Materiały źródłowe

• #1 The epidemiology and public health importance of toxocariasis: a zoonosis of global importance – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23954435/

  Toxocariasis, caused by infection with larvae of Toxocara canis, and to a lesser extent by Toxocara cati and other ascaridoid species, manifests in humans in a range of clinical syndromes. […] This neglected disease has been shown through seroprevalence studies to be especially prevalent among children from socio-economically disadvantaged populations both in the tropics and sub-tropics and in industrialised nations. […] The development of molecular tools should lead to new and improved strategies for the treatment, diagnosis and control of toxocariasis and the role of other ascaridoid species in the epidemiology of Toxocara spp. […] Increasing human and dog populations, population movements and climate change will all serve to increase the importance of this zoonosis. […] This review examines the transmission, diagnosis and clinical syndromes of toxocariasis, its public health importance, epidemiology, control and current research needs.

• #2 Toxocariasis: a silent threat with a progressive public health impact | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text

  https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-018-0437-0

  Toxocariasis is a neglected parasitic zoonosis that afflicts millions of the pediatric and adolescent populations worldwide, especially in impoverished communities. […] Over the past two decades, we have come far in our understanding of the biology and epidemiology of toxocariasis. However, lack of laboratory infrastructure in some countries, lack of uniform case definitions and limited surveillance infrastructure are some of the challenges that hindered the estimation of global disease burden. […] The first human infection was reported in 1950, and since then it has been reported in almost 100 countries. […] Over the last few years, toxocariasis has gained an increasing international attention and was listed among the five most neglected parasitic infections according to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

• #2 Toxocariasis: a silent threat with a progressive public health impact | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text

  https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-018-0437-0

  Several seroepidemiological features of human toxocariasis are shown in Additional file 2: Table S2. Some risk factors of toxocariasis, such as gender, age, households design and construction material, and the presence of domestic animals, have been identified. However, current knowledge of important epidemiological features of toxocariasis, such as the global burden of the disease, disability-adjusted life years, and populations at risk, are still to be determined. […] Since many infections are asymptomatic and thus can be misdiagnosed, the global burden of toxocariasis is likely to have been underestimated. […] To improve consistency of the results obtained from prevalence surveys, future studies should consider using standardized diagnostic criteria and should be performed by trained clinicians who can apply a standardized set of toxocariasis case definitions.

• #2 Toxocariasis: a silent threat with a progressive public health impact | Infectious Diseases of Poverty | Full Text

  https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-018-0437-0

  The rapid increase in the number of dogs and cats, especially uncontrolled feral and stray populations and their close proximity to humans, has increased the risk of human infection with Toxocara. […] The lack of an effective method to kill Toxocara eggs makes it impossible to eradicate this parasite from the environment. […] Therefore, strategies for preventing infection should include measures to prevent initial contamination of the environment. […] Despite extraordinary progress during the past two decades, toxocariasis continues to pose a significant challenge to the public health. This challenge includes a need for continued surveillance to better define the burden of toxocariasis, which requires timely, efficient diagnosis.

• #3 Toxocariasis: Visceral and ocular larva migrans – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/toxocariasis-visceral-and-ocular-larva-migrans

  Toxocariasis occurs globally; approximately 1.4 billion people are infected worldwide. […] Infection tends to occur more frequently in tropical regions with high humidity than in temperate regions, more frequently among rural populations with inadequate water supply and poor housing than among urban populations, and more commonly in areas affected by poverty. […] Because most infections are subclinical, data on the prevalence of toxocariasis are based on serologic testing.

• #4 Comprehensive Control of Toxocariasis in Communities | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/1180844

  The aim of this book chapter is to provide complementary information to the existing classic information regarding the understanding of the importance of toxocariasis in public health and possible comprehensive control mechanisms of this parasite within urban communities. […] Today, even though there are indicators of approximately 1.4 billion people exposed or infected by Toxocara spp., toxocariasis remains an underdiagnosed parasitic disease, with underestimated epidemiological rates, as well as the real impact of this pathology on global public health. […] The perpetuity of Toxocara spp. in urban communities, even in developed countries, is strengthened, due to the apparent broad geographic distribution of Toxocara and multiple transmission routes indicating that toxocariasis is a common helminth infection in humans.

