Infekcja norowirusowa
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Norowirusy są główną przyczyną ostrego zapalenia żołądka i jelit, powodując około 700 milionów zachorowań i 200 000 zgonów rocznie na świecie. Charakteryzują się niską dawką zakaźną (ID50 wynosi 10-18 cząstek wirusowych) oraz wysoką stabilnością środowiskową, co sprzyja ich szerokiemu rozprzestrzenianiu. Zakażenie prowadzi do objawów takich jak wymioty, wodnista biegunka, ból brzucha i gorączka, trwających zwykle 24-72 godziny, choć u osób z obniżoną odpornością może przybierać formę przewlekłą. Patogeneza obejmuje uszkodzenie mikrokosmków jelita cienkiego, zaburzenia enzymatyczne i zwiększoną przepuszczalność jelitową, co skutkuje zaburzeniami wchłaniania i biegunka. Norowirusy wykazują tropizm zarówno do enterocytów, jak i komórek układu odpornościowego (m.in. komórek B, makrofagów, komórek dendrytycznych), a zakażenie może być ułatwione przez interakcje z bakteriami komensalnymi wyrażającymi antygeny grup krwi (HBGA). Genom wirusa to jednoniciowe RNA (+) z białkiem VPg na końcu 5′, które pełni funkcję startera replikacji.

Patogeneza zakażenia norowirusem

Norowirusy to główna przyczyna ostrego zapalenia żołądka i jelit na całym świecie, odpowiedzialne za około 700 milionów przypadków zachorowań rocznie, w tym około 200 000 zgonów 12. Zakażenie norowirusem jest szczególnie niebezpieczne dla niemowląt, osób starszych i pacjentów z obniżoną odpornością, u których objawy mogą być znacznie cięższe i trwać dłużej niż w populacji ogólnej 3. Mimo ogromnego wpływu norowirusów na zdrowie publiczne, mechanizmy patogenetyczne zakażenia nie zostały w pełni poznane, głównie ze względu na ograniczenia związane z brakiem odpowiednich systemów hodowli komórkowych i modeli zwierzęcych 4.

Charakterystyka zakażenia norowirusowego

Norowirusy charakteryzują się wyjątkowo niską dawką zakaźną – już 10-18 cząstek wirusowych jest wystarczające do wywołania infekcji u połowy narażonych osób (ID50) 56. Jednocześnie zakażona osoba może wydalać ogromne ilości wirusa (105-1011 kopii wirusowego RNA na gram kału), co oznacza, że jeden gram materiału zakaźnego może zawierać nawet 5 miliardów dawek infekcyjnych 7. Ponadto, wirusy te są wyjątkowo stabilne w środowisku – mogą przetrwać zarówno wysokie, jak i niskie temperatury oraz są odporne na wiele powszechnie stosowanych środków dezynfekujących 8.

Zakażenie norowirusem prowadzi do ostrego zapalenia żołądka i jelit, charakteryzującego się wymiotami, wodnistą biegunką, bólem brzucha i czasami gorączką, pojawiającymi się zazwyczaj 12-48 godzin po ekspozycji i trwającymi 24-72 godziny 910. Zakażenie ma zwykle charakter samoograniczający się, ale u osób z upośledzoną odpornością może przybierać formę przewlekłą, z objawami lub bez, a w ciężkich przypadkach może prowadzić do enteropatii związanej z norowirusem, zaniku kosmków jelitowych i zespołu złego wchłaniania 11.

Mechanizm infekcji i replikacji

Cykl replikacyjny norowirusów rozpoczyna się od przyłączenia wirusa do węglowodanów na powierzchni komórki. Ludzkie norowirusy wiążą się z antygenami grup krwi (HBGA), podczas gdy norowirusy mysie wiążą się z innymi węglowodanami, w tym z kwasami sialowymi 12. Po przyłączeniu następuje wejście wirusa do komórki i rozkład kapsydu, co prowadzi do uwolnienia genomu wirusowego RNA o dodatniej polarności do cytoplazmy, gdzie zachodzi translacja białek wirusowych 1314.

