Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  A pneumothorax is a collection of air outside the lung but within the pleural cavity. It occurs when air accumulates between the parietal and visceral pleura inside the chest. […] Air can enter the pleural space by two mechanisms, either by trauma causing communication through the chest wall or from the lung by rupture of the visceral pleura. There are two types of pneumothorax: traumatic and atraumatic. The two subtypes of atraumatic pneumothorax are primary and secondary. A primary spontaneous pneumothorax (PSP) occurs automatically without a known eliciting event, while a secondary spontaneous pneumothorax (SSP) occurs after an underlying pulmonary disease. A traumatic pneumothorax can be the result of blunt or penetrating trauma. […] Risk factors for primary spontaneous pneumothorax include smoking, tall thin body habitus in an otherwise healthy person, pregnancy, Marfan syndrome, and familial pneumothorax.

• #2 Pneumothorax

  https://www.svhlunghealth.com.au/conditions/pneumothorax

  A pneumothorax is when the lung has collapsed due to air entering the space around your lungs (known as the pleural space). […] Air can enter the pleural space through an opening in your chest wall or in the lung. Air in the pleural space creates an increase in pressure around the lung and causes it to collapse. […] There are four types of pneumothorax. […] Primary spontaneous pneumothorax occurs in young people (aged 15-34) without any history of lung disease. Whilst the cause is not well understood, people at risk include smokers, tall men and those who have had a family member with a pneumothorax. […] Secondary spontaneous pneumothorax typically occurs in people who have pre-existing connective tissue disorders (such as Marfans Syndrome) or lung diseases such as COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), cystic fibrosis, tuberculosis, pneumonia, lung cancer, sarcoidosis, pulmonary fibrosis or cystic lung diseases (such as lymphangioleiomyomatosis – LAM).

• #3 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  A pneumothorax is a collection of air outside the lung but within the pleural cavity. It occurs when air accumulates between the parietal and visceral pleura inside the chest. […] Air can enter the pleural space by two mechanisms, either by trauma causing communication through the chest wall or from the lung by rupture of the visceral pleura. There are two types of pneumothorax: traumatic and atraumatic. The two subtypes of atraumatic pneumothorax are primary and secondary. A primary spontaneous pneumothorax (PSP) occurs automatically without a known eliciting event, while a secondary spontaneous pneumothorax (SSP) occurs after an underlying pulmonary disease. A traumatic pneumothorax can be the result of blunt or penetrating trauma. […] Risk factors for primary spontaneous pneumothorax include smoking, tall thin body habitus in an otherwise healthy person, pregnancy, Marfan syndrome, and familial pneumothorax.

• #4 Spontaneous Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459302/

  Spontaneous pneumothorax occurs without an obvious etiology and can be classified as either primary or secondary. […] Spontaneous pneumothorax occurs without an obvious etiology such as trauma or iatrogenic causes. […] While primary spontaneous pneumothorax is not associated with underlying pulmonary disease, secondary spontaneous pneumothorax is associated with, but not limited to, the following: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Asthma, Cystic fibrosis, Pneumonia (e.g., necrotizing, Pneumocystis jirovecii), Pulmonary abscess, Tuberculosis, Malignancy, Interstitial lung disease (e.g., idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, sarcoidosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis), Connective tissue disease (e.g., Marfan syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis), Pulmonary infarct, Foreign body aspiration, Catamenial (i.e., associated with menses secondary to thoracic endometriosis), Birt-Hogg-Dube syndrome.

• #5 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  A pneumothorax is a collection of air outside the lung but within the pleural cavity. It occurs when air accumulates between the parietal and visceral pleura inside the chest. […] Air can enter the pleural space by two mechanisms, either by trauma causing communication through the chest wall or from the lung by rupture of the visceral pleura. There are two types of pneumothorax: traumatic and atraumatic. The two subtypes of atraumatic pneumothorax are primary and secondary. A primary spontaneous pneumothorax (PSP) occurs automatically without a known eliciting event, while a secondary spontaneous pneumothorax (SSP) occurs after an underlying pulmonary disease. A traumatic pneumothorax can be the result of blunt or penetrating trauma. […] Risk factors for primary spontaneous pneumothorax include smoking, tall thin body habitus in an otherwise healthy person, pregnancy, Marfan syndrome, and familial pneumothorax.

• #6 Pneumothorax in adults: Epidemiology and etiology – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pneumothorax-in-adults-epidemiology-and-etiology

  Pneumothorax in adults: Epidemiology and etiology […] Gas in the pleural space is termed „pneumothorax.” A spontaneous pneumothorax is that which occurs in the absence of an external event. Determining the etiology of pneumothorax dictates immediate and definitive management. Thus, the clinician needs to be familiar with the wide array of etiologies when faced with pneumothorax so that appropriate therapy can be administered promptly to prevent deterioration and recurrence (table 1). […] In this topic review, the epidemiology and etiology of pneumothorax are discussed. Clinical presentation, diagnosis, and treatment of pneumothorax are reviewed in detail elsewhere. […] PRIMARY SPONTANEOUS PNEUMOTHORAX […] Definition — A primary spontaneous pneumothorax (PSP) is traditionally defined as a pneumothorax which presents without a precipitating external event in the absence of clinical lung disease. Although PSP is not associated with known clinical lung disease (eg, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease [COPD]), most affected patients have unrecognized lung abnormalities (mostly subpleural blebs) that likely predispose to pneumothorax. However, following investigation, some patients with apparent PSP may have other more serious underlying lung diseases (eg, Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome, thoracic endometriosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis), thereby recategorizing them as having secondary spontaneous pneumothorax (SSP). Thus, many experts believe that the distinction between pneumothorax in patients „without” lung disease (ie, pneumothorax with subpleural blebs, also known as PSP) and pneumothorax in patients with lung diseases (ie, SSP) is somewhat artificial, and that PSP and SSP may exist on either end of a continuum.

• #7 Aetiology of Primary Spontaneous Pneumothorax

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/11/3/490

  Aetiology of Primary Spontaneous Pneumothorax […] Air in the pleural cavity is termed pneumothorax. When this occurs in the absence of trauma or medical intervention, it is called spontaneous pneumothorax. Primary spontaneous pneumothorax typically occurs in young patients without known lung disease. However, the idea that these patients have “normal” lungs is outdated. This article will review evidence of inflammation and respiratory bronchiolitis on surgical specimens, discuss the identification of emphysema-like change (i.e., blebs and bullae), the concept of pleural porosity and review recent data on the overexpression of matrix metalloproteinases in the lungs of patients who have had pneumothorax. […] Spontaneous pneumothorax occurs in the absence of preceding trauma or iatrogenic injury. Therefore, the air present in the pleural space must have arisen from an abnormal communication between the air-containing alveolar spaces of the lung and the pleura. Spontaneous pneumothoraces are subdivided into primary spontaneous pneumothorax (PSP) that occurs in patient without known lung disease and apparently “normal lungs”; those arising in patients with known underlying lung disease (such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) or pulmonary fibrosis) are called secondary spontaneous pneumothoraces (SSP). In PSP, the exact pathogenesis of the abnormal communication between alveoli and pleura is not clear.

• #8 Pneumothorax in adults: Epidemiology and etiology – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pneumothorax-in-adults-epidemiology-and-etiology

  Pneumothorax in adults: Epidemiology and etiology […] Gas in the pleural space is termed „pneumothorax.” A spontaneous pneumothorax is that which occurs in the absence of an external event. Determining the etiology of pneumothorax dictates immediate and definitive management. Thus, the clinician needs to be familiar with the wide array of etiologies when faced with pneumothorax so that appropriate therapy can be administered promptly to prevent deterioration and recurrence (table 1). […] In this topic review, the epidemiology and etiology of pneumothorax are discussed. Clinical presentation, diagnosis, and treatment of pneumothorax are reviewed in detail elsewhere. […] PRIMARY SPONTANEOUS PNEUMOTHORAX […] Definition — A primary spontaneous pneumothorax (PSP) is traditionally defined as a pneumothorax which presents without a precipitating external event in the absence of clinical lung disease. Although PSP is not associated with known clinical lung disease (eg, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease [COPD]), most affected patients have unrecognized lung abnormalities (mostly subpleural blebs) that likely predispose to pneumothorax. However, following investigation, some patients with apparent PSP may have other more serious underlying lung diseases (eg, Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome, thoracic endometriosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis), thereby recategorizing them as having secondary spontaneous pneumothorax (SSP). Thus, many experts believe that the distinction between pneumothorax in patients „without” lung disease (ie, pneumothorax with subpleural blebs, also known as PSP) and pneumothorax in patients with lung diseases (ie, SSP) is somewhat artificial, and that PSP and SSP may exist on either end of a continuum.

• #9 Pneumothorax (collapsed lung) | Asthma + Lung UK

  https://www.asthmaandlung.org.uk/conditions/pneumothorax-collapsed-lung

  A pneumothorax happens when air leaks out of the lung. […] What causes a pneumothorax? […] A pneumothorax happens when air leaks into the pleural cavity. […] A bilateral pneumothorax is when air leaks out of both lungs and causes them to collapse but this is rare. […] If air continues to get into the pleural space as you breathe, this can start to squash organs like your other lung and heart. This is called a tension pneumothorax and can be life-threatening. Emergency treatment is needed to release the trapped air. […] This is when a pneumothorax happens in an otherwise healthy person, for no obvious reason. Its the most common type of pneumothorax and happens most often in healthy young adults. […] PSP happens due to a small tear on the outer part of the lung. The reasons for this arent always clear, but researchers currently believe that this happens when blebs and bullae on the lung burst.

• #10 SciELO Brazil – Etiology of primary spontaneous pneumothorax Etiology of primary spontaneous pneumothorax

  https://www.scielo.br/j/jbpneu/a/9C6jW6BFBxdKqDffhhqDKYt/

  With the advent of HRCT, primary spontaneous pneumothorax has come to be better understood and managed, because its etiology can now be identified in most cases. Primary spontaneous pneumothorax is mainly caused by the rupture of a small subpleural emphysematous vesicle (designated a bleb) or of a subpleural paraseptal emphysematous lesion (designated a bulla). […] The pathogenesis of primary spontaneous pneumothorax can be best understood by understanding emphysematous lung lesions. […] A bulla (i.e., a subpleural emphysematous bulla) is an airspace measuring more than 1 cm-usually several centimeters-in diameter, sharply demarcated by a thin wall that is no greater than 1 mm in thickness. […] When emphysema is distal, affecting primarily the margins of the lung lobes, it is designated distal acinar or paraseptal emphysema, which is the form of emphysema that is most closely related to primary spontaneous pneumothorax.

• #11 SciELO Brazil – Etiology of primary spontaneous pneumothorax Etiology of primary spontaneous pneumothorax

  https://www.scielo.br/j/jbpneu/a/9C6jW6BFBxdKqDffhhqDKYt/

  With the advent of HRCT, primary spontaneous pneumothorax has come to be better understood and managed, because its etiology can now be identified in most cases. Primary spontaneous pneumothorax is mainly caused by the rupture of a small subpleural emphysematous vesicle (designated a bleb) or of a subpleural paraseptal emphysematous lesion (designated a bulla). […] The pathogenesis of primary spontaneous pneumothorax can be best understood by understanding emphysematous lung lesions. […] A bulla (i.e., a subpleural emphysematous bulla) is an airspace measuring more than 1 cm-usually several centimeters-in diameter, sharply demarcated by a thin wall that is no greater than 1 mm in thickness. […] When emphysema is distal, affecting primarily the margins of the lung lobes, it is designated distal acinar or paraseptal emphysema, which is the form of emphysema that is most closely related to primary spontaneous pneumothorax.