• #4 Comprehensive Control of Toxocariasis in Communities | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/1180844

  This situation, in the case of dogs, is serious, due to the 100% risk of being born with T. canis infections. […] To close (strengthen) this cycle of perpetuity, toxocariasis is a neglected disease, a situation where governments do not specifically invest in its study and control. […] The biggest problem to control within the life cycle of Toxocara refers to avoiding vertical transmission of the parasite, especially in bitches, which can transmit L3 to their offspring in utero and through the milk. […] The step to follow in integrated control is active epidemiological surveillance. […] Monitoring the effectiveness of deworming through preventive coproparasitology carried out two to four times a year for puppies or kittens (1 year old) and once or twice per year for dogs and cats (older than 1 year).

• #4 Comprehensive Control of Toxocariasis in Communities | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/1180844

  Without a doubt, the staging of a vaccine for the prevention and control of Toxocara spp. will be the fundamental pillar of a complete comprehensive plan for toxocariasis. […] In conclusion, without academic training that guarantees improving their economic income, it is highly likely that they will exacerbate/perpetuate their states of poverty. […] This situation of hopelessnesslack of interest in working on the knowledge, status, and control of this type of diseases that afflict multiple people determines that they are called neglected diseases.

• #5 Toxocariasis: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229855-overview

  Toxocariasis is a worldwide infection. Seroepidemiological surveys show a 2-5% positive rate in healthy adults from urban Western countries and 14.2-37% in rural areas. In tropical countries, surveys show a positive rate of 63.2% in Bali, 86% in Saint Lucia (West Indies), and 92.8% in La Reunion (French Overseas Territories, Indian Ocean). […] CDC studies have shown that transmission of Toxocara larvae is most common in young children and persons younger than 20 years. Toxocariasis is predominantly a disease of children, typically those aged 2-7 years. Ocular toxocariasis is most common in older children and young adults.

• #5 Toxocariasis: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229855-overview

  In the United States, about 10,000 cases of Toxocara infection are reported in humans each year. Almost 14% of the US population is infected with Toxocara, a parasite of dogs and cats that can be passed from animals to humans. In Cleveland, Ohio, the prevalence of T canis infection in the cohort ages 2, 3, and 4-10 years was 2%, 12%, and 12%, respectively. […] The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported on human ocular toxocariasis from 2009 through 2010. They described the results of a Web-based survey distributed to uveitis, retinal, and pediatric ophthalmologic specialists from around the United States. Epidemiologic, demographic, and clinical information was collected on 68 patients. Among the 44 patients, the median patient age was 8.5 years (range, 1-60 y) and 25 patients (57%) lived in the South at the time of diagnosis.

• #6 Toxocariasis – wikidoc

  https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Toxocariasis

  Toxocariasis occurs around the world. Epidemiologic surveys show a 2-5% positive rate in healthy adults from urban Western countries and 14.2-37% in rural areas. […] In tropical countries, surveys show a positive rate of 63.2% in Bali, 86% in Saint Lucia, and 92.8% in Runion. […] Toxocariasis is most commonly a disease of children, typically children aged 2-7 years.

• #7 Toxocariasis | EBSCO Research Starters

  https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/health-and-medicine/toxocariasis

  Toxocariasis is an infection caused by ingesting the eggs of nematode worms commonly found in dogs (Toxocara canis) and cats (Toxocara cati). […] As over 10,000 cases are reported annually in the United States, raising awareness about prevention and symptoms is crucial. […] In the United States (US), more than 10,000 toxocariasis infections are reported annually. Almost 14 percent of the US population is infected with the Toxocara parasite at any given time. […] The risk of ingesting Toxocara eggs increases for people who live with or work with dogs or cats or who eat without thoroughly washing their hands after touching potentially contaminated soil or sand in a park, yard, or playground. […] Most cases of toxocariasis go undiagnosed and do not cause problems or symptoms; however, cases are occasionally diagnosed during routine eye exams or through X-rays taken to diagnose other issues. […] Toxocariasis can be prevented by keeping Toxocara eggs from entering the body by practicing good handwashing technique and by avoiding touching ones face and mouth area with contaminated hands.

