pet faeces (’poop scoops’, bins, and enforcement fines). […] Personal hygiene. […] Wearing gloves when gardening. […] Vegetables to be eaten raw should be washed. […] Regular worming of pets, especially puppies.

• #79 EPIDEMIOLOGY

  https://www.aao.org/education/topic-detail/ocular-toxocariasis-asia-pacific

  Ocular toxocariasis is an uncommon disease that affects mostly children and young adults, resulting in significant vision loss. […] Medical and surgical therapies are used to treat this condition. The goal of treatment is foremost vision preservation, as the prognosis for visual recovery is typically guarded. […] First-line treatment: 5-day course of albendazole (10 mg/kg/day). […] If inflammation persists and the disease appears to be progressing, surgical therapy should be considered. […] Visual acuity recovery is directly related to the anatomical location of the lesions, the degree of retinal detachment, and compromise of the photoreceptors, external limiting membrane, and optic nerve. Vision loss can therefore be variable, from mild to severe. […] Early treatment should be performed to decrease complications and provide better visual outcomes.

• #80 Toxocariasis – EyeWiki

  https://eyewiki.org/Toxocariasis

  During surgery, it is important to just circumcise the membranes instead of delaminating or peeling them as they tend to me quite adherent. […] There is no established protocol for surgical follow up of toxocariasis patients. […] Prognosis is typically excellent for those patients without sequelae. These cases are mostly self limited or controlled with medical management.

• #81 EPIDEMIOLOGY

  https://www.aao.org/education/topic-detail/ocular-toxocariasis-asia-pacific

  Ocular toxocariasis is an uncommon disease that affects mostly children and young adults, resulting in significant vision loss. […] Medical and surgical therapies are used to treat this condition. The goal of treatment is foremost vision preservation, as the prognosis for visual recovery is typically guarded. […] First-line treatment: 5-day course of albendazole (10 mg/kg/day). […] If inflammation persists and the disease appears to be progressing, surgical therapy should be considered. […] Visual acuity recovery is directly related to the anatomical location of the lesions, the degree of retinal detachment, and compromise of the photoreceptors, external limiting membrane, and optic nerve. Vision loss can therefore be variable, from mild to severe. […] Early treatment should be performed to decrease complications and provide better visual outcomes.

• #82

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00436-011-2772-y

  In the analyzed group of children, the most common complaint was abdominal pain (35% of cases). It is noteworthy that this symptom is by far the most common, though not pathognomonic, symptom of all childhood diseases. Antiparasitic treatment brings relief of this symptom, which confirms the connection between Toxocara infection and abdominal pain in the studied group of children; however, in some children, the symptom persists despite normalization of serological parameters of infection, which necessitates further diagnostics and differentiation. […] In conclusion of the above, constant multispecialistic care of patients with T. canis infection, widening of indications for repeated antiparasitic therapy, and introduction of new diagnostic methods for detection of new cases, apart from widespread prophylactic efforts, may become a crucial element in the prevention of consequences and complications of toxocariasis.

• #83 About Toxocariasis | Toxocariasis | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/toxocariasis/about/index.html

  Most cases of toxocariasis can be treated with drugs. […] Toxocariasis can be hard to diagnose because its symptoms look similar to the symptoms of other infections. […] Most cases of toxocariasis can be treated with drugs that will kill the parasite However, if the parasite has infected an eye, other drugs or surgery may be needed to keep the eye from being damaged.

• #84

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00436-011-2772-y

  Toxocariasis is a helminthozoonotic disease caused by ascarid larvae of Toxocara genus: Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati. In the reported study, the clinical course of toxocariasis and administered therapy were evaluated in 103 children. In all the children, antiparasitic treatment was implemented, repeated several times in some of them. After therapy, the mean titer of specific antibodies, the number of children with abdominal pains and enlarged lymphatic nodes were decreased, while headaches maintained at unchanged levels. Due to risk of ocular form, which may develop in any stage of the disease, irrespectively of specific antibodies concentrations, it seems justified to implement antiparasitic treatment in all children infected with T. canis. […] In all 103 children, antiparasitic treatment was implemented. Some children required repeated courses: Within the analyzed time span in 103 children, 72 were qualified for two courses, 46 for three courses, and 40 for more. Treatment regime was created on an individual basis. The following antihelmintics were used: albendazole (Zentel) for 35 days or albendazole for 3 days and then after 3 weeks mebendazole (Vermox) for 3 days, or 6 days of mebendazole. Albendazole was administered in the dose of 400 mg/day and mebendazole in the dose of 100-200 mg/day. Ocular forms of toxocariasis were treated in cooperation with ophthalmologists, and several courses of treatment were used, i.e., thiabendazole (Mintezol 50 mg/kg/day for 7 days), albendazole, and/or mebendazole in combination with steroids.

