Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Autism spectrum disorder – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/autism-spectrum-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20352928

  Autism spectrum disorder has no single known cause. Given the complexity of the disorder, and the fact that symptoms and severity vary, there are probably many causes. Both genetics and environment may play a role. […] Several different genes appear to be involved in autism spectrum disorder. For some children, autism spectrum disorder can be associated with a genetic disorder, such as Rett syndrome or fragile X syndrome. For other children, genetic changes (mutations) may increase the risk of autism spectrum disorder. Still other genes may affect brain development or the way that brain cells communicate, or they may determine the severity of symptoms. Some genetic mutations seem to be inherited, while others occur spontaneously. […] Researchers are currently exploring whether factors such as viral infections, medications or complications during pregnancy, or air pollutants play a role in triggering autism spectrum disorder.

• #2 About Autism Spectrum Disorder | Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/autism/about/index.html

  Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disability caused by differences in the brain. […] Some people with ASD have a known difference, such as a genetic condition. Other causes are not yet known. […] Scientists believe there are multiple causes of ASD that act together to change the most common ways people develop. We still have much to learn about these causes and how they impact people with ASD. […] There is not just one cause of ASD. Many different factors have been identified that may make a child more likely to have ASD, including environmental, biologic, and genetic factors. […] Although we know little about specific causes, the available evidence suggests that the following may put children at greater risk for developing ASD: Having a sibling with ASD, Having certain genetic or chromosomal conditions, such as fragile X syndrome or tuberous sclerosis, Experiencing complications at birth, Being born to older parents.

• #3 What causes autism? | Autism Speaks

  https://www.autismspeaks.org/what-causes-autism

  There are many causes of autism. Research suggests that autism spectrum disorder (ASD) develops from a combination of: […] Genetic influences and environmental influences, including social determinants. […] These factors appear to increase the risk of autism and shape the type of autism that a child will develop. However, it’s important to keep in mind that increased risk is not the same as a cause. […] Most appear to affect crucial aspects of early brain development. Many autism risk genes influence other networks of genes, increasing or decreasing their expression. […] Research tells us that autism tends to run in families, and a meta-analysis of 7 twin studies claim that 60 to 90% of the risk of autism comes from your genome. […] Changes in certain genes or your genome increase the risk that a child will develop autism.

• #4 Exploring the Etiology of Autism Spectrum Disorder – Bridge Care ABA

  https://www.bridgecareaba.com/blog/etiology-of-autism-spectrum-disorder

  Unlocking the enigma of autism spectrum disorder: delve into the origins and influences behind ASD. […] Understanding the key aspects of ASD is crucial in unraveling its complex etiology. […] Understanding the prevalence and gender disparity of ASD provides a foundation for further exploration into the complex etiology of this neurodevelopmental disorder. […] When exploring the etiology of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), genetic factors play a significant role. […] It is estimated that genetic variations contribute to 40 to 80 percent of the risk of developing ASD. […] Genetic causes can be identified in about 20-25% of children or adults with ASD, including de novo mutations, common and rare genetic variations, and ASD-associated common polymorphisms. […] The interplay between genetic factors and environmental influences also plays a significant role in the development of the disorder.

• #5 Etiology of Autism Spectrum Disorder: Unlocking the Origins

  https://www.astraaba.com/blog/etiology-of-autism-spectrum-disorder

  Genetic factors contribute significantly to the development of autism spectrum disorder. Studies have indicated a strong genetic component, with heritability estimates ranging from 64% to 91%. […] The heritability of autism spectrum disorder refers to the proportion of the risk for ASD that can be attributed to genetic factors. It is estimated that genetic factors contribute 40 to 80 percent of the risk of developing ASD. […] Research has identified numerous genes associated with autism spectrum disorder. Changes in over 1,000 genes have been linked to ASD. […] While genetic factors play a significant role in the etiology of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), environmental factors also contribute to the development of the condition. […] Numerous environmental factors have been associated with an increased risk of ASD. A meta-analysis study found that advanced parental age at birth, maternal prenatal medication use, bleeding, gestational diabetes, being first-born, and having a mother born abroad were factors associated with an increased risk of autism.

• #6 Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): Causes and Risk Factors

  https://www.verywellmind.com/autism-causes-and-risk-factors-5195311

  Research shows that family history and genetics play a role in the development of the condition. Complications during pregnancy or having children later in life may also play a role. […] Children with families who have a history of the disorder are at a higher risk of developing it. Even if both parents of a child do not have ASD, they might be carriers of gene changes that cause autism and can be passed on to the child. […] When a child is diagnosed with ASD, the next child could have up to a 20% chance of developing the condition. And if the first two children in a family have ASD, the third child has about a 32% risk of developing the condition. […] A meta-analysis of studies into how genetics factor into the development of ASD in twins found the overall heritability of ASD to be between 64% to 91%.

• #7 Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) Symptoms & Causes

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/autism

  Yes, but the genetic causes of autism are complicated. There’s not a single, specific gene variation that’s unique to autism. This makes autism different from some other genetic conditions, like cystic fibrosis, where providers can pinpoint a specific gene variation and say, ah!, there it is. […] Instead, many gene variations are linked to autism. This means autistic people might have one or more gene variations that play a role in their brain differences. […] It can be. It’s easy to confuse genetics with inheritance. When we say autism is genetic, we mean variations in certain genes affect how your baby’s brain works. Those gene variations might pop up for the first time in your baby; in this case, they’re not inherited. But it’s also possible for biological parents to pass down gene variations to their children. We think autism can be inherited because we see patterns among siblings.

• #8 Autism spectrum disorder: MedlinePlus GeneticsLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/autism-spectrum-disorder/

  Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a condition that appears very early in childhood development, varies in severity, and is characterized by impaired social skills, communication problems, and repetitive actions. […] Changes in over 1,000 genes have been reported to be associated with ASD, but a large number of these associations have not been confirmed. Many common gene variations are thought to affect the risk of developing ASD, but not all people with one or more of these gene variations will be affected. […] The risk from gene variants combined with environmental risk factors, such as parental age, birth complications, and others that have not been identified, determine an individual’s risk of developing this complex condition. […] By contrast, in about 2 to 4 percent of people with ASD, rare gene mutations or chromosome abnormalities are thought to be the cause of the condition, often as a feature of syndromes that also involve additional signs and symptoms affecting various parts of the body.