Niedawne badania wykazały, że ludzkie norowirusy mogą infekować komórki B w obecności bakterii jelitowych wykazujących ekspresję antygenów podobnych do HBGA 15. Sugeruje się, że norowirusy mogą oddziaływać z komensalnymi bakteriami w świetle jelita, a kompleksy wirus-bakterie mogą być transportowane przez nabłonek jelitowy, aby uzyskać dostęp do komórek B znajdujących się poniżej 16. To odkrycie wskazuje na złożoną interakcję między wirusem, układem odpornościowym gospodarza i bakteriami komensalnymi w patogenezie zakażenia norowirusem 17.

Genomem norowirusów jest jednoniciowe RNA o dodatniej polarności, kowalencyjnie związane z białkiem wirusowym VPg na końcu 5′ i poliadenylowane na końcu 3′ 18. Białko VPg norowirusów może działać jako starter w replikacji wirusowego RNA po jego urydylacji 1920. Niedawne badania potwierdziły, że VPg jest związane z genomem poprzez resztę GDP przyłączoną do wysoce konserwowanej reszty tyrozyny 21.

Tropizm komórkowy i zmiany histopatologiczne

Norowirusy wykazują podwójny tropizm, atakując zarówno komórki nabłonka jelitowego, jak i komórki układu odpornościowego 22. Głównym miejscem zakażenia wydaje się być błona śluzowa jelita cienkiego 23. Analiza histologiczna biopsji jelita cienkiego od ochotników zakażonych norowirusem wykazała charakterystyczne zmiany, w tym poszerzenie i stępienie kosmków, skrócenie mikrokosmków, powiększone i blade mitochondria, zwiększoną wakuolizację cytoplazmy i obrzęk międzykomórkowy, przy zachowaniu integralności błony śluzowej 2425.

Komórkowe cele zakażenia

U ludzi białko kapsydu VP1 norowirusów może być wykrywane w enterocytach, makrofagach, limfocytach T i komórkach dendrytycznych, co wskazuje na możliwość aktywnego zakażenia tych typów komórek 26. Mysie norowirusy (MNoV) efektywnie zakażają komórki układu odpornościowego, w tym makrofagi, komórki dendrytyczne i limfocyty B 27.

Najnowsze badania na modelu mysim zidentyfikowały specyficzną populację komórek nabłonkowych, tzw. komórki tuft, jako główny cel dla przewlekłego zakażenia norowirusem 2829. Komórki te wykazują ekspresję receptora CD300lf, który jest niezbędny do zakażenia mysimi norowirusami 30. Komórki tuft są znanymi głównymi producentami interleukiny 25 (IL-25) i odgrywają rolę w indukcji odpowiedzi immunologicznej typu 2 w odpowiedzi na pasożyty i robaki 31.

Istnieją również dowody na to, że norowirusy mogą zakażać komórki enteroendokrynne, które są wyspecjalizowanymi komórkami nabłonkowymi w jelicie cienkim o funkcjach zarówno sensorycznych, jak i endokrynnych 32. Zakażenie tych komórek może dostarczyć dalszych informacji o mechanizmie patogenetycznym biegunki wywołanej przez norowirusy.

Mechanizm przekraczania bariery nabłonkowej

Biorąc pod uwagę, że norowirusy dostają się do organizmu gospodarza przez światło jelita, muszą posiadać mechanizm umożliwiający pokonanie pojedynczej warstwy komórek nabłonka jelitowego, aby dotrzeć do komórek układu odpornościowego znajdujących się poniżej 33. Jedna z hipotez zakłada, że norowirusy wykorzystują komórki M (komórki mikrofałdowe) do pokonania bariery nabłonkowej i zakażenia limfocytów, makrofagów i komórek dendrytycznych w jelicie, zanim zostaną przetransportowane do lokalnych węzłów chłonnych i odległych miejsc przez komórki dendrytyczne 3435.