• #8 EPIDEMIOLOGY

  https://www.aao.org/education/topic-detail/ocular-toxocariasis-asia-pacific

  Toxocariasis is one of the most prevalent zoonotic infections worldwide, but the majority of cases occur where dogs and cats (often household pets) are kept in close proximity to humans. […] Ocular toxocariasis is more prevalent in warmer climates because development of infectious Toxocara eggs occurs above 50F (10C). […] The seroprevalence of Toxocara infection has been estimated to be 4%31% in developed countries. In tropical regions, where environmental conditions favor the transmission of geohelminths, it has been reported to be as high as 76% (Fan et al). […] Despite the high prevalence of Toxocara infections in some areas, little epidemiological information exists on the prevalence of ocular toxocariasis.

• #9 Toxocariasis: Clinical Aspects, Epidemiology, Medical Ecology, and Molecular Aspects

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC153144/

  T. canis and T. cati, as alluded to, are unfortunately all too common parasites of most domestic and peridomestic dogs and cats, particularly young ones. Even those sold through reliable kennels and pet shops may harbor adult worms. This is because, as stated in the section dealing with its life cycle, puppies and kittens acquire Toxocara juveniles transplacentally from the infected mother. Therefore, having a litter of puppies in the home has been identified as a significant risk factor. […] As expected, children with pica are at higher risk of ingesting embryonated eggs from soil than those not exhibiting this behavior. Growing up in a poor neighborhood is associated with a higher rate of seropositivity for toxocariasis than is being raised in middle-income bracket housing. […] Outdoor parks in urban and suburban settings are, in most cases, highly contaminated with embryonated eggs of T. canis and T. cati, since it is in this environment that people routinely walk their pets. Burgeoning populations of urban, semiwild cats and dogs represent a growing problem in many tropical and subtropical regions and most likely contribute in a major way to the maintenance of high levels of Toxocara eggs in the environment. It should be added that an increased incidence of rabies is also associated with urban and suburban cohorts of abandoned dogs. Adult patients institutionalized for mental retardation are also at high risk.

• #9 Toxocariasis: Clinical Aspects, Epidemiology, Medical Ecology, and Molecular Aspects

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC153144/

  Veterinarians continue to play an important role in combating the spread of Toxocara infection in situations where they see large numbers of dogs and cats that are brought to them by pet owners. Recommending regular stool examinations and the frequent use of chemotherapeutic agents such as mebendazole has proven effective in controlling infection.

• #9 Toxocariasis: Clinical Aspects, Epidemiology, Medical Ecology, and Molecular Aspects

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC153144/

  Preventing the indiscriminate deposition of dog and cat feces in play areas frequented by children appears to be the best control strategy for limiting infection in adolescent populations in large urban centers. In one study in Japan, placing clear vinyl plastic covers over sandboxes at night seemed to effectively discourage pets from using them as fecal dump zones. In addition, during the summer months, temperatures within the sand often rose above 45C, a condition created by covering them over at night. The authors speculated that this might render the play area safe for use with respect to Toxocara. […] Routine treatment of nonferal dogs and cats with ivermectin, mebendazole, or other related benzimidazoles is another available measure which may prove effective in certain settings to limit the spread of this resilient group of parasites. Some cities have solved the dilemma associated with the use of sandboxes by eliminating them from municipal parks and playgrounds.