• #9 Autism spectrum disorder: MedlinePlus GeneticsLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/autism-spectrum-disorder/

  Many of the genes associated with ASD are involved in the development of the brain. […] The specific ways that changes in these and other genes relate to the development of ASD are unknown. However, studies indicate that during brain development, some people with ASD have more neurons than normal and overgrowth in parts of the outer surface of the brain (the cortex). […] These abnormalities are thought to underlie the differences in socialization, communication, and cognitive functioning characteristic of ASD.

• #10 Autism – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism

  Autism has a strong genetic basis, although the genetics of autism are complex and it is unclear whether autism is explained more by rare mutations with major effects, or by rare multi-gene interactions of common genetic variants. […] If autism is one characteristic of a broader medical condition, such as fragile X syndrome, it is referred to as syndromic autism, as opposed to non-syndromic or idiopathic autism, which is typically polygenic without a known cause. […] Research suggests that autism is associated with a large number of genes—potentially hundreds or thousands—that influence neural development and connectivity.

• #11 Autism spectrum disorder: MedlinePlus GeneticsLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/autism-spectrum-disorder/

  Many of the genes associated with ASD are involved in the development of the brain. […] The specific ways that changes in these and other genes relate to the development of ASD are unknown. However, studies indicate that during brain development, some people with ASD have more neurons than normal and overgrowth in parts of the outer surface of the brain (the cortex). […] These abnormalities are thought to underlie the differences in socialization, communication, and cognitive functioning characteristic of ASD.

• #12 Autism spectrum disorder – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/autism-spectrum-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20352928

  Autism spectrum disorder has no single known cause. Given the complexity of the disorder, and the fact that symptoms and severity vary, there are probably many causes. Both genetics and environment may play a role. […] Several different genes appear to be involved in autism spectrum disorder. For some children, autism spectrum disorder can be associated with a genetic disorder, such as Rett syndrome or fragile X syndrome. For other children, genetic changes (mutations) may increase the risk of autism spectrum disorder. Still other genes may affect brain development or the way that brain cells communicate, or they may determine the severity of symptoms. Some genetic mutations seem to be inherited, while others occur spontaneously. […] Researchers are currently exploring whether factors such as viral infections, medications or complications during pregnancy, or air pollutants play a role in triggering autism spectrum disorder.

• #13 Autism spectrum disorder – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/autism-spectrum-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20352928

  Autism spectrum disorder has no single known cause. Given the complexity of the disorder, and the fact that symptoms and severity vary, there are probably many causes. Both genetics and environment may play a role. […] Several different genes appear to be involved in autism spectrum disorder. For some children, autism spectrum disorder can be associated with a genetic disorder, such as Rett syndrome or fragile X syndrome. For other children, genetic changes (mutations) may increase the risk of autism spectrum disorder. Still other genes may affect brain development or the way that brain cells communicate, or they may determine the severity of symptoms. Some genetic mutations seem to be inherited, while others occur spontaneously. […] Researchers are currently exploring whether factors such as viral infections, medications or complications during pregnancy, or air pollutants play a role in triggering autism spectrum disorder.

• #14 Exploring the Diverse Causes of Autism Spectrum Disorder | Blog Swiss Medica

  https://www.startstemcells.com/exploring-the-diverse-causes-of-autism-spectrum-disorder.html

  Genetic factors, including gene mutations inherited from a parent, can make a child more vulnerable to developing ASD. However, not all children who have parents or siblings with autism develop this disorder. […] Researchers have found what genes cause autism or contribute to what causes autism. These variants result in permanent damage to the DNA sequences that make up a gene. […] Several genetic mutations and variations are being studied for their possible role in the development of ASD. For example, copy number variations including the duplication and deletion of certain genes in chromosome 22 are strongly linked to the risk of ASD. […] De novo mutations refer to genetic alterations that appear in a person of the family for the first time without any reported occurrence of the mutation in the earlier generations. Recent research reveals that de novo mutations contribute to nearly 52 to 67% of cases of what causes autism disorder in low-risk families.

• #15 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/Autism-Causes.aspx

  About 10-15% of cases have a specific, identifiable genetic cause and other congenital disorders, such as such as Fragile X Syndrome, Tuberous Sclerosis, and Angelmans Syndrome. The role of the immune system in causation of autism is also gaining importance. […] It is, however, clear from research that autism is not caused by bad parenting. […] Much evidence supports the idea that genetic factors could contribute to a risk of autism. Current evidence suggests that as many as 12 or more genes on different chromosomes may be involved in autism. […] Some genes may place a person at greater risk for autism, called susceptibility while yet others may cause specific symptoms or determine severity of the symptoms. Some genes with changes or mutations might add to the symptoms of autism. […] The idea of genes being responsible for autism gains support from the facts like identical twins have a high risk of having ASD (36-95% of the time). […] In non-identical twins, if one child has an ASD, then the other is affected about 0-31% of the time. In addition, parents who have a child with an ASD have a 2%-18% chance of having a second child who is also affected.

• #16 Psychiatry.org – What Is Autism Spectrum Disorder?

  https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/autism/what-is-autism-spectrum-disorder

  Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex developmental condition involving persistent challenges with social communication, restricted interests and repetitive behavior. […] The current science suggests that several genetic factors may increase the risk of autism in a complex manner. People with certain specific genetic conditions such as Fragile X Syndrome and Tuberous Sclerosis are at increased risk for being diagnosed with autism. […] Certain medications, such as valproic acid and thalidomide, when taken during pregnancy, have been linked with a higher risk of autism as well. […] Having a sibling with autism also increases the likelihood of a child being diagnosed with autism. […] Parents being older at the time of pregnancy is additionally linked with greater risk of autism. […] Vaccines on the other hand have not been shown to increase the likelihood of an autism diagnosis, and race, ethnicity or socioeconomic status does not seem to have a link either. […] Male children tend to be diagnosed with autism more often than those assigned female sex at birth.