• #85 Clinical Care of Toxocariasis | Parasites – Toxocariasis | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/toxocariasis/hcp/clinical-care/index.html

  Treat visceral toxocariasis with antiparasitic drugs. […] Treatment of ocular toxocariasis usually consists of measures to prevent eye damage. […] Monitor patients on long-term treatment by serial blood cell counts. […] In addition to antiparasitic therapy, symptomatic therapy including steroid treatment to control inflammation may be indicated. […] For ocular toxocariasis, the goal of treatment is to minimize damage to the eye. […] Control of inflammation in the eye by use of topical or systemic steroids may be indicated. […] Prescribe albendazole only if the potential benefits to the woman justify the potential risks to the fetus. […] Prescribe mebendazole only if the potential benefits to the woman justify the potential risks to the fetus.

• #86 Toxocariasis Treatment & Management: Medical Care, Surgical Care, Consultations

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229855-treatment

  Chemotherapy is the treatment of choice in most patients with liver, lung, or eye involvement. […] Treatment includes mebendazole, thiabendazole, corticosteroids, and specific organ treatment. The prognosis of toxocariasis is generally favorable. […] A consultation with an ophthalmologist is indicated in cases of ocular larva migrans. […] Consultation with a neurologist is indicated in cases of brain involvement with neurologic symptoms or seizures. […] Consultation with an infectious disease specialist may be indicated when questions exist regarding the indications for and selection of treatment for visceral larva migrans. […] For ocular involvement, monthly or bimonthly funduscopic examinations are recommended, according to the patient’s state of remission. […] In a patient with acute symptoms of toxocariasis (ie, dyspnea, chest tightness) due to lung involvement, hospitalization may be necessary.

• #87 CDC – Toxocariasis – General Information

  http://medbox.iiab.me/modules/en-cdc/www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxocariasis/gen_info/faqs.html

  Toxocariasis is an infection transmitted from animals to humans (zoonosis) caused by the parasitic roundworms commonly found in the intestine of dogs (Toxocara canis) and cats (T. cati). […] Visceral toxocariasis is treated with antiparasitic drugs. Treatment of ocular toxocariasis is more difficult and usually consists of measures to prevent progressive damage to the eye. […] See your health care provider to discuss the possibility of infection and, if necessary, to be examined. Your provider may take a sample of your blood for testing. […] Take your pets to the veterinarian to prevent infection with Toxocara. Your veterinarian can recommend a testing and treatment plan for deworming. […] Teach children the importance of washing hands to prevent infection. […] Do not allow children to play in areas that are soiled with pet or other animal feces. […] Clean your pet’s living area at least once a week. Feces should be either buried or bagged and disposed of in the trash. Wash your hands after handling pet waste.

• #88

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00436-011-2772-y

  In the analyzed group of children, the most common complaint was abdominal pain (35% of cases). It is noteworthy that this symptom is by far the most common, though not pathognomonic, symptom of all childhood diseases. Antiparasitic treatment brings relief of this symptom, which confirms the connection between Toxocara infection and abdominal pain in the studied group of children; however, in some children, the symptom persists despite normalization of serological parameters of infection, which necessitates further diagnostics and differentiation. […] In conclusion of the above, constant multispecialistic care of patients with T. canis infection, widening of indications for repeated antiparasitic therapy, and introduction of new diagnostic methods for detection of new cases, apart from widespread prophylactic efforts, may become a crucial element in the prevention of consequences and complications of toxocariasis.

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