Enterocyty są również wyposażone w mechanizmy pobierania materiału ze światła jelita i przekazywania go do komórek układu odpornościowego znajdujących się poniżej, co umożliwia skuteczną indukcję odpowiedzi tolerogennych i zapalnych 36. Niedawne badania sugerują, że ludzki norowirus GII.4 może wnikać do komórek jelitowych poprzez nietypowy mechanizm obejmujący interakcje między specyficznymi składnikami na powierzchni zarówno wirusa, jak i komórek oraz aktywację mechanizmów destabilizujących błonę komórkową 3738.

Mechanizmy wywoływania objawów klinicznych

Mimo że objawy kliniczne zakażenia norowirusem są dobrze znane, dokładne mechanizmy patofizjologiczne prowadzące do wystąpienia tych objawów nie zostały w pełni wyjaśnione 39. Wirus uszkadza przede wszystkim mikrokosmki komórek jelita cienkiego 40. Wpływa to na perystaltykę żołądka, prowadząc do opóźnionego opróżniania żołądkowego, co z kolei powoduje nudności i wymioty 4142.

Mechanizm biegunki

Wirus odpowiada za zaburzenia enzymatyczne, zwiększoną przepuszczalność jelitową, wydzielanie anionów i zaburzenia wchłaniania tłuszczów na poziomie rąbka szczoteczkowego, co prowadzi do biegunki u zakażonych osób 4344. Uszkodzenie rąbka szczoteczkowego jelita uniemożliwia prawidłowe wchłanianie wody i składników odżywczych, co powoduje wodnistą biegunkę 45.

Oprócz zmian fizjologicznych i strukturalnych w enterocytach, zakażenie norowirusem wiąże się również z naciekiem zapalnym w blaszce właściwej u ludzi po zakażeniu wirusami Norwalk i Hawaii, co wskazuje, że cytokiny prozapalne mogą odgrywać rolę w patogenezie objawów zakażenia norowirusem 46.

Mechanizm wymiotów

Badania nad mechanizmem wywoływania wymiotów przez wirus wykazały, że infekcja wirusowa i toksyna wydzielana z zakażonych komórek stymulują specyficzny typ komórek sensorycznych zwanych komórkami enterochromafinowymi w ścianach przewodu pokarmowego. Komórki te mogą komunikować się z mózgiem za pośrednictwem nerwu błędnego 47.

Toksyna wirusowa stymuluje te komórki do uwalniania serotoniny, substancji sygnalizacyjnej, która z kolei aktywuje ośrodek wymiotny w mózgu 48. Wzorzec ten został zaobserwowany zarówno w hodowlach komórkowych, gdzie wykazano, że toksyna wirusowa powoduje uwalnianie serotoniny, jak i u myszy, gdzie zaobserwowano, że zakażenie rotawirusem w jelitach aktywuje obszary mózgu, w których znajduje się ośrodek wymiotny 49.

Rola mikrobioty jelitowej w zakażeniu norowirusem

Najnowsze badania ujawniły złożone interakcje między norowirusami, układem odpornościowym gospodarza i mikrobiotą jelitową 50. Mikrobiota jelitowa odgrywa fundamentalną rolę w indukcji, treningu i funkcjonowaniu układu odpornościowego gospodarza oraz utrzymaniu homeostazy jelitowej poprzez zapobieganie kolonizacji przez egzogenne patogeny i potencjalnie szkodliwe mikroorganizmy autochtoniczne 51.

Interakcje z bakteriami jelitowymi

Niedawne badania wykazały, że bakterie komensalne mogą regulować ustanowienie przewlekłych zakażeń norowirusem 52. Eksperymentalna zmiana mikrobioty drastycznie zmienia przebieg zakażenia mysim norowirusem – wstępna obróbka myszy koktajlem antybiotyków zapobiega zakażeniu jelita zarówno przez ostry szczep MNV-1, jak i przez szczepy przewlekłe MNV-3 i CR6 53.