• #10 Prevalence of Toxocara and Toxascaris infection among human and animals in Iran with meta-analysis approach | BMC Infectious Diseases | Full Text

  https://bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12879-020-4759-8

  In an epidemiological perspective, animal hosts parasitized by adult worms in their gut can disseminate infection by shedding parasite eggs into environment. Human infection occurs by accidental ingestion of eggs, and, to a lesser extent, via pica and devouring on the paratenic hosts, including chicken, cattle, lamb, pig, and earthworms. […] The current systematic review and meta-analysis was aimed to elucidate the prevalence of Toxocara spp. infection in animal and human hosts in Iran. The human infection was highly concentrated in two northern provinces (Mazandaran and East Azerbaijan), highlighting optimum geo-ecological milieu in those parts of the country because of high percentage humidity due to vicinity to the Caspian Sea as well as considerable rainfall during the year; notwithstanding, we didn’t found any statistically significant correlation between human Toxocara/Toxascaris seroprevalence studies and geographical parameters comprising mean temperature, humidity, longitude and latitude.

• #10 Prevalence of Toxocara and Toxascaris infection among human and animals in Iran with meta-analysis approach | BMC Infectious Diseases | Full Text

  https://bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12879-020-4759-8

  Toxocariasis is a worldwide zoonotic parasitic disease caused by species of Toxocara and Toxascaris, common in dogs and cats. Herein, a meta-analysis was contrived to assess the prevalence of Toxocara/Toxascaris in carnivore and human hosts in different regions of Iran from April 1969 to June 2019. The weighted prevalence of Toxocara/Toxascaris in dogs (Canis familiaris) and cats (Felis catus) was 24.2% (95% CI: 18.0-31.0%) and 32.6% (95% CI: 22.6-43.4%), respectively. Also, pooled prevalence in jackal (Canis aureus) and red fox (Vulpes vulpes) was 23.3% (95% CI: 7.7-43.2%) and 69.4% (95% CI: 60.3-77.8%), correspondingly. Weighted mean prevalence of human cases with overall 28 records was 9.3% (95% CI: 6.3-13.1%). The weighted prevalence of Toxocara canis, Toxocara cati, and Toxascaris leonina was represented as 13.8% (95% CI: 9.8-18.3%), 28.5% (95% CI: 20-37.7%) and 14.3% (95% CI: 8.1-22.0%), respectively. Our meta-analysis results illustrate a considerable prevalence rate of Toxocara/Toxascaris, particularly in cats and dogs of northern parts of Iran. The presence of suitable animal hosts, optimum climate and close contact of humans and animals would have been the reason for higher seroprevalence rates of human cases in our region. Given the significance clinical outcomes of human Toxocara/Toxascaris, necessary measures should be taken.

• #11 Knowledge gaps in the epidemiology of Toxocara: the enigma remains | Parasitology | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/parasitology/article/knowledge-gaps-in-the-epidemiology-of-toxocara-the-enigma-remains/F748E687BF4F5EAE712532D2ED4777F4

  Despite this increasing awareness, I contend that there remain significant gaps in our knowledge of fundamental aspects of the epidemiology of toxocariasis and these gaps hinder our ability to establish a more complete understanding of the parasite and the disease it causes, its relative public health significance and how best to prevent and control parasite transmission, infection and disease. […] There are, therefore, four key epidemiological reservoirs of Toxocara: intestinal infections in definitive hosts (dogs, cats and foxes), eggs in the environment, larvae in paratenic hosts and somatic larvae in the definitive host. […] However, as revealed by high levels of seroprevalence in humans, especially in tropical and subtropical regions and among the disadvantaged, it is clear that such an approach is not being implemented in a sufficiently rigorous manner to reduce exposure successfully.

• #11 Knowledge gaps in the epidemiology of Toxocara: the enigma remains | Parasitology | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/parasitology/article/knowledge-gaps-in-the-epidemiology-of-toxocara-the-enigma-remains/F748E687BF4F5EAE712532D2ED4777F4

  The most significant observation that emerges from the work undertaken so far is the very low numbers of embryonated eggs detected on host hair. […] However, the presence of Toxocara eggs on the hair of foxes is unlikely to be of any epidemiological significance to humans, comparative data from stray dogs and foxes do provide a possible insight into the epidemiology of Toxocara eggs on the hair of dogs. […] There is significant variation in seroprevalence values worldwide and a number of potentially confounding factors that may influence the observed values. […] A major gap in our understanding of the epidemiology of human toxocariasis is our persistent inability to distinguish exposure to T. canis vs T. cati using serological methods. […] However, the relationships between these clinical entities and specific symptoms or clinical features are not well understood particularly because of the non-specific nature of most of symptoms.