• #12 SciELO Brazil – Etiology of primary spontaneous pneumothorax Etiology of primary spontaneous pneumothorax

  https://www.scielo.br/j/jbpneu/a/9C6jW6BFBxdKqDffhhqDKYt/

  Although paraseptal emphysema is multiform and can affect various portions of the lung lobes, it primarily affects the lung apices. […] The absence of pleural mesothelial cells on histological examination has been demonstrated by scanning electron microscopy, occurring primarily on the thin outer surface of type I bullae and in some areas on the surface of type II bullae. Therefore, distension of emphysematous bullae is due to a reduction in the surface tension of their walls, and this can be explained by Laplace’s law. In addition, there is evidence of a congenital etiology; however, the pathogenesis of bullae remains controversial. […] Bullae are found in approximately 85% of all patients with primary spontaneous pneumothorax undergoing surgery.

• #13 Aetiology of Primary Spontaneous Pneumothorax

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/11/3/490

  Microscopic examination of lung parenchyma from 20 patients with PSP who had undergone surgical resection in a study from 1971 showed chronic distal airway inflammation: lymphocyte and macrophage infiltration with some fibrotic changes. It could be that this chronic inflammation leads to the formation of ELCs in otherwise healthy lungs. […] Historically, it was postulated that it was the rupture of blebs or bulla which causes a leakage of air from the alveola to the pleural space thus creating a pneumothorax. However, if this were true, there would be evidence of ruptured blebs/bullae at medical thoracoscopy or video-assisted thoracoscopy surgery (VATS). In reality, visible air leaks from ELCs are highly variable, with many blebs or bullae remaining intact and, in some cases, no macroscopic lesions are seen at all.

• #14 Pneumothorax: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/pneumothorax-pro

  Tension pneumothorax is a life-threatening emergency that requires instant action. Severe symptoms and signs of respiratory distress suggest the presence of tension pneumothorax.1 […] Smoking is the most important risk factor: compared to non-smokers, men who smoke increase their risk of a first pneumothorax 22-fold and women 9-fold.7 […] Secondary spontaneous pneumothorax (SSP) can occur with various underlying lung conditions, including COPD, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, malignancy, and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. It may also occur with Pneumocystis jirovecii infection in AIDS. […] The clinical course of primary spontaneous pneumothorax is variable with a recurrence rate ranging from 25% to 54%. The presence of underlying chronic lung disease is a significant determinant of recurrence. […] The risk of recurrence of PSP is as high as 54% within the first four years, with isolated risk factors including smoking, height and age over 60 years. […] A patient who smokes must be advised to stop to reduce their risk of a first pneumothorax and that of a recurrence.

• #15 Pneumothorax (collapsed lung): Causes, symptoms, and treatment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/318110

  Pneumothorax, commonly called a collapsed lung, can be painful and in certain situations, may be life-threatening. […] A few different things can cause pneumothorax, and symptoms can vary widely. Doctors can help to diagnose and treat pneumothorax. […] The causes of pneumothorax are categorized as either primary spontaneous, secondary spontaneous, or traumatic. […] A primary spontaneous pneumothorax (PSP) occurs when the person has no known history of lung disease. The direct cause of PSP is unknown. […] The most important risk factor associated with PSP is smoking tobacco. A review in the medical journal BMJ noted that men who smoke tobacco are 22 times more likely to develop PSP than nonsmokers. Women who smoke tobacco are nine times more likely than nonsmokers to develop PSP. […] Secondary spontaneous pneumothorax (SSP) can be caused by a variety of lung diseases and disorders.

• #16 Pneumothorax: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, and Treatment

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/what-is-pneumothorax-914681

  Traumatic pneumothorax can be caused by an injury to the lung, such as a gunshot, knife wound, or rib fracture. The lung can also be punctured during certain medical procedures, such as a biopsy or venous catheterization. […] Another cause of spontaneous pneumothorax are blebs (a small collection of air between the lung and the outer surface of the lung (visceral pleura); these are likely formed during embyrogenesis and mostly affect young men. […] Rarely, for reasons not well understood, women may experience a non-traumatic pneumothorax during their menstrual period called catamenial pneumothorax. This condition occurs when endometrial tissue becomes attached to the thorax and forms cysts. The cysts can release blood and air that enter the pleural space, causing the lung to collapse. […] Smoking is the most significant risk factor for spontaneous pneumothorax. For smokers, the lifetime risk is as high as 12%, compared to 0.1% in those who have never smoked. […] Pneumothorax can also run in families. As many as one in 10 people who experience a pneumothorax that occurs for no known reason have a family history of the disorder. […] Sometimes the cause of the pneumothorax may be impossible to determine.

• #17 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  A pneumothorax is a collection of air outside the lung but within the pleural cavity. It occurs when air accumulates between the parietal and visceral pleura inside the chest. […] Air can enter the pleural space by two mechanisms, either by trauma causing communication through the chest wall or from the lung by rupture of the visceral pleura. There are two types of pneumothorax: traumatic and atraumatic. The two subtypes of atraumatic pneumothorax are primary and secondary. A primary spontaneous pneumothorax (PSP) occurs automatically without a known eliciting event, while a secondary spontaneous pneumothorax (SSP) occurs after an underlying pulmonary disease. A traumatic pneumothorax can be the result of blunt or penetrating trauma. […] Risk factors for primary spontaneous pneumothorax include smoking, tall thin body habitus in an otherwise healthy person, pregnancy, Marfan syndrome, and familial pneumothorax.

• #18 Aetiology of Primary Spontaneous Pneumothorax

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/11/3/490

  Although PSP was traditionally thought to occur in the absence of lung disease, there is increasing evidence that these patients do not have “normal lungs.” This evidence comprises a number of sources including patient-related risk factors (such as body morphology and smoking), radiographic abnormalities, and histological changes on examination of lung resection specimens. […] PSP is more common in tall thin patients with a low body mass index (BMI) and those who are smokers. After a first episode, the risk of recurrence in PSP patients is higher in patients who are taller, but only in males. Female height and lower BMI were not associated with increased risk of further recurrence. A large study in Japan of 5604 pneumothorax cases found that patients who had an episode of pneumothorax had a significantly lower weight:height ratio (using the Kaup index) compared to healthy individuals.

• #19 Aetiology of Primary Spontaneous Pneumothorax

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/11/3/490

  Although PSP was traditionally thought to occur in the absence of lung disease, there is increasing evidence that these patients do not have “normal lungs.” This evidence comprises a number of sources including patient-related risk factors (such as body morphology and smoking), radiographic abnormalities, and histological changes on examination of lung resection specimens. […] PSP is more common in tall thin patients with a low body mass index (BMI) and those who are smokers. After a first episode, the risk of recurrence in PSP patients is higher in patients who are taller, but only in males. Female height and lower BMI were not associated with increased risk of further recurrence. A large study in Japan of 5604 pneumothorax cases found that patients who had an episode of pneumothorax had a significantly lower weight:height ratio (using the Kaup index) compared to healthy individuals.

• #20 Pneumothorax in adults: Epidemiology and etiology – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pneumothorax-in-adults-epidemiology-and-etiology

  Epidemiology — PSP is more common in males than females (roughly three to six times higher). The incidence of PSP in males ranges from 7.4 per 100,000 population per year in the United States to 37 per 100,000 population per year in the United Kingdom. The incidence in females ranges from 1.2 per 100,000 population per year in the United States to 15.4 per 100,000 population per year in the United Kingdom. The reason for these geographic differences is unknown. Another hospital database study of emergency department visits from January 2008 to December 2014 reported that 79 percent of pneumothoraces were in males and 21 percent in females. […] The prevalence of asymptomatic PSP is unknown, but one retrospective study of Japanese students suggested that the rate may be as high as 0.042 percent and higher in males than females. Mild collapse (ie, <10 percent collapse) was present in approximately half of individuals, most of whom underwent intervention.

• #21 Aetiology of Primary Spontaneous Pneumothorax

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/11/3/490

  Approximately 10% of patients with PSP will have a significant family history of pneumothorax. However, this estimate is based upon two small studies: a survey of males from the Israeli Defence Force identified 15 families with a strong history of pneumothorax; and another study of 102 patients and their family members in China. […] There is increasing evidence that the lungs of patients with PSP are not “normal” as traditionally described in textbooks. There appears to be an association between low BMI and smoking and risk of developing pneumothorax. Blebs are a common finding on CT scan on patients with pneumothorax, but the significance as a prognostic marker of pneumothorax recurrence is not yet proven. Analysis of surgical specimens has shown inflammation and respiratory bronchiolitis. More recently, matrix metalloproteinases have been identified as possible pathological factors. Further research is required to accurately define the true pathogenic pathway leading to the formation of pneumothorax in this patient group. However, identifying causative agents may allow more accurate stratification of patients at increased risk and identify possible future treatment targets.

• #22 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  A pneumothorax is a collection of air outside the lung but within the pleural cavity. It occurs when air accumulates between the parietal and visceral pleura inside the chest. […] Air can enter the pleural space by two mechanisms, either by trauma causing communication through the chest wall or from the lung by rupture of the visceral pleura. There are two types of pneumothorax: traumatic and atraumatic. The two subtypes of atraumatic pneumothorax are primary and secondary. A primary spontaneous pneumothorax (PSP) occurs automatically without a known eliciting event, while a secondary spontaneous pneumothorax (SSP) occurs after an underlying pulmonary disease. A traumatic pneumothorax can be the result of blunt or penetrating trauma. […] Risk factors for primary spontaneous pneumothorax include smoking, tall thin body habitus in an otherwise healthy person, pregnancy, Marfan syndrome, and familial pneumothorax.

• #23 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  A pneumothorax is a collection of air outside the lung but within the pleural cavity. It occurs when air accumulates between the parietal and visceral pleura inside the chest. […] Air can enter the pleural space by two mechanisms, either by trauma causing communication through the chest wall or from the lung by rupture of the visceral pleura. There are two types of pneumothorax: traumatic and atraumatic. The two subtypes of atraumatic pneumothorax are primary and secondary. A primary spontaneous pneumothorax (PSP) occurs automatically without a known eliciting event, while a secondary spontaneous pneumothorax (SSP) occurs after an underlying pulmonary disease. A traumatic pneumothorax can be the result of blunt or penetrating trauma. […] Risk factors for primary spontaneous pneumothorax include smoking, tall thin body habitus in an otherwise healthy person, pregnancy, Marfan syndrome, and familial pneumothorax.

• #24 Primary spontaneous pneumothorax: MedlinePlus GeneticsLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/primary-spontaneous-pneumothorax/

  Primary spontaneous pneumothorax is likely due to the formation of small sacs of air (blebs) in lung tissue that rupture, causing air to leak into the pleural space. […] Mutations in the FLCN gene can cause primary spontaneous pneumothorax, although these mutations appear to be a very rare cause of this condition. […] Primary spontaneous pneumothorax most often occurs in people without an identified gene mutation. The cause of the condition in these individuals is often unknown. […] Tall young men are at increased risk of developing primary spontaneous pneumothorax; researchers suggest that rapid growth of the chest during growth spurts may increase the likelihood of forming blebs. Long-term smoking also greatly increases the risk of developing primary spontaneous pneumothorax in both men and women.