Co więcej, odkryto, że zakażenie ludzkim norowirusem komórek B jest ułatwione przez kofaktor pochodzący z bakterii komensalnych 54. Bakterie jelitowe mogą wpływać na zakażenia ludzkim norowirusem poprzez dostarczanie podobnych do HBGA cukrów dla przyłączania się norowirusów oraz poprzez modulowanie odpowiedzi immunologicznej gospodarza 55.

Ten fascynujący przykład ilustruje, jak złożona interakcja między determinantami immunologicznymi, wirusowymi i mikrobiologicznymi reguluje zdolność norowirusów do ustanowienia przetrwałego zakażenia w okrężnicy, a tym samym do wydalania w kale przez długi czas, nawet u gospodarzy z prawidłową odpornością 56.

Rola antygenów grup krwi (HBGA)

Antygeny grup krwi (HBGA) odgrywają kluczową rolę w patogenezie zakażenia norowirusem 57. Wcześniejsze badania wykazały, że niektóre norowirusy łatwo zakażają osoby posiadające gen kodujący funkcjonalną alfa-1,2-fukozylotransferazę (FUT2) i są określane jako sekretory-pozytywne, ponieważ wykazują ekspresję antygenów grup krwi ABO (HBGA) na powierzchniach błon śluzowych 58.

Osoby z defektami w genie FUT2 są określane jako sekretory-negatywne, nie wykazują ekspresji odpowiedniego HBGA niezbędnego do przyłączenia wirusa i są odporne na zakażenie wirusem Norwalk 59. Jednak osoby sekretory-negatywne mogą zostać zakażone innymi szczepami norowirusów, a ponowne zakażenie szczepami GII.4 jest powszechne w populacjach ludzkich 60.

Typ krwi danej osoby może wpływać na jej podatność na zakażenie norowirusem 61. Te same oligosacharydy występujące na czerwonych krwinkach pojawiają się również na powierzchni komórek wyściełających jelito cienkie. Norowirusy wykorzystują te oligosacharydy do przyłączania się i zakażania komórek jelitowych 62.

Mechanizmy przetrwania wirusa i unikania odpowiedzi immunologicznej

Norowirusy zdolne są do zakażania swoich gospodarzy przez tygodnie lub miesiące, nawet w obecności w pełni funkcjonalnego układu odpornościowego 6364. Mechanizmy, za pomocą których norowirusy utrzymują przedłużone zakażenie, pozostają niekompletnie poznane, ale mogą odgrywać kluczową rolę w upośledzaniu adaptacyjnych odpowiedzi immunologicznych, tak że nie chronią one przed wtórnym zakażeniem 6566.

Odpowiedź immunologiczna na zakażenie

Nienaruszony układ odpornościowy jest kluczowy dla skutecznej kontroli zakażenia norowirusem, a dane z odpowiedzi na zakażenie zarówno ludzkim, jak i mysim norowirusem wskazują na ważną rolę zarówno wrodzonej, jak i adaptacyjnej odpowiedzi immunologicznej w kontrolowaniu norowirusów 67.

W przypadku mysiego norowirususa (MNoV) wykazano, że MDA-5 jest wymagany do kontroli zakażenia poprzez indukcję interferonu (IFN) 68. Odpowiedzi IFN u myszy ograniczają replikację MNoV, co wykazano u myszy pozbawionych receptora IFN typu I, które umierają po ostrym zakażeniu MNoV 69. Białko MDA-5 może być głównym sensorem immunologicznym, który wykrywa obecność norowirusów w organizmie 70.

Chociaż skuteczne w hamowaniu i regulowaniu replikacji wirusa, endogenne odpowiedzi IFN są przeciwdziałane przez wiele mechanizmów unikania odpowiedzi immunologicznej przez wirusa 71. Głównym celem ostrego zakażenia norowirusem są komórki układu odpornościowego w tkance limfatycznej związanej z jelitem 72.

Ewolucja i zmienność genetyczna

Norowirusy szybko ewoluują i wykazują znaczną różnorodność genetyczną 73. Istnieje co najmniej 30 różnych genotypów norowirusów, które mogą zakażać ludzi, a z czasem pojawiają się nowe szczepy 74. Ta różnorodność genetyczna i pojawianie się nowych wariantów co rok lub dwa może umożliwiać wirusowi unikanie odpowiedzi immunologicznej 75.