• #17 Autism – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism

  Autism has a strong genetic basis, although the genetics of autism are complex and it is unclear whether autism is explained more by rare mutations with major effects, or by rare multi-gene interactions of common genetic variants. […] If autism is one characteristic of a broader medical condition, such as fragile X syndrome, it is referred to as syndromic autism, as opposed to non-syndromic or idiopathic autism, which is typically polygenic without a known cause. […] Research suggests that autism is associated with a large number of genes—potentially hundreds or thousands—that influence neural development and connectivity.

• #18 Autism Spectrum Disorders: Etiology and Pathology – Autism Spectrum Disorders – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK573613/

  Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a group of neurodevelopmental diseases. The cause of ASD is unknown, but several genetic and non-genetic risk factors have been characterized that, alone or in combination, are implicated in the development of ASD. […] The etiology of ASD is likely to be multifactorial, with both genetic and non-genetic factors playing a role. ASD can be syndromic or non-syndromic. Syndromic ASD is often associated with chromosomal abnormalities or monogenic alterations. Such examples include Rett syndrome, fragile X syndrome, and MECP2 duplication syndrome. Contrary to syndromic ASD, the etiology of non-syndromic ASD is still relatively undefined due to its genetic heterogeneity. A collaboration of de novo mutations and prenatal plus postnatal environmental factors are likely to play a role.

• #19 Causes of autism – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causes_of_autism

  Many causes of autism, including environmental and genetic factors, have been recognized or proposed, but understanding of the etiology of autism is incomplete. […] There are many known environmental, genetic, and biological causes of autism. Research indicates that genetic factors predominantly contribute to its appearance. […] Different underlying brain dysfunctions have been hypothesized to result in the common symptoms of autism, just as completely different brain types result in intellectual disability. […] Environmental factors that have been claimed to contribute to autism or exacerbate its symptoms, or that may be important to consider in future research, include certain foods, infectious disease, heavy metals, solvents, phthalates and phenols used in plastic products, pesticides, brominated flame retardants, alcohol, smoking, and illicit drugs.

• #20 What causes autism? | Autism Speaks

  https://www.autismspeaks.org/what-causes-autism

  According to the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, certain environmental influences may increase autism risk: Advanced parental age, prenatal exposure to air pollution or certain pesticides, maternal obesity, diabetes or immune system disorders, extreme prematurity or very low birth weight, birth complications leading to periods of oxygen deprivation to the baby’s brain. […] Autism prevalence has risen due to increased awareness of autism, broader diagnostic criteria for autism, improved screening tools and standardized screening processes. […] While the impact of other genetic and environmental factors on prevalence is still being studied, they likely account for only a small part of the increase.

• #21 Prenatal environmental risk factors for autism spectrum disorder and their potential mechanisms | BMC Medicine | Full Text

  https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12916-024-03617-3

  Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is globally increasing in prevalence. […] The etiology of ASD is multifactorial, shaped by inherited genetics, environmental contributions particularly those associated with the maternal environment and intricate gene-environment interactions. […] Epidemiological studies indicate that potential environmental prenatal factors contributing to ASD include exposure to infection during pregnancy, obesity, gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), maternal selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) use, antibiotic use, and prenatal exposure to toxicants. […] The evidence relating to the potential pathways underlying the aforementioned prenatal factors is largely preclinical and implicates immune dysregulation, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, gut microbiome alterations, and hormonal disruptions.

• #22 Autism Spectrum Disorders: Etiology and Pathology – Autism Spectrum Disorders – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK573613/

  Non-genetic factors mediating ASD risk could include parental age, maternal nutritional and metabolic status, infection during pregnancy, prenatal stress, and exposure to certain toxins, heavy metals, or drugs. Parental age may be a contributor of genetic mutations. Increased paternal age has been shown to increase the risk of ASD in offspring; however, some studies have rejected this hypothesis. Maternal nutritional status throughout pregnancy is a critical component for normal brain development. An excess, or a deficit, of micronutrients such as folic acid, zinc, iron, vitamin D, and omega-3 may lead to impaired neurodevelopment. […] Another non-genetic factor increasing the risk for ASD is maternal infection. Following the association between congenital rubella infections and ASD development, the role of immune activation and infections has been under constant review. However, the focus has shifted to the maternal immune response an infection may provoke, including inflammation and cytokine activation. […] While most of the data on paternal factors are based on epidemiological studies, maternal immune activation and prenatal zinc deficiency have been modeled in animals and identified as potentially causative factors, and the underlying mechanisms have been investigated.

• #23 Autism Spectrum Disorder: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/912781-overview

  Some studies have documented associations between ASD and air pollution. […] Meta-analyses of epidemiologic studies have shown that ASD risk in offspring increases when the age of either parent is 35 years or higher. […] Some children have developed ASD after immunizations, including inoculations for measles, mumps, and rubella. However, several population studies have demonstrated no association between childhood immunization and the development of ASD and related conditions.

• #24 Psychiatry.org – What Is Autism Spectrum Disorder?

  https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/autism/what-is-autism-spectrum-disorder

  Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex developmental condition involving persistent challenges with social communication, restricted interests and repetitive behavior. […] The current science suggests that several genetic factors may increase the risk of autism in a complex manner. People with certain specific genetic conditions such as Fragile X Syndrome and Tuberous Sclerosis are at increased risk for being diagnosed with autism. […] Certain medications, such as valproic acid and thalidomide, when taken during pregnancy, have been linked with a higher risk of autism as well. […] Having a sibling with autism also increases the likelihood of a child being diagnosed with autism. […] Parents being older at the time of pregnancy is additionally linked with greater risk of autism. […] Vaccines on the other hand have not been shown to increase the likelihood of an autism diagnosis, and race, ethnicity or socioeconomic status does not seem to have a link either. […] Male children tend to be diagnosed with autism more often than those assigned female sex at birth.