• #11 Knowledge gaps in the epidemiology of Toxocara: the enigma remains | Parasitology | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/parasitology/article/knowledge-gaps-in-the-epidemiology-of-toxocara-the-enigma-remains/F748E687BF4F5EAE712532D2ED4777F4

  In a significant departure in terms of scale, a number of investigators have taken advantage of the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), which is a nationally representative cross-sectional survey of over 33,000 people. […] The authors highlighted that the striking differences in seroprevalence could be used to target health education messages. […] A number of recent observations have increased our awareness of the public health significance of toxocariasis. […] However, in order to move Toxocara up the public health agenda in organizations such as the WHO, greater scientific integration is required in order to understand the complex epidemiology of this enigmatic parasite and the disease it causes. […] The one health approach provides an ideal framework as veterinarians, medical clinicians (including ophthalmologists), parasite epidemiologists, environmental health experts and wildlife biologists are all required to participate in such an improved integrated research strategy that is essential if we are to achieve a full understanding of the different strands of the epidemiology of Toxocara spp.

• #11 Knowledge gaps in the epidemiology of Toxocara: the enigma remains | Parasitology | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/parasitology/article/knowledge-gaps-in-the-epidemiology-of-toxocara-the-enigma-remains/F748E687BF4F5EAE712532D2ED4777F4

  Reducing infection in domestic animals such as dogs and cats underlines the key front-line role that veterinarians play in the provision of anthelmintic treatment and the education of pet owners and the general public. […] However, this is a challenge because, for the most part, Toxocara infection is not pathogenic in adult dogs and cats and other infections are of greater immediate concern to the clients of veterinarians. […] The prevalence of Toxocara was 46% overall, peaking in 6-12 month-old dogs (78%). […] The authors concluded that owner knowledge was insufficient to expect sound decisions on routine deworming. […] A comprehensive survey of the owners of over 900 household dogs over 6 months of age was conducted with epidemiological data collected on prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites and a detailed questionnaire on risk factors.

• #12

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40475-013-0011-6

  Toxocariasis is caused by the helminth Toxocara spp. Its prevalence is underestimated in many settings and affects primarily children due to their vulnerability. […] Toxocariasis is considered a widely prevalent infection with a worldwide distribution, frequently underreported and thus classified as a neglected parasitic infection. […] The incidence of toxocariasis remains unknown and the prevalence in children is considered to be underestimated. […] Prevalence of toxocariasis ranges from 4.2 to 51.6 % in children in different studies and in different settings, and of 746.3 % in adults. […] The higher frequency of contact with contaminated soil on squares, regardless of season, lawn and sand around the homes showed significant association with toxocariasis. […] Toxocariasis is a parasitic infection with universal distribution but its prevalence is likely underestimated due to a lack of awareness of the impact of this parasitic infection in the community and by its recognition by clinicians.

• #13 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/Preventing-Toxocariasis.aspx

  Because humans live with dogs and cats everywhere in the world, toxocariasis, which is an infection by dog and cat roundworms, is widespread globally. […] A study of toxocariasis prevalence in North America showed that risk factors for infection included pet ownership, poverty, male sex, and African-American race. […] Toxocariasis can also be spread in drinking water. […] Further work is necessary to prevent the spread of toxocariasis. […] A first step would be targeted surveillance and screening programs in vulnerable populations.