Analiza filogenetyczna sekwencji kapsydu GII.4 sugeruje ewolucję epokową w ciągu ostatnich 20 lat, z okresami stagnacji, po których następuje szybka ewolucja nowych szczepów epidemicznych 76. Zmienność w resztach eksponowanych na powierzchni i w resztach otaczających domenę interakcji z ligandami fukozy sugeruje, że dryf antygenowy może sprzyjać utrzymywaniu się GII.4 w populacjach ludzkich 77.

Dane sugerują, że eksponowana na powierzchni domena wiążąca węglowodany w kapsydzie norowirusów podlega silnej selekcji immunologicznej i prawdopodobnie ewoluuje przez dryf antygenowy w obliczu odporności stadnej ludzi 78. Ciągła ewolucja nowych szczepów zastępczych sugeruje, że podobnie jak w przypadku wirusów grypy, można opracować szczepionki chroniące przed zakażeniami norowirusami, a ciągły nadzór epidemiologiczny i reformulacje szczepionek przeciwko norowirusom będą niezbędne w kontrolowaniu przyszłych epidemii 79.

Alternatywne struktury kapsydu i ich rola w zakażeniu

Najnowsze badania nad mysimi norowirusami wykazały, że wirusy te posiadają dwie alternatywne struktury kapsydu (typ A i typ B) 80. Norowirusy są pokryte dwoma warstwami domen białkowych – zewnętrzną domeną wystającą (P) i wewnętrzną domeną skorupy (S). Typ A wykazuje ścisłą interakcję między tymi dwiema domenami, bez przestrzeni między nimi, podczas gdy typ B wykazuje domenę P przemieszczoną ponad domeną S, z przestrzenią między nimi 81.

Mechanizm zmiany struktury kapsydu

Dalsze badania wykazały, że te dwie struktury cząstek mysiego norowirususa przełączają się w zależności od warunków środowiska wodnego. Cząstki wirusowe wykazywały strukturę typu A w roztworach o niższym pH zawierających jony metali, podczas gdy struktura typu B była preferowana w roztworach o wyższym pH pozbawionych jonów metali 82.

Typ A był tworzony przez rotację i kurczenie się domeny P i stabilizowany przez interakcję między sąsiadami w górnej części, podczas gdy typ B był tworzony przez odwrotną rotację i rozszerzenie domeny P i stabilizowany przez interakcję między sąsiadami w dolnej części 83.

Znaczenie funkcjonalne struktury kapsydu

Zakażenie komórek w hodowli przez mysie norowirusy wykazujące dwie różne struktury kapsydu ujawniło, że cząstki typu B wykazywały czterogodzinne opóźnienie namnażania w porównaniu do cząstek typu A 84. Inny eksperyment wykazał, że cząstki typu B wykazywały mniejszą adsorpcję do powierzchni komórek gospodarza niż cząstki typu A. Stwierdzono, że mysie norowirusy zmieniają swoją strukturę z B na A przed zakażeniem 85.

Chociaż dokładny powód, dla którego norowirusy potrzebują dwóch struktur, nie został wyjaśniony, badacze spekulują, że służy to do unikania układu odpornościowego gospodarza. Norowirusy są przenoszone głównie drogą pokarmową i zakażają komórki jelita cienkiego. Mogą one unikać układu odpornościowego za pomocą struktury typu B i zbliżać się do jelita cienkiego. Następnie ostatecznie zakażają komórki, zmieniając się na strukturę typu A 86.

Modele badawcze i nowe odkrycia w patogenezie

Badania nad patogenezą norowirusów były przez długi czas utrudnione przez brak odpowiednich systemów hodowli komórkowych i modeli zwierzęcych 87. Jednak w ostatnich latach postęp w tej dziedzinie doprowadził do opracowania nowych modeli badawczych, które przyczyniły się do lepszego zrozumienia patogenezy norowirusów 88.