• #25 What causes ASD? – Queensland Brain Institute – University of Queensland

  https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain/diseases-and-disorders/autism-spectrum-disorder/what-causes-asd

  A lack of Vitamin D is just one risk factor, but it can also interact with other environmental variables. […] Another environmental risk is viral or bacterial infection of the pregnant mother during the first trimester, which has become a common way to study ASD in model animals like mice. […] Finally, more research by Professor McGrath has found that older fathers particularly those over 50 at the time of conception have a greater chance of having a child with ASD, potentially as a result of new genetic mutations that affect brain development. […] Sometimes, though, these connections don’t form in the normal way, which can produce lasting changes in behaviour. […] Strikingly, one third of patients with AgCC meet the diagnostic criteria for ASD. What’s more, the genes involved in AgCC and ASD are similar.

• #26 Prenatal environmental risk factors for autism spectrum disorder and their potential mechanisms | BMC Medicine | Full Text

  https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12916-024-03617-3

  Understanding the complex etiology of ASD and underlying pathways may help identify early biomarkers and targets for primary prevention. […] Infection during pregnancy induces inflammation, disrupting inflammatory pathways, and mitochondrial and gut microbiome function. […] Maternal obesity and GDM are both linked to an increased likelihood of ASD in children. […] Both obesity and GDM are well-known inflammatory conditions and can lead to a dysregulated immune system, which may subsequently impair fetal neurodevelopment and increase ASD susceptibility. […] Evidence from epidemiological studies suggests that prenatal use of SSRI antidepressants is associated with a 1.5-4.5-fold increase in the risk for ASD in children, compared to children not exposed to SSRIs. […] Maternal antibiotic use during pregnancy may increase the likelihood of ASD, with 1.1-1.5-fold increases in the risk of ASD reported across several international cohorts after prenatal antibiotic exposure.

• #27 Autism Spectrum Disorders: Etiology, Epidemiology, and Challenges for Public Health

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11162141/

  Moreover, maternal autoimmune conditions, such as thyroid disease, diabetes, or psoriasis, as well as various infections during pregnancy, may play a role in a development of ASD in a child. […] Some studies indicated a relationship between the intervals between pregnancies and the occurrence of ASD, with both shorter and longer intervals being important. […] ASD is more common in prematurely-born children, but also in those born by cesarean section, who have low birth weight or a low Apgar score.

• #28 Prenatal environmental risk factors for autism spectrum disorder and their potential mechanisms | BMC Medicine | Full Text

  https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12916-024-03617-3

  Understanding the complex etiology of ASD and underlying pathways may help identify early biomarkers and targets for primary prevention. […] Infection during pregnancy induces inflammation, disrupting inflammatory pathways, and mitochondrial and gut microbiome function. […] Maternal obesity and GDM are both linked to an increased likelihood of ASD in children. […] Both obesity and GDM are well-known inflammatory conditions and can lead to a dysregulated immune system, which may subsequently impair fetal neurodevelopment and increase ASD susceptibility. […] Evidence from epidemiological studies suggests that prenatal use of SSRI antidepressants is associated with a 1.5-4.5-fold increase in the risk for ASD in children, compared to children not exposed to SSRIs. […] Maternal antibiotic use during pregnancy may increase the likelihood of ASD, with 1.1-1.5-fold increases in the risk of ASD reported across several international cohorts after prenatal antibiotic exposure.

• #29 Psychiatry.org – What Is Autism Spectrum Disorder?

  https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/autism/what-is-autism-spectrum-disorder

  Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex developmental condition involving persistent challenges with social communication, restricted interests and repetitive behavior. […] The current science suggests that several genetic factors may increase the risk of autism in a complex manner. People with certain specific genetic conditions such as Fragile X Syndrome and Tuberous Sclerosis are at increased risk for being diagnosed with autism. […] Certain medications, such as valproic acid and thalidomide, when taken during pregnancy, have been linked with a higher risk of autism as well. […] Having a sibling with autism also increases the likelihood of a child being diagnosed with autism. […] Parents being older at the time of pregnancy is additionally linked with greater risk of autism. […] Vaccines on the other hand have not been shown to increase the likelihood of an autism diagnosis, and race, ethnicity or socioeconomic status does not seem to have a link either. […] Male children tend to be diagnosed with autism more often than those assigned female sex at birth.

• #30 Prenatal environmental risk factors for autism spectrum disorder and their potential mechanisms | BMC Medicine | Full Text

  https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12916-024-03617-3

  Understanding the complex etiology of ASD and underlying pathways may help identify early biomarkers and targets for primary prevention. […] Infection during pregnancy induces inflammation, disrupting inflammatory pathways, and mitochondrial and gut microbiome function. […] Maternal obesity and GDM are both linked to an increased likelihood of ASD in children. […] Both obesity and GDM are well-known inflammatory conditions and can lead to a dysregulated immune system, which may subsequently impair fetal neurodevelopment and increase ASD susceptibility. […] Evidence from epidemiological studies suggests that prenatal use of SSRI antidepressants is associated with a 1.5-4.5-fold increase in the risk for ASD in children, compared to children not exposed to SSRIs. […] Maternal antibiotic use during pregnancy may increase the likelihood of ASD, with 1.1-1.5-fold increases in the risk of ASD reported across several international cohorts after prenatal antibiotic exposure.

• #31 What Causes Autism Spectrum Disorder? | Psychology Today

  https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/caring-autism/201809/what-causes-autism-spectrum-disorder

  There has been growing concern and evidence for an association of ASD with pesticides, phthalates (found in plastics), perfumes, air pollution, other chemicals, and electromagnetic fields. […] Thus, it would not be surprising if we found that a chemical or combination of chemicals did cause or dramatically increase the risk of ASD. […] Several studies have shown that those with ASD have changes in genes that are involved in detoxifying the body from harmful chemicals. […] One review of the literature regarding environmental toxicants found 92% of 37 studies showed an association between ASD and environmental exposures such as pesticides, phthalates, PCBs, solvents, toxic waste sites, heavy metals, and air pollutants. […] The strongest evidence in the studies appeared to be with pesticides and air pollution.