• #14 The global prevalence of Toxocara spp. in pediatrics: a systematic review and meta-analysis

  http://www.e-cep.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.3345/cep.2020.01039

  Toxocariasis is a zoonotic parasitic disease caused by Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati in humans. […] The current study aimed to investigate the prevalence of Toxocara spp. in pediatrics in the context of a systematic review and meta-analysis. […] The results of 31 relevant studies indicated that the prevalence of Toxocara spp. was 3%79% in 10,676 cases. The pooled estimate of global prevalence of Toxocara spp. in pediatrics was 30 (95% confidence interval, 22%37%; I2=99.11%; P=0.00). The prevalence was higher in Asian populations than in European, American, and African populations. […] Health policymakers should be more attentive to future research and approaches to Toxocara spp. and other zoonotic diseases to improve culture and identify socioeconomically important factors. […] The results demonstrated that the pooled prevalence of Toxocara in pediatric patients worldwide was 30 (95% CI, 22%37%; I2=99.11%; P=0.00), but since the CI of Egger test did not include zero, a significant bias occurred in the publication of the results (coefficient=11.58; T=4.39; P=0.001; 95% CI, 6.2316.93).

• #15 Epidemiology and Epizootiology of Toxocariasis in the Russian Federation – Entomology and Applied Science Letters

  https://easletters.com/article/epidemiology-and-epizootiology-of-toxocariasis-in-the-russian-federation-d7oozfkmxqqlhhq

  The article provides information on the incidence of toxocariasis in humans and dogs in various regions of the Russian Federation considering their age and gender. […] Toxocariasis is widespread in many countries of the world. It is found in Russia, Europe, Africa, Southeast Asia, and the USA. […] In 2020, 871 cases of human disease were registered (0.59 per 100 thousand population), compared to 2019, the incidence decreased 2.25 times, and since 2011 3.9 times. […] A serious problem in recent years is the incidence of toxocariasis in the population, especially in large cities. […] In 2020, 871 cases of human disease were registered (0.59 per 100 thousand population), compared to 2019, the incidence decreased 2.25 times, and since 2011 3.9 times. […] The purpose of the study is to assess the prevalence of toxocariasis among people with a breakdown by sex and age groups and dogs in the Russian Federation.

• #15 Epidemiology and Epizootiology of Toxocariasis in the Russian Federation – Entomology and Applied Science Letters

  https://easletters.com/article/epidemiology-and-epizootiology-of-toxocariasis-in-the-russian-federation-d7oozfkmxqqlhhq

  The incidence of dogs with toxocariasis in different cities averages 40%, whereas in rural areas it is twice as much, and in some cases reaches 100%, especially in puppies in the first months of life. […] The incidence of toxocariasis is very high due to the large number of dogs and their high infection rate. […] The probability of human contact with T. canis-seeded soil is approximately 15% (for adults). However, it increases sharply in children with geophagia and in adults who traditionally often come into contact with soil seeded with Toxocara eggs. […] Toxocariasis is widespread in several regions and countries in Africa, Southeast Asia, Russia, the USA, and Europe. […] The seropositivity of the population to toxocariasis and the contamination of the soil with Toxocara eggs in the territories of southern Russia are high and do not correlate with the incidence of toxocariasis in the surveyed territories. […] Dogs are one of the main sources of contamination of the soil with Toxocara eggs, which causes a high risk of infection in people and especially children with toxocariasis.

• #16 EPIDEMIOLOGY OF TOXOCARIASIS IN A STEPPE ENVIRONMENT: THE PATAGONIA STUDY in: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Volume 76 Issue 6 (2007)

  https://www.ajtmh.org/abstract/journals/tpmd/76/6/article-p1144.xml

  To investigate the epidemiology of human toxocariasis in a steppe environment, a field survey was carried out in three provinces of Argentina’s Patagonia (Chubut, Neuquen, and Rio Negro) among 114 rural subjects residing in estancias (cattle- or sheep-breeding ranches). Overall seroprevalence was 31.6%, and the contamination rate of soil by Toxocara eggs was 35.1%. […] Multivariate analysis revealed that the seroprevalence rate was found to be inversely correlated with age but was positively linked to De Martonne index. These findings suggest that the harsh climatic conditions existing in Argentina’s Patagonia would inhibit embryonation of eggs in the soil, thus lowering the transmission of human toxocariasis.