• #25 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  A pneumothorax is a collection of air outside the lung but within the pleural cavity. It occurs when air accumulates between the parietal and visceral pleura inside the chest. […] Air can enter the pleural space by two mechanisms, either by trauma causing communication through the chest wall or from the lung by rupture of the visceral pleura. There are two types of pneumothorax: traumatic and atraumatic. The two subtypes of atraumatic pneumothorax are primary and secondary. A primary spontaneous pneumothorax (PSP) occurs automatically without a known eliciting event, while a secondary spontaneous pneumothorax (SSP) occurs after an underlying pulmonary disease. A traumatic pneumothorax can be the result of blunt or penetrating trauma. […] Risk factors for primary spontaneous pneumothorax include smoking, tall thin body habitus in an otherwise healthy person, pregnancy, Marfan syndrome, and familial pneumothorax.

• #26 Pneumothorax | healthdirect

  https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/pneumothorax

  A pneumothorax is when air leaks into the space between one of your lungs and your chest wall. […] There are several different types and causes of pneumothorax. […] A spontaneous pneumothorax happens suddenly without an external event (such as trauma or a medical procedure). […] A primary spontaneous pneumothorax is the most common type of pneumothorax. It usually happens in young people (including children) with no underlying lung disease. […] Its not known what causes primary spontaneous pneumothorax, but the risk is higher for people who smoke. […] A secondary spontaneous pneumothorax can happen in people with existing lung conditions, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, and cystic fibrosis. […] These lung conditions can weaken the edge of the lung, making it more likely to tear and let air escape. […] This type of pneumothorax is caused by trauma, such as a car accident, broken ribs, or a stab wound. […] An iatrogenic pneumothorax is a traumatic pneumothorax that occurs as a result of a medical procedure.

• #27 Pneumothorax (collapsed lung): Causes, symptoms, and treatment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/318110

  Lung diseases that may increase the risk of developing pneumothorax include: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cystic fibrosis, severe asthma, lung infections, such as tuberculosis and certain forms of pneumonia, sarcoidosis, thoracic endometriosis, pulmonary fibrosis, lung cancer and sarcomas involving the lungs. […] Certain connective tissue disorders may also cause SSP. […] A traumatic pneumothorax is the result of an impact or injury. Potential causes include blunt trauma or an injury that damages the chest wall and pleural space. […] One of the most common ways this occurs is when someone fractures a rib. […] A traumatic pneumothorax can occur even if there is no noticeable wound on the chest. […] Any of these types of pneumothorax can turn into a tension pneumothorax. This is caused by a leak in the pleural space that resembles a one-way valve.

• #28 Pneumothorax – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumothorax

  A primary spontaneous pneumothorax is one that occurs without an apparent cause and in the absence of significant lung disease. […] A secondary spontaneous pneumothorax occurs in the presence of existing lung disease. […] Smoking increases the risk of primary spontaneous pneumothorax, while the main underlying causes for secondary pneumothorax are COPD, asthma, and tuberculosis. […] A traumatic pneumothorax can develop from physical trauma to the chest (including a blast injury) or from a complication of a healthcare intervention. […] The cause of primary spontaneous pneumothorax is unknown, but established risk factors include being of the male sex, smoking, and a family history of pneumothorax. […] Secondary spontaneous pneumothorax occurs in the setting of a variety of lung diseases. The most common is chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which accounts for approximately 70% of cases.

• #29 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Diseases associated with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax include COPD, asthma, HIV with pneumocystis pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, severe ARDS, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, collagen vascular disease, inhalational drug use like cocaine or marijuana, and thoracic endometriosis. […] Causes of iatrogenic pneumothorax include pleural biopsy, transbronchial lung biopsy, transthoracic pulmonary nodule biopsy, central venous catheter insertion, tracheostomy, intercostal nerve block, and positive pressure ventilation. […] Causes of traumatic pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, rib fracture, and diving or flying. […] Causes of tension pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, barotrauma due to positive pressure ventilation, percutaneous tracheostomy, conversion of spontaneous pneumothorax to tension, and open pneumothorax when occlusive dressing works as one way valve.

• #30 Spontaneous Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459302/

  Spontaneous pneumothorax occurs without an obvious etiology and can be classified as either primary or secondary. […] Spontaneous pneumothorax occurs without an obvious etiology such as trauma or iatrogenic causes. […] While primary spontaneous pneumothorax is not associated with underlying pulmonary disease, secondary spontaneous pneumothorax is associated with, but not limited to, the following: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Asthma, Cystic fibrosis, Pneumonia (e.g., necrotizing, Pneumocystis jirovecii), Pulmonary abscess, Tuberculosis, Malignancy, Interstitial lung disease (e.g., idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, sarcoidosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis), Connective tissue disease (e.g., Marfan syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis), Pulmonary infarct, Foreign body aspiration, Catamenial (i.e., associated with menses secondary to thoracic endometriosis), Birt-Hogg-Dube syndrome.

• #31 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Diseases associated with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax include COPD, asthma, HIV with pneumocystis pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, severe ARDS, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, collagen vascular disease, inhalational drug use like cocaine or marijuana, and thoracic endometriosis. […] Causes of iatrogenic pneumothorax include pleural biopsy, transbronchial lung biopsy, transthoracic pulmonary nodule biopsy, central venous catheter insertion, tracheostomy, intercostal nerve block, and positive pressure ventilation. […] Causes of traumatic pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, rib fracture, and diving or flying. […] Causes of tension pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, barotrauma due to positive pressure ventilation, percutaneous tracheostomy, conversion of spontaneous pneumothorax to tension, and open pneumothorax when occlusive dressing works as one way valve.

• #32 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Diseases associated with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax include COPD, asthma, HIV with pneumocystis pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, severe ARDS, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, collagen vascular disease, inhalational drug use like cocaine or marijuana, and thoracic endometriosis. […] Causes of iatrogenic pneumothorax include pleural biopsy, transbronchial lung biopsy, transthoracic pulmonary nodule biopsy, central venous catheter insertion, tracheostomy, intercostal nerve block, and positive pressure ventilation. […] Causes of traumatic pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, rib fracture, and diving or flying. […] Causes of tension pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, barotrauma due to positive pressure ventilation, percutaneous tracheostomy, conversion of spontaneous pneumothorax to tension, and open pneumothorax when occlusive dressing works as one way valve.

• #33 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Diseases associated with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax include COPD, asthma, HIV with pneumocystis pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, severe ARDS, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, collagen vascular disease, inhalational drug use like cocaine or marijuana, and thoracic endometriosis. […] Causes of iatrogenic pneumothorax include pleural biopsy, transbronchial lung biopsy, transthoracic pulmonary nodule biopsy, central venous catheter insertion, tracheostomy, intercostal nerve block, and positive pressure ventilation. […] Causes of traumatic pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, rib fracture, and diving or flying. […] Causes of tension pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, barotrauma due to positive pressure ventilation, percutaneous tracheostomy, conversion of spontaneous pneumothorax to tension, and open pneumothorax when occlusive dressing works as one way valve.

• #34 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Diseases associated with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax include COPD, asthma, HIV with pneumocystis pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, severe ARDS, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, collagen vascular disease, inhalational drug use like cocaine or marijuana, and thoracic endometriosis. […] Causes of iatrogenic pneumothorax include pleural biopsy, transbronchial lung biopsy, transthoracic pulmonary nodule biopsy, central venous catheter insertion, tracheostomy, intercostal nerve block, and positive pressure ventilation. […] Causes of traumatic pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, rib fracture, and diving or flying. […] Causes of tension pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, barotrauma due to positive pressure ventilation, percutaneous tracheostomy, conversion of spontaneous pneumothorax to tension, and open pneumothorax when occlusive dressing works as one way valve.

• #35 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Diseases associated with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax include COPD, asthma, HIV with pneumocystis pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, severe ARDS, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, collagen vascular disease, inhalational drug use like cocaine or marijuana, and thoracic endometriosis. […] Causes of iatrogenic pneumothorax include pleural biopsy, transbronchial lung biopsy, transthoracic pulmonary nodule biopsy, central venous catheter insertion, tracheostomy, intercostal nerve block, and positive pressure ventilation. […] Causes of traumatic pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, rib fracture, and diving or flying. […] Causes of tension pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, barotrauma due to positive pressure ventilation, percutaneous tracheostomy, conversion of spontaneous pneumothorax to tension, and open pneumothorax when occlusive dressing works as one way valve.

• #36 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Diseases associated with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax include COPD, asthma, HIV with pneumocystis pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, severe ARDS, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, collagen vascular disease, inhalational drug use like cocaine or marijuana, and thoracic endometriosis. […] Causes of iatrogenic pneumothorax include pleural biopsy, transbronchial lung biopsy, transthoracic pulmonary nodule biopsy, central venous catheter insertion, tracheostomy, intercostal nerve block, and positive pressure ventilation. […] Causes of traumatic pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, rib fracture, and diving or flying. […] Causes of tension pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, barotrauma due to positive pressure ventilation, percutaneous tracheostomy, conversion of spontaneous pneumothorax to tension, and open pneumothorax when occlusive dressing works as one way valve.

• #37 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Diseases associated with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax include COPD, asthma, HIV with pneumocystis pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, severe ARDS, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, collagen vascular disease, inhalational drug use like cocaine or marijuana, and thoracic endometriosis. […] Causes of iatrogenic pneumothorax include pleural biopsy, transbronchial lung biopsy, transthoracic pulmonary nodule biopsy, central venous catheter insertion, tracheostomy, intercostal nerve block, and positive pressure ventilation. […] Causes of traumatic pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, rib fracture, and diving or flying. […] Causes of tension pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, barotrauma due to positive pressure ventilation, percutaneous tracheostomy, conversion of spontaneous pneumothorax to tension, and open pneumothorax when occlusive dressing works as one way valve.

• #38 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Diseases associated with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax include COPD, asthma, HIV with pneumocystis pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, severe ARDS, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, collagen vascular disease, inhalational drug use like cocaine or marijuana, and thoracic endometriosis. […] Causes of iatrogenic pneumothorax include pleural biopsy, transbronchial lung biopsy, transthoracic pulmonary nodule biopsy, central venous catheter insertion, tracheostomy, intercostal nerve block, and positive pressure ventilation. […] Causes of traumatic pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, rib fracture, and diving or flying. […] Causes of tension pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, barotrauma due to positive pressure ventilation, percutaneous tracheostomy, conversion of spontaneous pneumothorax to tension, and open pneumothorax when occlusive dressing works as one way valve.

• #39 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Diseases associated with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax include COPD, asthma, HIV with pneumocystis pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, severe ARDS, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, collagen vascular disease, inhalational drug use like cocaine or marijuana, and thoracic endometriosis. […] Causes of iatrogenic pneumothorax include pleural biopsy, transbronchial lung biopsy, transthoracic pulmonary nodule biopsy, central venous catheter insertion, tracheostomy, intercostal nerve block, and positive pressure ventilation. […] Causes of traumatic pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, rib fracture, and diving or flying. […] Causes of tension pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, barotrauma due to positive pressure ventilation, percutaneous tracheostomy, conversion of spontaneous pneumothorax to tension, and open pneumothorax when occlusive dressing works as one way valve.