• #32 Prenatal environmental risk factors for autism spectrum disorder and their potential mechanisms | BMC Medicine | Full Text

  https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12916-024-03617-3

  Prenatal exposure to toxicants such as phthalates, air pollutants, and heavy metals may disrupt the endocrine system and increase inflammation, altering downstream neurodevelopment and increasing ASD likelihood. […] Understanding the interplay between genetics and the prenatal environment in ASD etiology and identifying modifiable points of confluence between multiple pathways, is crucial to developing novel and effective public health policies aimed at reducing prenatal exposure to risk factors in susceptible populations.

• #33 Autism Spectrum Disorders: Etiology and Pathology – Autism Spectrum Disorders – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK573613/

  Non-genetic factors mediating ASD risk could include parental age, maternal nutritional and metabolic status, infection during pregnancy, prenatal stress, and exposure to certain toxins, heavy metals, or drugs. Parental age may be a contributor of genetic mutations. Increased paternal age has been shown to increase the risk of ASD in offspring; however, some studies have rejected this hypothesis. Maternal nutritional status throughout pregnancy is a critical component for normal brain development. An excess, or a deficit, of micronutrients such as folic acid, zinc, iron, vitamin D, and omega-3 may lead to impaired neurodevelopment. […] Another non-genetic factor increasing the risk for ASD is maternal infection. Following the association between congenital rubella infections and ASD development, the role of immune activation and infections has been under constant review. However, the focus has shifted to the maternal immune response an infection may provoke, including inflammation and cytokine activation. […] While most of the data on paternal factors are based on epidemiological studies, maternal immune activation and prenatal zinc deficiency have been modeled in animals and identified as potentially causative factors, and the underlying mechanisms have been investigated.

• #34 Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) Symptoms & Causes

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/autism

  Autism is a difference in how your child’s brain works that shapes how they interact with the world around them. This difference is something they’re born with; it has nothing to do with your parenting style, foods, vaccines or anything else your child encountered after birth. […] Researchers haven’t found a single cause of autism. It’s likely a combination of genetics and certain things related to pregnancy, labor and delivery (what you might see referred to as environmental factors or prenatal events). These factors all interact to lead to the brain differences we see in autism. […] Specific things that may make autism more likely in your child include: becoming pregnant over age 35, becoming pregnant within 12 months of having another baby, having gestational diabetes, having bleeding during pregnancy, using certain medications (like valproate) while pregnant, smaller than expected fetal size (intrauterine growth restriction), reduced oxygen to the fetus during pregnancy or delivery, giving birth early.

• #35 Autism Spectrum Disorder: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/912781-overview

  During the perinatal period, the factors associated with ASD risk were hypertension or diabetes in mother, threatened abortion, antepartum hemorrhage, caesarian delivery, gestational age 36 weeks, parity 4, spontaneous labor, induced labor, no labor, breech presentation, preeclampsia, and fetal distress. […] An infectious basis for some cases of ASD is suggested by the large number of children with ASD born to women who contracted rubella during pregnancy. […] Familial factors influence the risk for ASD. […] Twin studies have demonstrated a moderate degree of genetic heritability for ASD, with environment making a substantial contribution to the development of these conditions in the study subjects. […] Finding genetic bases for ASD is a promising research goal. […] Exposures to toxins, chemicals, poisons, and other substances have been hypothesized to cause ASD.

• #36 ASD—What Causes Autism Spectrum Disorder?

  https://healthhub.cpcmg.net/en_US/asd%E2%80%94what-causes-autism

  The specific abnormalities in brain function that cause ASD are not known. However, research has shown that there is a difference in brain growth in children with ASD, with a tendency for brains to grow faster and be larger than usual in early childhood (often with a large head circumference). […] There are various microscopic abnormalities in brain areas of people with ASD, such as the cerebellum, limbic system, and cerebral cortex. […] There are differences or abnormalities in some brain chemicals in children with ASD. These brain chemicals are important regulators of brain development, nerve communication, and function. However, no single abnormality has been found in all people with ASD. […] There are some differences in function of certain parts of the brain in children with ASD, including how the brain recognizes faces, processes language, and allows for imitation.

• #37 Exploring the Diverse Causes of Autism Spectrum Disorder | Blog Swiss Medica

  https://www.startstemcells.com/exploring-the-diverse-causes-of-autism-spectrum-disorder.html

  Some brain structures that show abnormalities in children with autism include: Midbrain, Pontine, Left parahippocampal gyrus, Bilateral hippocampus, Left middle temporal gyrus, Left superior occipital gyrus, Left superior temporal gyrus, Left temporal pole. […] Autistic children typically have a faster expansion of the surface area in the cortical region of the brain between 6 and 12 months of age compared to non-autistic children of the same age. The brain volume is also found to increase much faster in children with autism in the second year of life. […] Disruption in the secretion of neurotransmitters in the brain could contribute to the development of autism in some children. These disruptions are more likely to be caused by genetic mutations. […] Synaptic dysfunctions can interfere with the normal functions of the brain and nerves, leading to emotional and behavioral challenges associated with autism. The altered synaptic function can also play a role in triggering certain physical symptoms associated with autism, especially repetitive behaviors like the flapping of hands.

• #38 ASD—What Causes Autism Spectrum Disorder?

  https://healthhub.cpcmg.net/en_US/asd%E2%80%94what-causes-autism

  The specific abnormalities in brain function that cause ASD are not known. However, research has shown that there is a difference in brain growth in children with ASD, with a tendency for brains to grow faster and be larger than usual in early childhood (often with a large head circumference). […] There are various microscopic abnormalities in brain areas of people with ASD, such as the cerebellum, limbic system, and cerebral cortex. […] There are differences or abnormalities in some brain chemicals in children with ASD. These brain chemicals are important regulators of brain development, nerve communication, and function. However, no single abnormality has been found in all people with ASD. […] There are some differences in function of certain parts of the brain in children with ASD, including how the brain recognizes faces, processes language, and allows for imitation.