• #17 :: JKMS :: Journal of Korean Medical Science

  https://jkms.org/DOIx.php?id=10.3346/jkms.2014.29.12.1618

  There have been numerous reports on the relationship between eosinophilia and toxocariasis. […] A total of 610 healthy people, who visited health check-up (Medicheck, Korea Association of Health Promotion), 310 from Seoul and 300 from Gyeongsangnam-do, were subjected for this study. […] Total antibody positive rate of toxocariasis was 8.7% of the 610 subjects. […] A questionnaire analysis recognized drinking alcohol and smoking as significant risk factors of toxocariasis. […] In conclusion, toxocariasis antibody positive rate is correlated with eosinophil counts. […] The present study recognized overall serum antibody positive rate of human toxocariasis as 8.7% of the healthy subjects in Korea using TCLA ELISA. […] The rate in Gyeongsangnam-do was significantly higher than that in Seoul.

• #18 Pathogen Safety Data Sheets: Infectious Substances – Toxocara canis, Toxocara cati – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/laboratory-biosafety-biosecurity/pathogen-safety-data-sheets-risk-assessment/toxocara-canis-toxocara-cati.html

  EPIDEMIOLOGY: Worldwide, due to human settlement of nearly all landmasses, and prevalence of keeping domesticated animals. Seroprevalence is particularly high in developed countries, especially in rural areas, and also on some tropical islands. […] SURVEILLANCE: Monitor for symptoms. The most commonly utilised diagnostic test is ELISA. Toxocariasis can also be detected by Western blot, PCR, complement-binding reaction, indirect haemagglutinin assay, indirect immunofluorescence, or ophthalmoscopy (for OLM).

• #19

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40475-013-0012-5

  Valid comparison of data between countries is limited by a number of factors, including the lack of standardization of clinical disease definitions, variation in detection methods, and demographic diversity of populations studied. […] Epidemiological studies suggest that the greatest burden of disease is found in socioeconomically disadvantaged children, with links to poor sanitation and hygiene and lack of education.

• #20 Updated evidence of the association between toxocariasis and epilepsy: Systematic review and meta-analysis | PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases

  https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0006665

  The updated meta-analysis provides epidemiological evidence of a positive association between Toxocara seropositivity and epilepsy. […] An accurate estimate of the association between toxocariasis and epilepsy is needed considering that toxocariasis is one of the most common helminthiasis infections worldwide and it is a potentially preventable disease. […] The clinical spectrum of toxocariasis in humans varies from asymptomatic infection to severe organ injury. […] Early epidemiological reports suggested high seropositivity rates for T. canis among people with epilepsy. […] Despite several studies support the possible role of toxocariasis in the incidence of epilepsy, this association is still debated. […] The association is consistent but slightly lower than the previous published meta-analysis (OR 1.92, 95% CI 1.502.44).

• #20 Updated evidence of the association between toxocariasis and epilepsy: Systematic review and meta-analysis | PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases

  https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0006665

  A positive association was constantly reported in the restricted analysis (WB as confirmatory and diagnosis, younger population, and population-based studies). […] This updated study considers more than twice as many cases and controls (2159 PWE and 2581 PWOE) compared to our previous study (850 PWE and 1017 PWOE). […] Statistical significant association between Toxocara spp. seropositivity and epilepsy was found in five surveys. […] A meta-analysis was performed considering the 11 studies included. The overall pooled OR was 1.69 (95% CI 1.422.01) for the association between epilepsy and Toxocara spp. seropositivity. […] The large majority of the surveys were hospital-based studies and only three population-based case-control studies were found. […] The inclusion of volunteers as controls could be another source of bias since volunteers are frequently healthier than the general population.

• #21 Toxocariasis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxocariasis

  Toxocariasis is seen throughout the world. Most cases of toxocariasis are seen in people under the age of twenty. Seroprevalence is higher in developing countries but can be considerable in first world countries, as well. In Bali, St. Lucia, Nepal, and other countries, seroprevalence is over fifty percent. Previous to 2007, the U.S. seroprevalence was thought to be around 5% in children. However, Won et al. discovered that U.S. seroprevalence is 14% for the population at large. In many countries, toxocariasis is considered very rare. Approximately 10,000 clinical cases are seen a year in the U.S., with ten percent being OLM. Permanent vision loss occurs in 700 of these cases. […] Young children are at the greatest risk of infection because they play outside and tend to place contaminated objects and dirt in their mouths. Dog ownership is another known risk factor for transmission. There is also a significant correlation between high Toxocara antibody titers and epilepsy in children.