• #40 Unusual causes of pneumothorax – Ouellette – Journal of Thoracic Disease

  https://jtd.amegroups.org/article/view/3142/html

  Pneumothorax is divided to primary and secondary. […] Pneumothorax can be treated either by thoracic surgeons, or pulmonary physicians. […] Several uncommon pulmonary conditions are frequently associated with pneumothorax, such as lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM) and pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis (PLCH). […] Examples of the latter group include: anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis, systemic lupus erythematosis (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis and related conditions, scleroderma, dermatomyositis, and inflammatory bowel disease. […] Finally, extremely rare conditions such as Birt-Hogg-Dube syndrome have an association with pneumothorax. […] Pneumothorax has been reported to precede the diagnosis of LAM in 82% of patients who have had at least one pneumothorax.

• #41 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Diseases associated with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax include COPD, asthma, HIV with pneumocystis pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, severe ARDS, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, collagen vascular disease, inhalational drug use like cocaine or marijuana, and thoracic endometriosis. […] Causes of iatrogenic pneumothorax include pleural biopsy, transbronchial lung biopsy, transthoracic pulmonary nodule biopsy, central venous catheter insertion, tracheostomy, intercostal nerve block, and positive pressure ventilation. […] Causes of traumatic pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, rib fracture, and diving or flying. […] Causes of tension pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, barotrauma due to positive pressure ventilation, percutaneous tracheostomy, conversion of spontaneous pneumothorax to tension, and open pneumothorax when occlusive dressing works as one way valve.

• #42 Unusual causes of pneumothorax – Ouellette – Journal of Thoracic Disease

  https://jtd.amegroups.org/article/view/3142/html

  Pneumothorax is divided to primary and secondary. […] Pneumothorax can be treated either by thoracic surgeons, or pulmonary physicians. […] Several uncommon pulmonary conditions are frequently associated with pneumothorax, such as lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM) and pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis (PLCH). […] Examples of the latter group include: anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis, systemic lupus erythematosis (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis and related conditions, scleroderma, dermatomyositis, and inflammatory bowel disease. […] Finally, extremely rare conditions such as Birt-Hogg-Dube syndrome have an association with pneumothorax. […] Pneumothorax has been reported to precede the diagnosis of LAM in 82% of patients who have had at least one pneumothorax.

• #43 Spontaneous Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459302/

  Spontaneous pneumothorax occurs without an obvious etiology and can be classified as either primary or secondary. […] Spontaneous pneumothorax occurs without an obvious etiology such as trauma or iatrogenic causes. […] While primary spontaneous pneumothorax is not associated with underlying pulmonary disease, secondary spontaneous pneumothorax is associated with, but not limited to, the following: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Asthma, Cystic fibrosis, Pneumonia (e.g., necrotizing, Pneumocystis jirovecii), Pulmonary abscess, Tuberculosis, Malignancy, Interstitial lung disease (e.g., idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, sarcoidosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis), Connective tissue disease (e.g., Marfan syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis), Pulmonary infarct, Foreign body aspiration, Catamenial (i.e., associated with menses secondary to thoracic endometriosis), Birt-Hogg-Dube syndrome.

• #44 Pediatric Pneumothorax: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1003552-overview

  Pneumothorax is the accumulation of air in the space between the lungs and chest wall called the pleura. Most pneumothoraces occur spontaneously, but they can also occur in association with trauma or some preexisting pulmonary or systemic conditions. […] The most common risk factors for pneumothorax are smoking, male gender, family history of spontaneous pneumothorax, tall lean body habitus, premature delivery, and obstructive pulmonary disease. Pneumothorax can be associated with Valsalva maneuver, but it is usually not associated with physical exertion as it is as likely to occur during sedentary activity. […] Spontaneous secondary pneumothoraces may occur in patients with underlying lung diseases or any disease that promotes air leakage, such as asthma or cystic fibrosis. […] Other conditions associated with the development and recurrence of spontaneous pneumothorax include parenchymal diseases (eg, interstitial lung disease, emphysema), infections (eg, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, pneumonia in immunocompromised hosts), malignancy (eg, lymphoma, metastasis), and connective-tissue disorders (eg, Marfan syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, juvenile idiopathic arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, polymyositis, dermatomyositis, sarcoidosis, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, Birt-Hogg-Dub syndrome).

• #45 Spontaneous Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459302/

  Spontaneous pneumothorax occurs without an obvious etiology and can be classified as either primary or secondary. […] Spontaneous pneumothorax occurs without an obvious etiology such as trauma or iatrogenic causes. […] While primary spontaneous pneumothorax is not associated with underlying pulmonary disease, secondary spontaneous pneumothorax is associated with, but not limited to, the following: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Asthma, Cystic fibrosis, Pneumonia (e.g., necrotizing, Pneumocystis jirovecii), Pulmonary abscess, Tuberculosis, Malignancy, Interstitial lung disease (e.g., idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, sarcoidosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis), Connective tissue disease (e.g., Marfan syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis), Pulmonary infarct, Foreign body aspiration, Catamenial (i.e., associated with menses secondary to thoracic endometriosis), Birt-Hogg-Dube syndrome.

• #46 Spontaneous Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459302/

  Spontaneous pneumothorax occurs without an obvious etiology and can be classified as either primary or secondary. […] Spontaneous pneumothorax occurs without an obvious etiology such as trauma or iatrogenic causes. […] While primary spontaneous pneumothorax is not associated with underlying pulmonary disease, secondary spontaneous pneumothorax is associated with, but not limited to, the following: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Asthma, Cystic fibrosis, Pneumonia (e.g., necrotizing, Pneumocystis jirovecii), Pulmonary abscess, Tuberculosis, Malignancy, Interstitial lung disease (e.g., idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, sarcoidosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis), Connective tissue disease (e.g., Marfan syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis), Pulmonary infarct, Foreign body aspiration, Catamenial (i.e., associated with menses secondary to thoracic endometriosis), Birt-Hogg-Dube syndrome.

• #47 Spontaneous Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459302/

  Spontaneous pneumothorax occurs without an obvious etiology and can be classified as either primary or secondary. […] Spontaneous pneumothorax occurs without an obvious etiology such as trauma or iatrogenic causes. […] While primary spontaneous pneumothorax is not associated with underlying pulmonary disease, secondary spontaneous pneumothorax is associated with, but not limited to, the following: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Asthma, Cystic fibrosis, Pneumonia (e.g., necrotizing, Pneumocystis jirovecii), Pulmonary abscess, Tuberculosis, Malignancy, Interstitial lung disease (e.g., idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, sarcoidosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis), Connective tissue disease (e.g., Marfan syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis), Pulmonary infarct, Foreign body aspiration, Catamenial (i.e., associated with menses secondary to thoracic endometriosis), Birt-Hogg-Dube syndrome.

• #48 Spontaneous Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459302/

  Spontaneous pneumothorax occurs without an obvious etiology and can be classified as either primary or secondary. […] Spontaneous pneumothorax occurs without an obvious etiology such as trauma or iatrogenic causes. […] While primary spontaneous pneumothorax is not associated with underlying pulmonary disease, secondary spontaneous pneumothorax is associated with, but not limited to, the following: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Asthma, Cystic fibrosis, Pneumonia (e.g., necrotizing, Pneumocystis jirovecii), Pulmonary abscess, Tuberculosis, Malignancy, Interstitial lung disease (e.g., idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, sarcoidosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis), Connective tissue disease (e.g., Marfan syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis), Pulmonary infarct, Foreign body aspiration, Catamenial (i.e., associated with menses secondary to thoracic endometriosis), Birt-Hogg-Dube syndrome.

• #49 Unusual causes of pneumothorax – Ouellette – Journal of Thoracic Disease

  https://jtd.amegroups.org/article/view/3142/html

  Pneumothorax is divided to primary and secondary. […] Pneumothorax can be treated either by thoracic surgeons, or pulmonary physicians. […] Several uncommon pulmonary conditions are frequently associated with pneumothorax, such as lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM) and pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis (PLCH). […] Examples of the latter group include: anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis, systemic lupus erythematosis (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis and related conditions, scleroderma, dermatomyositis, and inflammatory bowel disease. […] Finally, extremely rare conditions such as Birt-Hogg-Dube syndrome have an association with pneumothorax. […] Pneumothorax has been reported to precede the diagnosis of LAM in 82% of patients who have had at least one pneumothorax.

• #50 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Diseases associated with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax include COPD, asthma, HIV with pneumocystis pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, severe ARDS, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, collagen vascular disease, inhalational drug use like cocaine or marijuana, and thoracic endometriosis. […] Causes of iatrogenic pneumothorax include pleural biopsy, transbronchial lung biopsy, transthoracic pulmonary nodule biopsy, central venous catheter insertion, tracheostomy, intercostal nerve block, and positive pressure ventilation. […] Causes of traumatic pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, rib fracture, and diving or flying. […] Causes of tension pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, barotrauma due to positive pressure ventilation, percutaneous tracheostomy, conversion of spontaneous pneumothorax to tension, and open pneumothorax when occlusive dressing works as one way valve.

• #51 Pneumothorax – Pulmonary Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/pulmonary-disorders/mediastinal-and-pleural-disorders/pneumothorax

  Primary spontaneous pneumothorax occurs in patients without underlying pulmonary disease, classically in tall, thin young men in their teens and 20s. It is thought to be due to spontaneous rupture of subpleural apical blebs or bullae that result from smoking or that are inherited. […] Secondary spontaneous pneumothorax occurs in patients with underlying pulmonary disease; it most often results from rupture of a bleb or bulla in patients with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. […] Catamenial pneumothorax is a rare form of secondary spontaneous pneumothorax that occurs within 48 hours of the onset of menstruation in premenopausal women and sometimes in postmenopausal women taking estrogen. The cause is intrathoracic endometriosis, possibly due to migration of peritoneal endometrial tissue through diaphragmatic defects or embolization through pelvic veins.

• #52 Pneumothorax – Pulmonary Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/pulmonary-disorders/mediastinal-and-pleural-disorders/pneumothorax

  Primary spontaneous pneumothorax occurs in patients without underlying pulmonary disease, classically in tall, thin young men in their teens and 20s. It is thought to be due to spontaneous rupture of subpleural apical blebs or bullae that result from smoking or that are inherited. […] Secondary spontaneous pneumothorax occurs in patients with underlying pulmonary disease; it most often results from rupture of a bleb or bulla in patients with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. […] Catamenial pneumothorax is a rare form of secondary spontaneous pneumothorax that occurs within 48 hours of the onset of menstruation in premenopausal women and sometimes in postmenopausal women taking estrogen. The cause is intrathoracic endometriosis, possibly due to migration of peritoneal endometrial tissue through diaphragmatic defects or embolization through pelvic veins.