• #39 What is Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)?

  https://neurosciences.ucsd.edu/centers-programs/autism/about-autism/what-is-autism.html

  A significant percentage of infants and toddlers with ASD have early brain overgrowth. This was originally discovered in 2001 at the UCSD Autism Center of Excellence by Dr. Eric Courchsne, Director. Early brain overgrowth may underlie specific neurofunctional and clinical phenotypic subtypes in ASD in the first years of life. The cause of it is found in prenatal life when an abnormal overabundance of brain cells are produced in the 1st and 2nd trimesters. […] The likely causes of autism are being uncovered. Major advances have occurred in discovering a large number of genes which when mutated may contribute to or directly cause ASD. About 50 such genes are so called „high confidence” genes and very likely play key roles. However, such gene mutations only occur in a very tiny percentage of cases.

• #40 ASD—What Causes Autism Spectrum Disorder?

  https://healthhub.cpcmg.net/en_US/asd%E2%80%94what-causes-autism

  The specific abnormalities in brain function that cause ASD are not known. However, research has shown that there is a difference in brain growth in children with ASD, with a tendency for brains to grow faster and be larger than usual in early childhood (often with a large head circumference). […] There are various microscopic abnormalities in brain areas of people with ASD, such as the cerebellum, limbic system, and cerebral cortex. […] There are differences or abnormalities in some brain chemicals in children with ASD. These brain chemicals are important regulators of brain development, nerve communication, and function. However, no single abnormality has been found in all people with ASD. […] There are some differences in function of certain parts of the brain in children with ASD, including how the brain recognizes faces, processes language, and allows for imitation.

• #41 ASD—What Causes Autism Spectrum Disorder?

  https://healthhub.cpcmg.net/en_US/asd%E2%80%94what-causes-autism

  The specific abnormalities in brain function that cause ASD are not known. However, research has shown that there is a difference in brain growth in children with ASD, with a tendency for brains to grow faster and be larger than usual in early childhood (often with a large head circumference). […] There are various microscopic abnormalities in brain areas of people with ASD, such as the cerebellum, limbic system, and cerebral cortex. […] There are differences or abnormalities in some brain chemicals in children with ASD. These brain chemicals are important regulators of brain development, nerve communication, and function. However, no single abnormality has been found in all people with ASD. […] There are some differences in function of certain parts of the brain in children with ASD, including how the brain recognizes faces, processes language, and allows for imitation.

• #42 What is Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)?

  https://neurosciences.ucsd.edu/centers-programs/autism/about-autism/what-is-autism.html

  Much evidence points to important environmental factors, such as exposure to viruses or toxins during the 1st or early 2nd trimesters of pregnancy. There are a large number of ASD animal and cellular model studies and epidemiology studies examining the possible role of maternal immune activation or MIA and autism. […] One surprising discovery by Dr. Courchesne and his graduate student, Dr. John Morgan, is that one type of cell in the brain called microglia are strikingly abnormal or „activated”. Activated microglia is a clear indicator of on-going neuroinflammatory processes in the ASD brain, even at ages as young as 2 years. […] The symptoms of ASD can vary widely. For example, some children may demonstrate extremely poor eye contact, whereas other children with an ASD may demonstrate good eye contact. Some children may not talk at all, whereas other children with ASD may have very good productive language and even be able to converse with others. The dissimilarity of ASD symptoms probably reflects the complexity of brain abnormalities and the underlying genetics that likely involve multiple genes and gene-environment interactions.

• #43 Exploring the Diverse Causes of Autism Spectrum Disorder | Blog Swiss Medica

  https://www.startstemcells.com/exploring-the-diverse-causes-of-autism-spectrum-disorder.html

  Some brain structures that show abnormalities in children with autism include: Midbrain, Pontine, Left parahippocampal gyrus, Bilateral hippocampus, Left middle temporal gyrus, Left superior occipital gyrus, Left superior temporal gyrus, Left temporal pole. […] Autistic children typically have a faster expansion of the surface area in the cortical region of the brain between 6 and 12 months of age compared to non-autistic children of the same age. The brain volume is also found to increase much faster in children with autism in the second year of life. […] Disruption in the secretion of neurotransmitters in the brain could contribute to the development of autism in some children. These disruptions are more likely to be caused by genetic mutations. […] Synaptic dysfunctions can interfere with the normal functions of the brain and nerves, leading to emotional and behavioral challenges associated with autism. The altered synaptic function can also play a role in triggering certain physical symptoms associated with autism, especially repetitive behaviors like the flapping of hands.

• #44 What causes autism? Development, myths, and more

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/what-causes-autism

  More research is necessary to better understand the role that environmental factors might play. […] Current research suggests that a combination of genetic and environmental factors may increase the chances a person will meet the criteria for ASD. These may include specific genetic variants, older parental age, preterm birth, and others. However, researchers are still learning about the possible causes.

• #45 Exploring the Etiology of Autism Spectrum Disorder – Bridge Care ABA

  https://www.bridgecareaba.com/blog/etiology-of-autism-spectrum-disorder

  Various prenatal factors have been identified as potential contributors to the development of ASD. […] Understanding the environmental influences on ASD is essential for a comprehensive understanding of the disorder. […] The etiology of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is complex and multifactorial, involving both genetic and environmental factors. […] The interplay between susceptible genes and environmental influences has been proposed as a major mechanism in understanding the development of autism. […] Understanding the interactions between genes and the environment is crucial in unraveling the etiology of autism spectrum disorder. […] Understanding the etiology of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is not only crucial for individuals affected by the condition but also for society as a whole. […] The etiology of ASD is believed to be multifactorial, involving both genetic and non-genetic factors.