Modele zwierzęce

Najszerzej badanym modelem zwierzęcym zakażenia norowirusem jest system mysiego norowirususa, który umożliwia badanie norowirususa w jego naturalnym gatunku gospodarza 89. Chociaż zakażenie mysim norowirusem u myszy typu dzikiego nie powoduje jawnego zapalenia żołądka i jelit, zakażenie myszy pozbawionych funkcjonalnych szlaków sygnalizacyjnych interferonu (IFN) prowadzi do ciężkiej biegunki, wzdęcia żołądka, utraty masy ciała i choroby ogólnoustrojowej 90.

Pierwszy mysi norowirus, mysi norowirus 1 (MNV-1), został odkryty w 2003 roku 91. Mysie norowirusy dzielą właściwości patogenne z ludzkimi norowirusami. W szczególności są zakaźne drogą pokarmową, rozprzestrzeniają się między myszami, a przynajmniej jeden szczep, MNV-1, powoduje łagodną biegunkę u gospodarzy typu dzikiego 92.

Ponadto pierwotne zakażenie MNV-1 nie wywołuje ochrony przed wtórnym zakażeniem homologicznym wirusem w co najmniej niektórych sytuacjach, co jest podobne do braku długotrwałej ochronnej odporności wywołanej przez pierwotne zakażenie ludzkim norowirusem 93.

Systemy hodowli komórkowych

Przełomem w badaniach nad ludzkimi norowirusami było opracowanie systemów hodowli komórkowych umożliwiających namnażanie wirusa in vitro 94. Badacze z Uniwersytetu Florydy z powodzeniem wyhodowali ludzki norowirus w hodowli komórkowej, co może prowadzić do opracowania nowych metod leczenia 95.

Badania wykazały, że ludzkie norowirusy mogą zakażać komórki B, kluczowe komórki układu odpornościowego, a zakażenie to zależy od obecności w organizmie bakterii jelitowych wykazujących ekspresję antygenów grup krwi (HBGA) 96. Obecność tych komensalnych bakterii jelitowych w zakażeniu była zaskoczeniem dla badaczy 97.

Innym ważnym modelem są enteroidy jelitowe pochodzące z komórek macierzystych, które odtwarzają złożoność komórkową, różnorodność i fizjologię ludzkiego przewodu pokarmowego 98. Enteroidy ludzkie naśladują specyficzne dla szczepu wzorce zakażenia wirusa-gospodarza, co czyni je idealnym systemem do analizy zakażenia ludzkim norowirusem, identyfikacji specyficznych dla szczepu wymagań wzrostowych oraz opracowywania i testowania metod leczenia i szczepionek 99.

Odkrycia poczynione przy użyciu tych nowych modeli badawczych przyczyniają się do ciągłego postępu w zrozumieniu patogenezy norowirusów, co ostatecznie ułatwi opracowanie skutecznych podejść profilaktycznych i terapeutycznych przeciwko temu patogenowi 100.

Implikacje dla profilaktyki i leczenia

Zrozumienie molekularnych aspektów replikacji wirusowej może ułatwić opracowanie racjonalnych terapii 101. Identyfikacja krytycznych determinant wiązania receptorów norowirusowych i antygenowości może być kluczowa w projektowaniu skutecznych metod terapeutycznych i szczepionek 102.

Rozwijanie szczepionek

Opracowanie skutecznej szczepionki przeciwko norowirusom napotyka na kilka wyzwań, w tym dużą zmienność genetyczną wirusa 103. Jednak trwają prace nad kandydatami na szczepionki, a niektóre z nich przeszły już fazę II badań klinicznych 104.

Badacze odkryli, że białko VP1 norowirusów, gdy jest ekspresjonowane w hodowli komórkowej, może samoistnie montować się w cząstki podobne do wirusów (VLP) 105. Te VLP, o właściwościach strukturalnych i antygenowych podobnych do natywnego wirusa, ale w postaci niezakaźnej i niereplikującej się, zostały zidentyfikowane jako potencjalni kandydaci na szczepionki 106.