• #22 Human toxocariasis and atopy | Parasite

  https://www.parasite-journal.org/articles/parasite/full_html/2020/01/parasite200021/parasite200021.html

  Human toxocariasis is a worldwide zoonotic helminthiasis due to infection with the larvae of Toxocara canis or Toxocara cati, roundworms that parasitize canids or felids, respectively. […] In 1994, a first article reported an elevated seroprevalence of toxocariasis in young schoolchildren with allergic asthma. […] Since then, there have been many studies investigating the relationship between this zoonosis and allergy or atopy, including two meta-analyses concerning either allergic asthma or skin allergy. […] The results varied, but a trend emerged from these surveys, suggesting that toxocariasis showed an increased prevalence in atopic patients. […] However, none of these studies investigated the possible modulation by atopy of the clinical and laboratory picture of toxocaral disease.

• #22 Human toxocariasis and atopy | Parasite

  https://www.parasite-journal.org/articles/parasite/full_html/2020/01/parasite200021/parasite200021.html

  Therefore, the aim of the present retrospective study was to compare the clinical and laboratory pictures of active common/covert toxocariasis in atopic and nonatopic patients. […] The MRA results are shown in Table 3. These findings indicate that no clinical or laboratory covariate was found to be associated with atopy in our toxocariasis patients. […] In conclusion, our study suggests that atopy does not influence the clinical and laboratory picture of patients with toxocaral disease, but does not provide any clarification about the reported increased seroprevalence of toxocariasis in atopic subjects.

• #23 SciELO Brazil – Human toxocariasis: a seroepidemiological survey in the Amazonian city of Yurimaguas, Peru Human toxocariasis: a seroepidemiological survey in the Amazonian city of Yurimaguas, Peru

  https://www.scielo.br/j/rimtsp/a/rHnyJWnqBZcHJsXKwYTC79g/

  The high rate for toxocariasis frequency found in this study could be the result of several factors, but doubtless the most important is the social characteristics of the rural neighborhoods from Yurimaguas city, a tropical town with many areas of unpaved streets, deficient in the daily cleaning of them and dogs living on the streets. […] Clinical, serological and epidemiological findings associated to Toxocara infection were observed in the present study. Future studies about soil contamination with Toxocara eggs should be performed to better assess and control the magnitude of this serious health problem, and community education programs should be developed to inform people about zoonotic parasitosis and promote the social concept of responsible pet ownership.

• #24 Ocular Toxocariasis — United States, 2009–2010

  https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6022a2.htm

  Children are especially at risk for infection from exposure to playgrounds and sandboxes contaminated by dog or cat feces. Previous studies of OT in the United States have been conducted within single institutions, with only one multicenter survey performed in 1987 in Alabama, which indicated an estimated statewide prevalence of one per 1,000 persons. […] The survey described in this report was conducted in an effort to better understand the impact of toxocariasis in the United States by collecting information on OT, which is readily diagnosed by clinical presentation. Preventing transmission of Toxocara by good hygiene practices, prompt disposal of pet feces, and routine deworming of pets can reduce the number of children with vision loss caused by OT.

• #25

  https://boris.unibe.ch/188789/

  Toxocariasis remains an important neglected parasitic infection representing one of the most common zoonotic infections caused by the parasite Toxocara canis or, less frequently, by Toxocara cati. […] Even though the World Health Organization and Centers for Disease Control classified toxocariasis amongst the top six parasitic infections of priority to public health, global epidemiological data regarding the relationship between seropositivity and toxocariasis is limited. […] Prevention strategies include educational programs, behavioral and hygienic changes, enhancement of the role of veterinarians, and anthelmintic regimens to control active infections.

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