• #46 Etiology of Autism Spectrum Disorder: Unlocking the Origins

  https://www.astraaba.com/blog/etiology-of-autism-spectrum-disorder

  Prenatal factors also play a significant role in the etiology of ASD. Advanced parental age, maternal physical health conditions (such as metabolic syndrome and bleeding), maternal mental health conditions (such as depression and anxiety), and maternal prenatal medication use have been identified as prenatal risk factors for autism. […] Environmental factors can influence the risk of ASD by affecting gene expression without changing the DNA sequence. Epigenetic mechanisms, such as DNA methylation, histone modifications, and noncoding RNA expression, can be influenced by environmental factors and increase the risk of autism. […] Dysregulation of these epigenetic processes has been implicated in the pathogenesis of ASD, providing valuable insights into the complex factors involved in the disorder.

• #47 Exploring the Diverse Causes of Autism Spectrum Disorder | Blog Swiss Medica

  https://www.startstemcells.com/exploring-the-diverse-causes-of-autism-spectrum-disorder.html

  The adverse impact of genetic and environmental factors tends to worsen further in the presence of immunological dysfunctions. This poses challenges in the management of this condition. […] The etiology of autism encompasses a complex interplay between a combination of genetic and environmental factors, maternal factors, and immunological and neurological dysfunctions. The history of adverse childhood events and structural changes in the brain are likely to increase the risk of what causes autism further. […] Epigenetics is believed to play a significant role in influencing the risk of autism in children. […] Epigenetic modifications associated with 5-methyl-tetrahydrofolate, which is a methyl donor for DNA methylation, can influence the development of autism. Similarly, changes in folate metabolism could affect DNA methylation and contribute to what causes autism.

• #48 Autism spectrum disorder – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/autism-spectrum-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20352928

  One of the greatest controversies in autism spectrum disorder centers on whether a link exists between the disorder and childhood vaccines. Despite extensive research, no reliable study has shown a link between autism spectrum disorder and any vaccines. In fact, the original study that ignited the debate years ago has been retracted due to poor design and questionable research methods.

• #49

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/autism-spectrum-disorders

  Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a diverse group of conditions. They are characterized by some degree of difficulty with social interaction and communication. […] Available scientific evidence suggests that there are probably many factors that make a child more likely to have autism, including environmental and genetic factors. […] Extensive research using a variety of different methods and conducted over many years has demonstrated that the measles, mumps and rubella vaccine does not cause autism. […] Evidence also shows that other childhood vaccines do not increase the risk of autism. Extensive research into the preservative thiomersal and the additive aluminium that are contained in some inactivated vaccines strongly concluded that these constituents in childhood vaccines do not increase the risk of autism.

• #50 Autism spectrum disorder (ASD): Causes and interventions | therapist.com

  https://therapist.com/disorders/autism/

  What causes autism? […] Theres no known single cause for autism, but certain factors may increase its likelihood: […] Genetics: According to the Centers for Disease Control, youre more likely to develop ASD if you have an older sibling with ASD. […] Certain other genetic or chromosomal syndromes may also increase your likelihood. […] Pregnancy: Research suggests certain drugs taken during pregnancy may result in a higher chance of ASD. […] Your childs likelihood may also increase if your pregnancy happens later in life. […] Do vaccines cause autism? […] Vaccines do not cause autism. Despite some public misinformation that has circulated over the years, multiple studies have shown that theres no causal link between vaccines (or their isolated ingredients) and ASD. […] In fact, the original study that claimed to find this nonexistent connection was based on fraudulent data and was later retracted.

• #51 What causes Autism? Is it genetic and environmental?

  https://otsimo.com/en/what-causes-autism/

  However, these factors by themselves do not cause autism. They increase the risk of developing autism in combination with other genetic factors. […] In light of studies, researchers think that ASD is the result of hereditable genetic differences and/or mutations. […] Studies that showed a genetic link between developing autism state that ASD is more common in boys than in girls. […] Another genetic risk factor found is in identical twins. […] Moreover, around 20% of children with an older sibling with autism spectrum disorder developed ASD. […] The subject of whether or not vaccines cause autism has been a heated debate for a long time. […] However, an abundance of studies have shown that there is no link between getting vaccinated and developing ASD. […] The study investigated various substances in vaccines that cause the bodys immune system to produce antibodies within the vaccines in the first two years of life. […] Studies showed that thimerosal does not cause autism.

• #52

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/autism-spectrum-disorders

  Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a diverse group of conditions. They are characterized by some degree of difficulty with social interaction and communication. […] Available scientific evidence suggests that there are probably many factors that make a child more likely to have autism, including environmental and genetic factors. […] Extensive research using a variety of different methods and conducted over many years has demonstrated that the measles, mumps and rubella vaccine does not cause autism. […] Evidence also shows that other childhood vaccines do not increase the risk of autism. Extensive research into the preservative thiomersal and the additive aluminium that are contained in some inactivated vaccines strongly concluded that these constituents in childhood vaccines do not increase the risk of autism.

• #53 Autism spectrum disorder Information | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/diseases-conditions/autism-spectrum-disorder

  Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disorder. It often appears in the first 2 to 3 years of life. ASD affects the brain’s ability to develop normal social and communication skills. […] The exact cause of ASD isn’t known. It’s likely that a number of factors may lead to ASD. Research shows that genes may be involved, since ASD runs in some families. Certain medicines taken during pregnancy may also lead to ASD in the child. […] Other causes have been suspected, but not proven. Some scientists believe that damage to a part of the brain, called the amygdala, may be involved. Others are looking at whether a virus may trigger symptoms. […] Some parents have heard that vaccines may cause ASD. But studies have found no link between vaccines and ASD. All expert medical and government groups state that there is no link between vaccines and ASD. […] Autism appears to be linked both to genes and environmental exposures. Although the cause of autism is still unclear, doctors do know that the recent increase in autism isn’t caused by vaccines. […] The increase in children with ASD may be due to better diagnosis and newer definitions of ASD.

• #54 What is Autism? Causes and Diagnosis | Ada Health

  https://ada.com/conditions/autism/

  When a pregnant person is exposed to the rubella virus during the first trimester, the fetus has a high chance of developing congenital rubella syndrome (CRS). […] Children born to older parents are more likely to develop autism, the risk heightening with the parents age. […] A study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found a connection between autism spectrum disorder and the amount of time between births for each mother. […] There has been extensive research on vaccines and autism, and all scientific evidence indicates there is no link between autism and vaccines.