Podejścia terapeutyczne

Obecnie nie ma specyficznych leków przeciwwirusowych ani szczepionek do leczenia lub zapobiegania zakażeniom norowirusem 107. Leczenie koncentruje się na opiece podtrzymującej, zwłaszcza zapobieganiu i leczeniu odwodnienia 108.

Jednak zgodnie z cyklem życiowym norowirusów, opracowano kilka kandydatów na leki, które celują w działanie polimerazy i proteazy 109. Lepsze zrozumienie mechanizmów patogenetycznych norowirusów może prowadzić do opracowania bardziej ukierunkowanych i skutecznych podejść terapeutycznych.

Nowe odkrycia dotyczące komórek tuft jako rezerwuaru przewlekłego zakażenia norowirusem sugerują, że celowanie w te komórki lub ich receptor powierzchniowy (CD300lf) może być ważną strategią zapobiegania lub leczenia zakażeń norowirusem 110111.

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  1. 12.04.2026
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Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Where does norovirus go? | VIROLOGY RESEARCH SERVICES
    https://virologyresearchservices.com/2018/04/27/where-does-norovirus-go/
    Norovirus infections cause 700 million cases of acute viral gastroenteritis each year and about 200,000 deaths. […] Murine norovirus (MNoV) is a good model for the human norovirus as it recapitulates both its pathogenesis and immunity, thus enabling the study of norovirus biology in a relevant in vivo model. […] These elusive populations can act as reservoirs for chronic infection. […] Recently, CD300lf was identified as the receptor for MNoV, information that Wilen et al. exploit in their quest to identify the target cells of the norovirus. […] This suggests that bone marrow cells are not the target of MNoVCR6 enteric infection. […] These same cells also stained positive for viral antigen, providing evidence that the long-sought targets of norovirus are indeed tuft cells. […] Tuft cells are known as the main producers of IL25, and they play a role in inducing type 2 immunity in response to parasites and helminths.
  • #2 Noroviruses: Evolutionary Dynamics, Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Vaccine Advances—A Comprehensive Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/12/6/590
    Noroviruses constitute a significant aetiology of sporadic and epidemic gastroenteritis in human hosts worldwide, especially among young children, the elderly, and immunocompromised patients. […] Considering the substantial disease burden across healthcare and community settings and the difficulty in controlling the disease, we review aspects related to current knowledge about norovirus biology, mechanisms driving the evolutionary trends, epidemiology and molecular diversity, pathogenic mechanism, and immunity to viral infection. […] The mechanism of the extraintestinal pathologies of human norovirus disease is not well understood; however, the finding that murine noroviruses can infect dendritic cells, which are capable of active migration between tissues and draining lymph nodes, suggests noroviruses may be utilising infected dendritic cells to facilitate extraintestinal spread.
  • #3 Pathogenesis of Noroviruses, Emerging RNA Viruses
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3185648/
    Human noroviruses in the family Caliciviridae are a major cause of epidemic gastroenteritis. […] Norovirus infections are typically acute and self-limited. However, disease can be much more severe and prolonged in infants, elderly, and immunocompromised individuals. […] Despite the impact of human norovirus-induced disease and the potential for emergence of highly virulent strains, the pathogenic features of infection are not well understood due to the lack of a cell culture system and previous lack of animal models. This review summarizes the current understanding of norovirus pathogenesis from the histological to the molecular level, including contributions from new model systems. […] In recent years, work in porcine, bovine, and murine models has also begun to contribute to our understanding of norovirus pathogenesis.
  • #4 Pathogenesis of Noroviruses, Emerging RNA Viruses
    https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/2/3/748
    Human noroviruses in the family Caliciviridae are a major cause of epidemic gastroenteritis. […] Norovirus infections are typically acute and self-limited. However, disease can be much more severe and prolonged in infants, elderly, and immunocompromised individuals. […] Despite the impact of human norovirus-induced disease and the potential for emergence of highly virulent strains, the pathogenic features of infection are not well understood due to the lack of a cell culture system and previous lack of animal models. This review summarizes the current understanding of norovirus pathogenesis from the histological to the molecular level, including contributions from new model systems. […] Because of the lack of a cell culture system and the historical lack of animal models of norovirus infection, the extent of our knowledge regarding pathogenesis of norovirus infection comes primarily from physical, histological, and biochemical studies of infected human volunteers.