• #53 Pneumothorax: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/pneumothorax-pro

  This may follow a number of procedures such as mechanical ventilation and interventional procedures such as central line placement, lung biopsy and percutaneous liver biopsy. […] This refers to pneumothorax at the time of menstruation. Over 90% occur in the right lung and it occurs up to 24 hours before or within 72 hours from the onset of menstruation. The aetiology is thoracic endometriosis leading to necrotic holes in the diaphragm which allow the passage of air from the genital tract, made possible when the cervical mucus plug is liquefied at the time of menstruation. It may be responsible for as many as 33% of spontaneous pneumothorax episodes in women who are referred for surgery.2 Recurrent thoracic catamenial pain is reported in 23% of women prior to a catamenial pneumothorax. Ovarian suppression for 6-12 months is used to prevent recurrence.3

• #54 Pneumothorax: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/pneumothorax-pro

  This may follow a number of procedures such as mechanical ventilation and interventional procedures such as central line placement, lung biopsy and percutaneous liver biopsy. […] This refers to pneumothorax at the time of menstruation. Over 90% occur in the right lung and it occurs up to 24 hours before or within 72 hours from the onset of menstruation. The aetiology is thoracic endometriosis leading to necrotic holes in the diaphragm which allow the passage of air from the genital tract, made possible when the cervical mucus plug is liquefied at the time of menstruation. It may be responsible for as many as 33% of spontaneous pneumothorax episodes in women who are referred for surgery.2 Recurrent thoracic catamenial pain is reported in 23% of women prior to a catamenial pneumothorax. Ovarian suppression for 6-12 months is used to prevent recurrence.3

• #55 Pneumothorax – Pulmonary Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/pulmonary-disorders/mediastinal-and-pleural-disorders/pneumothorax

  Traumatic pneumothorax is a common complication of penetrating or blunt chest injuries. […] Iatrogenic pneumothorax is caused by medical interventions, including transthoracic needle aspiration, thoracentesis, central venous catheter placement, mechanical ventilation, and cardiopulmonary resuscitation.

• #56 Pneumothorax – USZ

  https://www.usz.ch/en/disease/pneumothorax/

  A pneumothorax can have various causes. However, there are basically two ways in which air can enter the pleural cavity: […] From the outside: This can be caused by an accident (trauma)(traumatic pneumothorax). Examples: Stab or gunshot wounds, open rib fracture after a fall or medical interventions (e.g. catheter, pleural puncture, surgery). […] From the inside: The air enters the pleural cavity through a tear in the lung. This is usually caused by existing lung diseases, but can also be triggered by a traumatic rib fracture that injures the lung, a diving accident or overpressure ventilation. […] Primary spontaneous pneumothorax occurs without any apparent cause in people whose lungs are actually healthy. If no cause can be found, it is referred to as idiopathic. […] The most important risk factor for this form of pneumothorax is smoking. Almost 90 percent of patients with a primary pneumothorax are smokers.

• #57 Traumatic Pneumothorax – Injuries and Poisoning – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/injuries-and-poisoning/chest-injuries/traumatic-pneumothorax

  Pneumothorax may result when blunt force (such as a motor vehicle crash or fall) or a penetrating injury (such as a stab or gunshot wound) damages the lungs and/or airways. The damage allows air to leave the lung and collect between the lung and the wall of the chest. […] A pneumothorax that affects only one lung is rarely dangerous unless people have a chronic lung disorder (such as asthma or COPD [chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]) or unless the pneumothorax is a tension pneumothorax or an open pneumothorax (a pneumothorax that connects to an open wound in the chest wall).

• #58 Collapsed lung (pneumothorax) Information | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/diseases-conditions/collapsed-lung-pneumothorax

  A collapsed lung can be caused by an injury to the lung. Injuries can include a gunshot or knife wound to the chest, rib fracture, or certain medical procedures. […] In some cases, a collapsed lung is caused by air blisters of the lung (blebs) that break open, sending air into the space around the lung. This can result from air pressure changes such as when scuba diving or traveling to a high altitude. […] Lung diseases can also increase the chance of getting a collapsed lung. These include: Asthma, Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), Cystic fibrosis, Tuberculosis, Whooping cough. […] In some cases, a collapsed lung occurs without any cause. This is called a spontaneous collapsed lung or spontaneous pneumothorax.

• #59 Pneumothorax (Collapsed Lung): Symptoms, Causes, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/collapsed-lung

  Pneumothorax can be traumatic or nontraumatic. […] Traumatic pneumothorax results from an injury, like a blow to the chest. Nontraumatic pneumothorax can happen if you have lung disease, like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), but it can also happen for no apparent reason in people without lung disease. […] Traumatic pneumothorax occurs after some type of trauma or injury has happened to the chest or lung wall. It can be a minor or significant injury. The trauma can damage chest structures and cause air to leak into the pleural space. […] Here are some types of injuries that can cause traumatic pneumothorax: trauma to the chest from a motor vehicle accident, broken ribs, a blow to the chest during a contact sport, like football tackle, a stab or bullet wound to the chest, accidental damage during a medical procedure like a central line placement, ventilator use, lung biopsies, or CPR, diving, flying, or being at high altitude due to air pressure changes.

• #60 Pneumothorax (Collapsed Lung): Symptoms, Causes, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/collapsed-lung

  Pneumothorax can be traumatic or nontraumatic. […] Traumatic pneumothorax results from an injury, like a blow to the chest. Nontraumatic pneumothorax can happen if you have lung disease, like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), but it can also happen for no apparent reason in people without lung disease. […] Traumatic pneumothorax occurs after some type of trauma or injury has happened to the chest or lung wall. It can be a minor or significant injury. The trauma can damage chest structures and cause air to leak into the pleural space. […] Here are some types of injuries that can cause traumatic pneumothorax: trauma to the chest from a motor vehicle accident, broken ribs, a blow to the chest during a contact sport, like football tackle, a stab or bullet wound to the chest, accidental damage during a medical procedure like a central line placement, ventilator use, lung biopsies, or CPR, diving, flying, or being at high altitude due to air pressure changes.

• #61 Pneumothorax (Collapsed Lung): Symptoms, Causes, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/collapsed-lung

  Pneumothorax can be traumatic or nontraumatic. […] Traumatic pneumothorax results from an injury, like a blow to the chest. Nontraumatic pneumothorax can happen if you have lung disease, like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), but it can also happen for no apparent reason in people without lung disease. […] Traumatic pneumothorax occurs after some type of trauma or injury has happened to the chest or lung wall. It can be a minor or significant injury. The trauma can damage chest structures and cause air to leak into the pleural space. […] Here are some types of injuries that can cause traumatic pneumothorax: trauma to the chest from a motor vehicle accident, broken ribs, a blow to the chest during a contact sport, like football tackle, a stab or bullet wound to the chest, accidental damage during a medical procedure like a central line placement, ventilator use, lung biopsies, or CPR, diving, flying, or being at high altitude due to air pressure changes.

• #62 Pneumothorax (Traumatic) – Injuries; Poisoning – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/injuries-poisoning/thoracic-trauma/pneumothorax-traumatic

  Pneumothorax can be caused by penetrating or blunt trauma; many patients also have a hemothorax (hemopneumothorax). […] In patients with penetrating wounds that traverse the mediastinum (eg, wounds medial to the nipples or to the scapulae), or with severe blunt trauma, pneumothorax may be caused by disruption of the tracheobronchial tree. […] A simple unilateral pneumothorax, even when large, is well tolerated by most patients unless they have significant underlying pulmonary disease. […] However, tension pneumothorax can cause severe hypotension, and open pneumothorax can compromise ventilation.

• #63 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Secondary spontaneous pneumothorax occurs in the presence of underlying lung disease, primarily chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; others may include tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, malignancy, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, and pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia. […] Iatrogenic pneumothorax occurs due to a complication of a medical or surgical procedure. Thoracentesis is the most common cause. […] Traumatic pneumothoraces can result from blunt or penetrating trauma; these often create a one-way valve in the pleural space (letting the airflow in but not flow out) and hence hemodynamic compromise. Tension pneumothorax most commonly occurs in ICU settings in positive-pressure ventilated patients.

• #64 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Secondary spontaneous pneumothorax occurs in the presence of underlying lung disease, primarily chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; others may include tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, malignancy, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, and pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia. […] Iatrogenic pneumothorax occurs due to a complication of a medical or surgical procedure. Thoracentesis is the most common cause. […] Traumatic pneumothoraces can result from blunt or penetrating trauma; these often create a one-way valve in the pleural space (letting the airflow in but not flow out) and hence hemodynamic compromise. Tension pneumothorax most commonly occurs in ICU settings in positive-pressure ventilated patients.

• #65 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Diseases associated with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax include COPD, asthma, HIV with pneumocystis pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, severe ARDS, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, collagen vascular disease, inhalational drug use like cocaine or marijuana, and thoracic endometriosis. […] Causes of iatrogenic pneumothorax include pleural biopsy, transbronchial lung biopsy, transthoracic pulmonary nodule biopsy, central venous catheter insertion, tracheostomy, intercostal nerve block, and positive pressure ventilation. […] Causes of traumatic pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, rib fracture, and diving or flying. […] Causes of tension pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, barotrauma due to positive pressure ventilation, percutaneous tracheostomy, conversion of spontaneous pneumothorax to tension, and open pneumothorax when occlusive dressing works as one way valve.

• #66 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Diseases associated with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax include COPD, asthma, HIV with pneumocystis pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, severe ARDS, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, collagen vascular disease, inhalational drug use like cocaine or marijuana, and thoracic endometriosis. […] Causes of iatrogenic pneumothorax include pleural biopsy, transbronchial lung biopsy, transthoracic pulmonary nodule biopsy, central venous catheter insertion, tracheostomy, intercostal nerve block, and positive pressure ventilation. […] Causes of traumatic pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, rib fracture, and diving or flying. […] Causes of tension pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, barotrauma due to positive pressure ventilation, percutaneous tracheostomy, conversion of spontaneous pneumothorax to tension, and open pneumothorax when occlusive dressing works as one way valve.

• #67 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Diseases associated with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax include COPD, asthma, HIV with pneumocystis pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, severe ARDS, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, collagen vascular disease, inhalational drug use like cocaine or marijuana, and thoracic endometriosis. […] Causes of iatrogenic pneumothorax include pleural biopsy, transbronchial lung biopsy, transthoracic pulmonary nodule biopsy, central venous catheter insertion, tracheostomy, intercostal nerve block, and positive pressure ventilation. […] Causes of traumatic pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, rib fracture, and diving or flying. […] Causes of tension pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, barotrauma due to positive pressure ventilation, percutaneous tracheostomy, conversion of spontaneous pneumothorax to tension, and open pneumothorax when occlusive dressing works as one way valve.

• #68 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Diseases associated with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax include COPD, asthma, HIV with pneumocystis pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, severe ARDS, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, collagen vascular disease, inhalational drug use like cocaine or marijuana, and thoracic endometriosis. […] Causes of iatrogenic pneumothorax include pleural biopsy, transbronchial lung biopsy, transthoracic pulmonary nodule biopsy, central venous catheter insertion, tracheostomy, intercostal nerve block, and positive pressure ventilation. […] Causes of traumatic pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, rib fracture, and diving or flying. […] Causes of tension pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, barotrauma due to positive pressure ventilation, percutaneous tracheostomy, conversion of spontaneous pneumothorax to tension, and open pneumothorax when occlusive dressing works as one way valve.

• #69 Pneumothorax – Pulmonary Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/pulmonary-disorders/mediastinal-and-pleural-disorders/pneumothorax

  Traumatic pneumothorax is a common complication of penetrating or blunt chest injuries. […] Iatrogenic pneumothorax is caused by medical interventions, including transthoracic needle aspiration, thoracentesis, central venous catheter placement, mechanical ventilation, and cardiopulmonary resuscitation.