• #55 What causes autism? | Autism Speaks

  https://www.autismspeaks.org/what-causes-autism

  According to the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, certain environmental influences may increase autism risk: Advanced parental age, prenatal exposure to air pollution or certain pesticides, maternal obesity, diabetes or immune system disorders, extreme prematurity or very low birth weight, birth complications leading to periods of oxygen deprivation to the baby’s brain. […] Autism prevalence has risen due to increased awareness of autism, broader diagnostic criteria for autism, improved screening tools and standardized screening processes. […] While the impact of other genetic and environmental factors on prevalence is still being studied, they likely account for only a small part of the increase.

• #56 Autism spectrum disorder Information | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/diseases-conditions/autism-spectrum-disorder

  Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disorder. It often appears in the first 2 to 3 years of life. ASD affects the brain’s ability to develop normal social and communication skills. […] The exact cause of ASD isn’t known. It’s likely that a number of factors may lead to ASD. Research shows that genes may be involved, since ASD runs in some families. Certain medicines taken during pregnancy may also lead to ASD in the child. […] Other causes have been suspected, but not proven. Some scientists believe that damage to a part of the brain, called the amygdala, may be involved. Others are looking at whether a virus may trigger symptoms. […] Some parents have heard that vaccines may cause ASD. But studies have found no link between vaccines and ASD. All expert medical and government groups state that there is no link between vaccines and ASD. […] Autism appears to be linked both to genes and environmental exposures. Although the cause of autism is still unclear, doctors do know that the recent increase in autism isn’t caused by vaccines. […] The increase in children with ASD may be due to better diagnosis and newer definitions of ASD.

• #57 What causes autism? | Autism Speaks

  https://www.autismspeaks.org/what-causes-autism

  According to the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, certain environmental influences may increase autism risk: Advanced parental age, prenatal exposure to air pollution or certain pesticides, maternal obesity, diabetes or immune system disorders, extreme prematurity or very low birth weight, birth complications leading to periods of oxygen deprivation to the baby’s brain. […] Autism prevalence has risen due to increased awareness of autism, broader diagnostic criteria for autism, improved screening tools and standardized screening processes. […] While the impact of other genetic and environmental factors on prevalence is still being studied, they likely account for only a small part of the increase.

• #58 Autism Spectrum Disorders: Etiology and Pathology – Autism Spectrum Disorders – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK573613/

  Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a group of neurodevelopmental diseases. The cause of ASD is unknown, but several genetic and non-genetic risk factors have been characterized that, alone or in combination, are implicated in the development of ASD. […] The etiology of ASD is likely to be multifactorial, with both genetic and non-genetic factors playing a role. ASD can be syndromic or non-syndromic. Syndromic ASD is often associated with chromosomal abnormalities or monogenic alterations. Such examples include Rett syndrome, fragile X syndrome, and MECP2 duplication syndrome. Contrary to syndromic ASD, the etiology of non-syndromic ASD is still relatively undefined due to its genetic heterogeneity. A collaboration of de novo mutations and prenatal plus postnatal environmental factors are likely to play a role.

• #59 Autism – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism

  Autism spectrum disorder (ASD), or simply autism, is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by repetitive, restricted, and inflexible patterns of behavior, interests, and activities, as well as difficulties in social interaction and social communication. […] While precise causes are mostly unknown, research shows that autism is highly heritable and polygenic. Environmental factors play a relatively small role, mainly prenatally. […] The exact causes of autism are unknown, with genetics likely being the largest contributing factor. It was long presumed a single cause at genetic, cognitive, and neural levels underpinned the social and non-social features (the classic triad). Increasingly, autism is assumed to be a complex condition with distinct, often co-occurring, causes for its core aspects.

• #60 Prenatal environmental risk factors for autism spectrum disorder and their potential mechanisms | BMC Medicine | Full Text

  https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12916-024-03617-3

  Prenatal exposure to toxicants such as phthalates, air pollutants, and heavy metals may disrupt the endocrine system and increase inflammation, altering downstream neurodevelopment and increasing ASD likelihood. […] Understanding the interplay between genetics and the prenatal environment in ASD etiology and identifying modifiable points of confluence between multiple pathways, is crucial to developing novel and effective public health policies aimed at reducing prenatal exposure to risk factors in susceptible populations.

• #61 Causes of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/autism-spectrum-disorder-asd/causes-autism-spectrum-disorder-asd.html

  The exact cause of ASD is not known. […] While both genetics and environment likely play a role, its exact cause remains unknown. […] There is a lot of research being done worldwide to understand how genes and exposure to things in the environment can increase the risk that a child will have ASD. […] However it’s important to keep in mind that increased risk is not the same as cause. […] For example, some gene changes associated with ASD can also be found in people who don’t have the disorder.

• #62 Strengthen Your Family with ABA-Informed Parenting

  https://www.thetreetop.com/aba-therapy/causes-of-autism-spectrum-disorder

  However, it’s important to note that these factors are not deterministic, and not all individuals exposed to these factors will develop ASD. […] The risk of developing ASD is influenced by a complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors. […] The causes of ASD are still being actively studied.

• #63 Autism Spectrum Disorder: Neurodevelopmental Risk Factors, Biological Mechanism, and Precision Therapy

  https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/24/3/1819

  Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a heterogeneous, behaviorally defined neurodevelopmental disorder. Over the past two decades, the prevalence of autism spectrum disorders has progressively increased, however, no clear diagnostic markers and specifically targeted medications for autism have emerged. […] Both genetics and environmental factors early in development play a vital role in the etiology of autism. Genetic variation in genes dramatically increases ASD risk. […] Current research has not identified clear neuropathological markers of autism that can provide a basis for diagnostic criteria, and at this stage, it is speculated that abnormal behavior in autism is associated with alterations in emerging properties of brain function. Thus, studying the physiological mechanisms and potential pathogenesis of brain circuits is crucial for future diagnostic treatments.

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