• #70 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Diseases associated with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax include COPD, asthma, HIV with pneumocystis pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, severe ARDS, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, collagen vascular disease, inhalational drug use like cocaine or marijuana, and thoracic endometriosis. […] Causes of iatrogenic pneumothorax include pleural biopsy, transbronchial lung biopsy, transthoracic pulmonary nodule biopsy, central venous catheter insertion, tracheostomy, intercostal nerve block, and positive pressure ventilation. […] Causes of traumatic pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, rib fracture, and diving or flying. […] Causes of tension pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, barotrauma due to positive pressure ventilation, percutaneous tracheostomy, conversion of spontaneous pneumothorax to tension, and open pneumothorax when occlusive dressing works as one way valve.

• #71 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Diseases associated with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax include COPD, asthma, HIV with pneumocystis pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, severe ARDS, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, collagen vascular disease, inhalational drug use like cocaine or marijuana, and thoracic endometriosis. […] Causes of iatrogenic pneumothorax include pleural biopsy, transbronchial lung biopsy, transthoracic pulmonary nodule biopsy, central venous catheter insertion, tracheostomy, intercostal nerve block, and positive pressure ventilation. […] Causes of traumatic pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, rib fracture, and diving or flying. […] Causes of tension pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, barotrauma due to positive pressure ventilation, percutaneous tracheostomy, conversion of spontaneous pneumothorax to tension, and open pneumothorax when occlusive dressing works as one way valve.

• #72 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Diseases associated with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax include COPD, asthma, HIV with pneumocystis pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, severe ARDS, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, collagen vascular disease, inhalational drug use like cocaine or marijuana, and thoracic endometriosis. […] Causes of iatrogenic pneumothorax include pleural biopsy, transbronchial lung biopsy, transthoracic pulmonary nodule biopsy, central venous catheter insertion, tracheostomy, intercostal nerve block, and positive pressure ventilation. […] Causes of traumatic pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, rib fracture, and diving or flying. […] Causes of tension pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, barotrauma due to positive pressure ventilation, percutaneous tracheostomy, conversion of spontaneous pneumothorax to tension, and open pneumothorax when occlusive dressing works as one way valve.

• #73 Pneumothorax – Pulmonary Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/pulmonary-disorders/mediastinal-and-pleural-disorders/pneumothorax

  Traumatic pneumothorax is a common complication of penetrating or blunt chest injuries. […] Iatrogenic pneumothorax is caused by medical interventions, including transthoracic needle aspiration, thoracentesis, central venous catheter placement, mechanical ventilation, and cardiopulmonary resuscitation.

• #74 Pneumothorax – North Tees and Hartlepool NHS Foundation Trust

  https://www.nth.nhs.uk/resources/pneumothorax/

  Iatrogenic pneumothorax: Describes when a pneumothorax has happened after a medical procedure. This can include lung biopsies, camera tests and procedures to remove the fluid from the lung. […] A pneumothorax can happen more commonly in smokers. There are rarer genetic lung conditions which can predispose people to lung damage who can develop a pneumothorax because of this.

• #75 Pneumothorax – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumothorax

  The following known lung diseases may significantly increase the risk for pneumothorax. […] A traumatic pneumothorax may result from either blunt trauma or penetrating injury to the chest wall. […] Pneumothorax was reported as an adverse event caused by misplaced nasogastric feeding tubes. […] Medical procedures, such as inserting a central venous catheter into one of the chest veins or taking biopsy samples from lung tissue, may also lead to pneumothorax.

• #76 Pneumothorax (Collapsed Lung): Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15304-collapsed-lung-pneumothorax

  A pneumothorax is when air gets inside your chest cavity and creates pressure against your lung, causing it to collapse partially or fully. Underlying medical conditions, injuries or medical procedures can cause it. […] Pneumothorax has three main causes: medical conditions, injuries and lifestyle factors. […] Injuries and medical procedures can cause a traumatic pneumothorax. […] A spontaneous pneumothorax is a collapsed lung that happens without an injury. […] Certain lung diseases can lead to a collapsed lung. […] Other types of pneumothorax include: Tension pneumothorax: When air can get into your lungs but can’t get out. […] A rare condition that can affect people with endometriosis.

• #77 Video: Pneumothorax-Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/multimedia/video/pneumothorax

  During normal respiration, the lungs expand and contract within the chest cavity. If air enters this space, it is referred to as a pneumothorax. One type of pneumothorax, called a traumatic pneumothorax, can be caused by injury to the chest. A spontaneous pneumothorax occurs without injury as a result of certain lung diseases, such as asthma, emphysema, or COPD. […] A tension pneumothorax is a serious complication that can develop with any pneumothorax.

• #78 Tension pneumothorax | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/tension-pneumothorax?lang=us

  Tension pneumothorax may account for 1-2% of pneumothoraces and is predisposed by chest trauma and mechanical ventilation. […] A one-way valve mechanism is responsible for tension pneumothorax. This allows gas to enter the pleural space during inspiration but limits the release of gas during expiration thereby decreasing ventilatory capacity. Increasingly positive pleural pressure on the affected side causes mass effect, collapsing the ipsilateral lung, squashing the contralateral lung, displacing mediastinal structures and obstructing venous return.

• #79 „PT” Trick for Pneumothorax Types, Symptoms, Risk Factors, Causes, and Treatment of Collapsed Lung — EZmed

  https://www.ezmedlearning.com/blog/pneumothorax

  A pneumothorax is an abnormal collection of air in the pleural space, which is the space between the lung and chest wall. […] An abnormal accumulation of air in the pleural space can result in the partial or complete collapse of a lung. […] A pneumothorax is often referred to as a collapsed lung. […] However, the lung does not have to be completely collapsed in order for there to be a pneumothorax. […] Furthermore, the lung can collapse for reasons other than a pneumothorax. […] There are 2 main types of pneumothoraces: Spontaneous and Traumatic. […] Spontaneous pneumothoraces can be broken down even further into primary or secondary. […] A tension pneumothorax can develop from any type of pneumothorax (spontaneous or traumatic). […] A spontaneous pneumothorax develops when there is a hole in the lung parenchyma or bronchial tree, which can lead to air entering the pleural space.

• #80 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Diseases associated with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax include COPD, asthma, HIV with pneumocystis pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, severe ARDS, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, collagen vascular disease, inhalational drug use like cocaine or marijuana, and thoracic endometriosis. […] Causes of iatrogenic pneumothorax include pleural biopsy, transbronchial lung biopsy, transthoracic pulmonary nodule biopsy, central venous catheter insertion, tracheostomy, intercostal nerve block, and positive pressure ventilation. […] Causes of traumatic pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, rib fracture, and diving or flying. […] Causes of tension pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, barotrauma due to positive pressure ventilation, percutaneous tracheostomy, conversion of spontaneous pneumothorax to tension, and open pneumothorax when occlusive dressing works as one way valve.

• #81 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Diseases associated with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax include COPD, asthma, HIV with pneumocystis pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, severe ARDS, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, collagen vascular disease, inhalational drug use like cocaine or marijuana, and thoracic endometriosis. […] Causes of iatrogenic pneumothorax include pleural biopsy, transbronchial lung biopsy, transthoracic pulmonary nodule biopsy, central venous catheter insertion, tracheostomy, intercostal nerve block, and positive pressure ventilation. […] Causes of traumatic pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, rib fracture, and diving or flying. […] Causes of tension pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, barotrauma due to positive pressure ventilation, percutaneous tracheostomy, conversion of spontaneous pneumothorax to tension, and open pneumothorax when occlusive dressing works as one way valve.

• #82 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Diseases associated with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax include COPD, asthma, HIV with pneumocystis pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, severe ARDS, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, collagen vascular disease, inhalational drug use like cocaine or marijuana, and thoracic endometriosis. […] Causes of iatrogenic pneumothorax include pleural biopsy, transbronchial lung biopsy, transthoracic pulmonary nodule biopsy, central venous catheter insertion, tracheostomy, intercostal nerve block, and positive pressure ventilation. […] Causes of traumatic pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, rib fracture, and diving or flying. […] Causes of tension pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, barotrauma due to positive pressure ventilation, percutaneous tracheostomy, conversion of spontaneous pneumothorax to tension, and open pneumothorax when occlusive dressing works as one way valve.

• #83 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Diseases associated with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax include COPD, asthma, HIV with pneumocystis pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, severe ARDS, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, collagen vascular disease, inhalational drug use like cocaine or marijuana, and thoracic endometriosis. […] Causes of iatrogenic pneumothorax include pleural biopsy, transbronchial lung biopsy, transthoracic pulmonary nodule biopsy, central venous catheter insertion, tracheostomy, intercostal nerve block, and positive pressure ventilation. […] Causes of traumatic pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, rib fracture, and diving or flying. […] Causes of tension pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, barotrauma due to positive pressure ventilation, percutaneous tracheostomy, conversion of spontaneous pneumothorax to tension, and open pneumothorax when occlusive dressing works as one way valve.

• #84 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Diseases associated with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax include COPD, asthma, HIV with pneumocystis pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, severe ARDS, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, collagen vascular disease, inhalational drug use like cocaine or marijuana, and thoracic endometriosis. […] Causes of iatrogenic pneumothorax include pleural biopsy, transbronchial lung biopsy, transthoracic pulmonary nodule biopsy, central venous catheter insertion, tracheostomy, intercostal nerve block, and positive pressure ventilation. […] Causes of traumatic pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, rib fracture, and diving or flying. […] Causes of tension pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, barotrauma due to positive pressure ventilation, percutaneous tracheostomy, conversion of spontaneous pneumothorax to tension, and open pneumothorax when occlusive dressing works as one way valve.

• #85 Pneumothorax (collapsed lung) | Asthma + Lung UK

  https://www.asthmaandlung.org.uk/conditions/pneumothorax-collapsed-lung

  Pneumothorax has also been linked to air pollution. […] 1 in 10 people have a family member who has also experienced a pneumothorax. This is called familial pneumothorax. […] If you have a pneumothorax three days before or after the start of your period, it could be a catamenial pneumothorax. This type of pneumothorax is more common in your right lung and can happen more than once. The reasons for this are unknown, but early research has linked it to endometriosis.

• #86 Pneumothorax (collapsed lung) | Asthma + Lung UK

  https://www.asthmaandlung.org.uk/conditions/pneumothorax-collapsed-lung

  This is when a pneumothorax happens in someone who has an existing lung condition. Its more likely to happen if the condition weakens the edge of the lung – this makes it more likely to tear. Conditions that can cause a pneumothorax are: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), tuberculosis (TB), sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, lung cancer, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM). […] Pneumothorax can be caused by: a chest injury in an accident like a car crash, surgery where a needle is inserted into your chest, acupuncture needles. These can cause a pneumothorax if they puncture the lining of your lung, lung surgery, such as endobronchial valve placement to treat emphysema. […] You are more likely to have a pneumothorax if you smoke tobacco or cannabis (weed). Vaping can increase the risk of pneumothorax too.

• #87 Pneumothorax | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/pneumothorax?lang=us

  Pneumothorax (PTX) refers to the presence of gas in the pleural space which allows the parietal and visceral pleura to separate and the lung to collapse. The clinical consequences range from negligible to hemodynamic collapse and death. […] Primary spontaneous pneumothoraces occur in younger patients (typically less than 35 years of age), especially young tall males and smokers who have a much greater lifetime risk, 12% versus 0.1% in non-smokers. Recurrence rate in the subsequent three years is between 20-60%. Secondary spontaneous pneumothoraces due to underlying lung disease occur in older patients (typically over 45 years of age). Pneumothorax is a common presentation of cystic lung disease. […] A primary spontaneous pneumothorax occurs in a patient with no known underlying lung disease. Tall and thin habitus are more likely to develop a primary spontaneous pneumothorax. There may be a familial component, and there are well-known associations: Marfan syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency, homocystinuria.

• #88 Unusual causes of pneumothorax – Ouellette – Journal of Thoracic Disease

  https://jtd.amegroups.org/article/view/3142/html

  Pneumothorax is divided to primary and secondary. […] Pneumothorax can be treated either by thoracic surgeons, or pulmonary physicians. […] Several uncommon pulmonary conditions are frequently associated with pneumothorax, such as lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM) and pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis (PLCH). […] Examples of the latter group include: anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis, systemic lupus erythematosis (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis and related conditions, scleroderma, dermatomyositis, and inflammatory bowel disease. […] Finally, extremely rare conditions such as Birt-Hogg-Dube syndrome have an association with pneumothorax. […] Pneumothorax has been reported to precede the diagnosis of LAM in 82% of patients who have had at least one pneumothorax.

• #89 Understanding Loculated Pneumothorax: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://neumarksurgery.com/loculated-pneumothorax/

  Loculated pneumothorax is a complex lung condition that can be challenging to treat. […] You might be wondering what causes this to happen. Theres no single answer because the causes of loculated pneumothorax can vary. Sometimes, its due to an injury or trauma to the chest. Other times, its a complication of lung diseases like pneumonia or cancer. And, sometimes, medical procedures can inadvertently cause it. […] Managing a loculated pneumothorax presents significant challenges. Unlike a simple pneumothorax, where a chest tube insertion might suffice, loculated pneumothoraces often require more complex and tailored interventions. Each case is distinct and requires careful evaluation to determine the most effective combination of therapeutic approaches, potentially involving advanced imaging, multiple drainage procedures, or surgical intervention.

• #90 Pneumothorax (Collapsed Lung) Types, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://www.medicinenet.com/pneumothorax/article.htm

  A pneumothorax is a collection of free air in the chest outside the lung that causes the lung to collapse. […] The types of pneumothorax include the following: A spontaneous pneumothorax, also referred to as a primary pneumothorax, occurs in the absence of a traumatic injury to the chest or a known lung disease. A secondary (also termed complicated) pneumothorax occurs due to an underlying condition. […] The lungs normally inflate by increasing the size of the chest cavity, resulting in a negative (vacuum) pressure in the pleural space (the area within the chest cavity but outside the lungs). If air enters the pleural space either by a hole in the lung or the chest wall, the pressure in the pleural space equals the pressure outside the body. Thus, the vacuum is lost and the lung collapses.

• #91 SciELO Brazil – Etiology of primary spontaneous pneumothorax Etiology of primary spontaneous pneumothorax

  https://www.scielo.br/j/jbpneu/a/9C6jW6BFBxdKqDffhhqDKYt/

  With the advent of HRCT, primary spontaneous pneumothorax has come to be better understood and managed, because its etiology can now be identified in most cases. Primary spontaneous pneumothorax is mainly caused by the rupture of a small subpleural emphysematous vesicle (designated a bleb) or of a subpleural paraseptal emphysematous lesion (designated a bulla). […] The pathogenesis of primary spontaneous pneumothorax can be best understood by understanding emphysematous lung lesions. […] A bulla (i.e., a subpleural emphysematous bulla) is an airspace measuring more than 1 cm-usually several centimeters-in diameter, sharply demarcated by a thin wall that is no greater than 1 mm in thickness. […] When emphysema is distal, affecting primarily the margins of the lung lobes, it is designated distal acinar or paraseptal emphysema, which is the form of emphysema that is most closely related to primary spontaneous pneumothorax.

• #92 SciELO Brazil – Etiology of primary spontaneous pneumothorax Etiology of primary spontaneous pneumothorax

  https://www.scielo.br/j/jbpneu/a/9C6jW6BFBxdKqDffhhqDKYt/

  Although paraseptal emphysema is multiform and can affect various portions of the lung lobes, it primarily affects the lung apices. […] The absence of pleural mesothelial cells on histological examination has been demonstrated by scanning electron microscopy, occurring primarily on the thin outer surface of type I bullae and in some areas on the surface of type II bullae. Therefore, distension of emphysematous bullae is due to a reduction in the surface tension of their walls, and this can be explained by Laplace’s law. In addition, there is evidence of a congenital etiology; however, the pathogenesis of bullae remains controversial. […] Bullae are found in approximately 85% of all patients with primary spontaneous pneumothorax undergoing surgery.

• #93 Unusual causes of pneumothorax – Ouellette – Journal of Thoracic Disease

  https://jtd.amegroups.org/article/view/3142/html

  Pneumothorax is the second most common clinical feature of LAM, after dyspnea. […] On average, patients with LAM have a lifetime incidence of 3.5 episodes of pneumothorax. […] Theories for the development of the cystic air spaces have included obstruction of conducting bronchi by LAM cells, or destruction of the supporting interstitial matrix by enzymes elaborated by LAM cells. […] Pneumothorax may be visible in the appropriate patient context. […] The incidence of pneumothorax in LAM is very high, with reported rates between 39-76%. […] A striking clinical feature of LAM is that patients have a very high recurrence rate of pneumothorax. […] There have been case reports of the occurrence of bilateral pneumothorax in patients with LAM. […] The best data concerning treatment of pneumothorax in LAM is presented in the retrospective review of the LAM Foundation registry by Almoosa and colleagues.

• #94 Unusual causes of pneumothorax – Ouellette – Journal of Thoracic Disease

  https://jtd.amegroups.org/article/view/3142/html

  Pneumothorax is attributed to the rupture of subpleural cysts. […] Pneumothorax may recur in patients with PLCH, a circumstance that may require surgical treatment. […] Spontaneous pneumothorax has long been known to be a complication of PLCH. […] The occurrence of pneumothorax in patients with PLCH does not appear to effect pulmonary physiology or overall outcomes. […] An episode of pneumothorax in a patient with PLCH carries a high risk of recurrence even if treated with a chest tube if sclerosing agents are not used. […] Birt-Hogg-Dub syndrome (BHD) is a rare genetic disorder associated with spontaneous pneumothorax. […] The odds ratio for the development of spontaneous pneumothorax in a patient with BHD has been calculated to be 50%. […] Spontaneous pneumothorax may be associated with rare diseases such as LAM and PLCH, or may be the rare sequella of more common systemic diseases.

• #95 Pneumothorax in adults: Epidemiology and etiology – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pneumothorax-in-adults-epidemiology-and-etiology

  Epidemiology — PSP is more common in males than females (roughly three to six times higher). The incidence of PSP in males ranges from 7.4 per 100,000 population per year in the United States to 37 per 100,000 population per year in the United Kingdom. The incidence in females ranges from 1.2 per 100,000 population per year in the United States to 15.4 per 100,000 population per year in the United Kingdom. The reason for these geographic differences is unknown. Another hospital database study of emergency department visits from January 2008 to December 2014 reported that 79 percent of pneumothoraces were in males and 21 percent in females. […] The prevalence of asymptomatic PSP is unknown, but one retrospective study of Japanese students suggested that the rate may be as high as 0.042 percent and higher in males than females. Mild collapse (ie, <10 percent collapse) was present in approximately half of individuals, most of whom underwent intervention.

• #96 Pneumothorax: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/pneumothorax-pro

  Tension pneumothorax is a life-threatening emergency that requires instant action. Severe symptoms and signs of respiratory distress suggest the presence of tension pneumothorax.1 […] Smoking is the most important risk factor: compared to non-smokers, men who smoke increase their risk of a first pneumothorax 22-fold and women 9-fold.7 […] Secondary spontaneous pneumothorax (SSP) can occur with various underlying lung conditions, including COPD, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, malignancy, and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. It may also occur with Pneumocystis jirovecii infection in AIDS. […] The clinical course of primary spontaneous pneumothorax is variable with a recurrence rate ranging from 25% to 54%. The presence of underlying chronic lung disease is a significant determinant of recurrence. […] The risk of recurrence of PSP is as high as 54% within the first four years, with isolated risk factors including smoking, height and age over 60 years. […] A patient who smokes must be advised to stop to reduce their risk of a first pneumothorax and that of a recurrence.

• #97 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  A pneumothorax is a collection of air outside the lung but within the pleural cavity. It occurs when air accumulates between the parietal and visceral pleura inside the chest. […] Air can enter the pleural space by two mechanisms, either by trauma causing communication through the chest wall or from the lung by rupture of the visceral pleura. There are two types of pneumothorax: traumatic and atraumatic. The two subtypes of atraumatic pneumothorax are primary and secondary. A primary spontaneous pneumothorax (PSP) occurs automatically without a known eliciting event, while a secondary spontaneous pneumothorax (SSP) occurs after an underlying pulmonary disease. A traumatic pneumothorax can be the result of blunt or penetrating trauma. […] Risk factors for primary spontaneous pneumothorax include smoking, tall thin body habitus in an otherwise healthy person, pregnancy, Marfan syndrome, and familial pneumothorax.

• #98 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Secondary spontaneous pneumothorax occurs in the presence of underlying lung disease, primarily chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; others may include tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, malignancy, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, and pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia. […] Iatrogenic pneumothorax occurs due to a complication of a medical or surgical procedure. Thoracentesis is the most common cause. […] Traumatic pneumothoraces can result from blunt or penetrating trauma; these often create a one-way valve in the pleural space (letting the airflow in but not flow out) and hence hemodynamic compromise. Tension pneumothorax most commonly occurs in ICU settings in positive-pressure ventilated patients.

• #99 Pneumothorax | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/pneumothorax?lang=us

  Pneumothorax (PTX) refers to the presence of gas in the pleural space which allows the parietal and visceral pleura to separate and the lung to collapse. The clinical consequences range from negligible to hemodynamic collapse and death. […] Primary spontaneous pneumothoraces occur in younger patients (typically less than 35 years of age), especially young tall males and smokers who have a much greater lifetime risk, 12% versus 0.1% in non-smokers. Recurrence rate in the subsequent three years is between 20-60%. Secondary spontaneous pneumothoraces due to underlying lung disease occur in older patients (typically over 45 years of age). Pneumothorax is a common presentation of cystic lung disease. […] A primary spontaneous pneumothorax occurs in a patient with no known underlying lung disease. Tall and thin habitus are more likely to develop a primary spontaneous pneumothorax. There may be a familial component, and there are well-known associations: Marfan syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency, homocystinuria.

• #100 Pneumothorax (collapsed lung) | Asthma + Lung UK

  https://www.asthmaandlung.org.uk/conditions/pneumothorax-collapsed-lung

  Pneumothorax has also been linked to air pollution. […] 1 in 10 people have a family member who has also experienced a pneumothorax. This is called familial pneumothorax. […] If you have a pneumothorax three days before or after the start of your period, it could be a catamenial pneumothorax. This type of pneumothorax is more common in your right lung and can happen more than once. The reasons for this are unknown, but early research has linked it to endometriosis.

• #101 Pneumothorax | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/pneumothorax?lang=us

  Pneumothorax (PTX) refers to the presence of gas in the pleural space which allows the parietal and visceral pleura to separate and the lung to collapse. The clinical consequences range from negligible to hemodynamic collapse and death. […] Primary spontaneous pneumothoraces occur in younger patients (typically less than 35 years of age), especially young tall males and smokers who have a much greater lifetime risk, 12% versus 0.1% in non-smokers. Recurrence rate in the subsequent three years is between 20-60%. Secondary spontaneous pneumothoraces due to underlying lung disease occur in older patients (typically over 45 years of age). Pneumothorax is a common presentation of cystic lung disease. […] A primary spontaneous pneumothorax occurs in a patient with no known underlying lung disease. Tall and thin habitus are more likely to develop a primary spontaneous pneumothorax. There may be a familial component, and there are well-known associations: Marfan syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency, homocystinuria.

• #102 Pneumothorax (Collapsed Lung): Symptoms, Causes, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/collapsed-lung

  Pneumothorax can be traumatic or nontraumatic. […] Traumatic pneumothorax results from an injury, like a blow to the chest. Nontraumatic pneumothorax can happen if you have lung disease, like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), but it can also happen for no apparent reason in people without lung disease. […] Traumatic pneumothorax occurs after some type of trauma or injury has happened to the chest or lung wall. It can be a minor or significant injury. The trauma can damage chest structures and cause air to leak into the pleural space. […] Here are some types of injuries that can cause traumatic pneumothorax: trauma to the chest from a motor vehicle accident, broken ribs, a blow to the chest during a contact sport, like football tackle, a stab or bullet wound to the chest, accidental damage during a medical procedure like a central line placement, ventilator use, lung biopsies, or CPR, diving, flying, or being at high altitude due to air pressure changes.

• #103 Pneumothorax: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/pneumothorax-pro

  Tension pneumothorax is a life-threatening emergency that requires instant action. Severe symptoms and signs of respiratory distress suggest the presence of tension pneumothorax.1 […] Smoking is the most important risk factor: compared to non-smokers, men who smoke increase their risk of a first pneumothorax 22-fold and women 9-fold.7 […] Secondary spontaneous pneumothorax (SSP) can occur with various underlying lung conditions, including COPD, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, malignancy, and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. It may also occur with Pneumocystis jirovecii infection in AIDS. […] The clinical course of primary spontaneous pneumothorax is variable with a recurrence rate ranging from 25% to 54%. The presence of underlying chronic lung disease is a significant determinant of recurrence. […] The risk of recurrence of PSP is as high as 54% within the first four years, with isolated risk factors including smoking, height and age over 60 years. […] A patient who smokes must be advised to stop to reduce their risk of a first pneumothorax and that of a recurrence.

• #104 Pneumothorax: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/pneumothorax-pro

  Tension pneumothorax is a life-threatening emergency that requires instant action. Severe symptoms and signs of respiratory distress suggest the presence of tension pneumothorax.1 […] Smoking is the most important risk factor: compared to non-smokers, men who smoke increase their risk of a first pneumothorax 22-fold and women 9-fold.7 […] Secondary spontaneous pneumothorax (SSP) can occur with various underlying lung conditions, including COPD, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, malignancy, and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. It may also occur with Pneumocystis jirovecii infection in AIDS. […] The clinical course of primary spontaneous pneumothorax is variable with a recurrence rate ranging from 25% to 54%. The presence of underlying chronic lung disease is a significant determinant of recurrence. […] The risk of recurrence of PSP is as high as 54% within the first four years, with isolated risk factors including smoking, height and age over 60 years. […] A patient who smokes must be advised to stop to reduce their risk of a first pneumothorax and that of a recurrence.

• #105 Pneumothorax – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumothorax

  A primary spontaneous pneumothorax is one that occurs without an apparent cause and in the absence of significant lung disease. […] A secondary spontaneous pneumothorax occurs in the presence of existing lung disease. […] Smoking increases the risk of primary spontaneous pneumothorax, while the main underlying causes for secondary pneumothorax are COPD, asthma, and tuberculosis. […] A traumatic pneumothorax can develop from physical trauma to the chest (including a blast injury) or from a complication of a healthcare intervention. […] The cause of primary spontaneous pneumothorax is unknown, but established risk factors include being of the male sex, smoking, and a family history of pneumothorax. […] Secondary spontaneous pneumothorax occurs in the setting of a variety of lung diseases. The most common is chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which accounts for approximately 70% of cases.

• #106 Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441885/

  Diseases associated with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax include COPD, asthma, HIV with pneumocystis pneumonia, necrotizing pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, bronchogenic carcinoma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, severe ARDS, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, collagen vascular disease, inhalational drug use like cocaine or marijuana, and thoracic endometriosis. […] Causes of iatrogenic pneumothorax include pleural biopsy, transbronchial lung biopsy, transthoracic pulmonary nodule biopsy, central venous catheter insertion, tracheostomy, intercostal nerve block, and positive pressure ventilation. […] Causes of traumatic pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, rib fracture, and diving or flying. […] Causes of tension pneumothorax include penetrating or blunt trauma, barotrauma due to positive pressure ventilation, percutaneous tracheostomy, conversion of spontaneous pneumothorax to tension, and open pneumothorax when occlusive dressing works as one way valve.

• #107 Other causes of secondary pneumothorax | The BMJ

  https://www.bmj.com/rapid-response/2011/10/28/other-causes-secondary-pneumothorax

  Spontaneous pneumothorax develops in 2-6% of HIV infected patients and is associated with P. carinii pneumonia in 80% of those cases. […] Pneumothorax related to menses typically occurs in women who are 30-40 years of age and who have a history of pelvic endometriosis. It usually affects the right lung and occurs within 72 hours after the onset of menses. Other causes of secondary pneumothorax include cystic fibrosis, necrotising pneumonias; pulmonary fibrosis due to sarcoidosis, Langerhans cell granulomatosis, lymphangiomyomatosis, tuberous sclerosis; connective tissue diseases and cancers, including lung cancer and sarcoma.

• #108 Other causes of secondary pneumothorax | The BMJ

  https://www.bmj.com/rapid-response/2011/10/28/other-causes-secondary-pneumothorax

  Spontaneous pneumothorax develops in 2-6% of HIV infected patients and is associated with P. carinii pneumonia in 80% of those cases. […] Pneumothorax related to menses typically occurs in women who are 30-40 years of age and who have a history of pelvic endometriosis. It usually affects the right lung and occurs within 72 hours after the onset of menses. Other causes of secondary pneumothorax include cystic fibrosis, necrotising pneumonias; pulmonary fibrosis due to sarcoidosis, Langerhans cell granulomatosis, lymphangiomyomatosis, tuberous sclerosis; connective tissue diseases and cancers, including lung cancer and sarcoma.

• #109 Unusual causes of pneumothorax – Ouellette – Journal of Thoracic Disease

  https://jtd.amegroups.org/article/view/3142/html

  Pneumothorax is divided to primary and secondary. […] Pneumothorax can be treated either by thoracic surgeons, or pulmonary physicians. […] Several uncommon pulmonary conditions are frequently associated with pneumothorax, such as lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM) and pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis (PLCH). […] Examples of the latter group include: anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis, systemic lupus erythematosis (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis and related conditions, scleroderma, dermatomyositis, and inflammatory bowel disease. […] Finally, extremely rare conditions such as Birt-Hogg-Dube syndrome have an association with pneumothorax. […] Pneumothorax has been reported to precede the diagnosis of LAM in 82% of patients who have had at least one pneumothorax.

• #110 Spontaneous Pneumothorax – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459302/

  Spontaneous pneumothorax occurs without an obvious etiology and can be classified as either primary or secondary. […] Spontaneous pneumothorax occurs without an obvious etiology such as trauma or iatrogenic causes. […] While primary spontaneous pneumothorax is not associated with underlying pulmonary disease, secondary spontaneous pneumothorax is associated with, but not limited to, the following: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Asthma, Cystic fibrosis, Pneumonia (e.g., necrotizing, Pneumocystis jirovecii), Pulmonary abscess, Tuberculosis, Malignancy, Interstitial lung disease (e.g., idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, sarcoidosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis), Connective tissue disease (e.g., Marfan syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis), Pulmonary infarct, Foreign body aspiration, Catamenial (i.e., associated with menses secondary to thoracic endometriosis), Birt-Hogg-Dube syndrome.

• #111 Other causes of secondary pneumothorax | The BMJ

  https://www.bmj.com/rapid-response/2011/10/28/other-causes-secondary-pneumothorax

  Spontaneous pneumothorax develops in 2-6% of HIV infected patients and is associated with P. carinii pneumonia in 80% of those cases. […] Pneumothorax related to menses typically occurs in women who are 30-40 years of age and who have a history of pelvic endometriosis. It usually affects the right lung and occurs within 72 hours after the onset of menses. Other causes of secondary pneumothorax include cystic fibrosis, necrotising pneumonias; pulmonary fibrosis due to sarcoidosis, Langerhans cell granulomatosis, lymphangiomyomatosis, tuberous sclerosis; connective tissue diseases and cancers, including lung cancer and sarcoma.

• #112 Aetiology of Primary Spontaneous Pneumothorax

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/11/3/490

  Smoking is a recognised risk factor for PSP. One early study from a Swedish population suggested that smoking increased the relative risk of first episode of pneumothorax by a factor of 22 in men and 9 in women. Furthermore, a systematic review found that smoking cessation reduces the rate of recurrence by a factor of 4 (odds ratio of 0.26). […] While PSP seems to occur in patients without overtly recognised lung disease, patients may have blebs or bullae seen on computed tomography (CT) scanning. It is often thought that it is rupture of a bleb or bullae that causes the air to leak from the lung into the pleural space, thereby causing the pneumothorax. […] Blebs and bullae are sometimes known as emphysema-like change (ELC). A bleb can be defined as an outpouching (or vesicle) of the visceral pleura caused by air in the interstitium, forming between the lamina elastica interna and externa of the pulmonary pleura, typically <1 cm in diameter, whereas a bulla (i.e., subpleural emphysematous bulla) is an airspace measuring >1 cm, which is sharply demarcated by a thin wall (no greater than 1 mm in thickness).

• #113 Pneumothorax: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/pneumothorax-pro

  Tension pneumothorax is a life-threatening emergency that requires instant action. Severe symptoms and signs of respiratory distress suggest the presence of tension pneumothorax.1 […] Smoking is the most important risk factor: compared to non-smokers, men who smoke increase their risk of a first pneumothorax 22-fold and women 9-fold.7 […] Secondary spontaneous pneumothorax (SSP) can occur with various underlying lung conditions, including COPD, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, cystic fibrosis, malignancy, and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. It may also occur with Pneumocystis jirovecii infection in AIDS. […] The clinical course of primary spontaneous pneumothorax is variable with a recurrence rate ranging from 25% to 54%. The presence of underlying chronic lung disease is a significant determinant of recurrence. […] The risk of recurrence of PSP is as high as 54% within the first four years, with isolated risk factors including smoking, height and age over 60 years. […] A patient who smokes must be advised to stop to reduce their risk of a first pneumothorax and that of a recurrence.

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