  • #5 Norovirus infection pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Norovirus_infection_pathophysiology
    Noroviruses are highly transmissible since only 10 virions (ID50 = 10 virions) per individual is required to infect half proportion of those individuals. […] The virus primarily damages the microvilli of the cells of the small intestine. […] It affects the motility of stomach leading to delayed gastric emptying and eventually nausea and vomiting. […] The virus is responsible for the enzymatic disorder, leak flux, anion secretion and fat malabsorption at the brush border leading to diarrhea in infected individuals.
  • #6 Norovirus Infection and Outbreaks
    https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/norovirus-infection-and-outbreaks
    Because of the lack of a cell culture system and the historical lack of animal models of norovirus infection, the extent of our knowledge regarding pathogenesis of norovirus infection comes primarily from physical, histologic, and biochemical studies of infected human volunteers. […] In recent years, work in porcine, bovine, and murine models has also begun to contribute to our understanding of norovirus pathogenesis. […] The success of noroviruses should come as no surprise once one considers how well adapted they are for transmission within human populations. First, noroviruses have an extremely low infectious dose (18 viral particles) coupled with copious viral shedding (105-1011 viral copies per gram of feces), even among asymptomatic infections; this suggests that up to 5 billion infectious doses may be shed by an infected individual in each gram of feces.
  • #7 Norovirus Infection and Outbreaks
    https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/norovirus-infection-and-outbreaks
    Because of the lack of a cell culture system and the historical lack of animal models of norovirus infection, the extent of our knowledge regarding pathogenesis of norovirus infection comes primarily from physical, histologic, and biochemical studies of infected human volunteers. […] In recent years, work in porcine, bovine, and murine models has also begun to contribute to our understanding of norovirus pathogenesis. […] The success of noroviruses should come as no surprise once one considers how well adapted they are for transmission within human populations. First, noroviruses have an extremely low infectious dose (18 viral particles) coupled with copious viral shedding (105-1011 viral copies per gram of feces), even among asymptomatic infections; this suggests that up to 5 billion infectious doses may be shed by an infected individual in each gram of feces.
  • #8 Norovirus Infection and Outbreaks
    https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/norovirus-infection-and-outbreaks
    Second, noroviruses are environmentally stable, able to survive both freezing and heat (although not thorough cooking), are resistant to many common chemical disinfectants, and can persist on surfaces for up to 2 weeks. […] Third, there are a number of ways in which noroviruses may be spread, including direct contact between hosts via fecal-oral transmission, ingestion of contaminated foods or water, and handling of contaminated utensils followed by hand-to-mouth contact via ingestion of aerosolized particles. […] Finally, noroviruses are a genetically diverse group of viruses that rapidly evolve, leading to an apparent lack of prolonged cross-protective immunity following infection. Clearly, public health efforts to prevent and control the spread of noroviruses face a big challenge.
  • #9 Norovirus – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norovirus
    When a person becomes infected with norovirus, the virus replicates within the small intestine. The principal symptom is acute gastroenteritis, characterized by nausea, forceful vomiting, watery diarrhea, and abdominal pain, that develops 12 to 48 hours after exposure and lasts for 24–72 hours. […] Norovirus can establish a long-term infection in people who are immunocompromised, such as those with common variable immunodeficiency or with a suppressed immune system after organ transplantation. These infections can be with or without symptoms. In severe cases, persistent infections can lead to norovirus–associated enteropathy, intestinal villous atrophy, and malabsorption. […] The protein MDA-5 may be the primary immune sensor that detects the presence of noroviruses in the body. Some people have common variations of the MDA-5 gene that could make them more susceptible to norovirus infection.
  • #10 Azthena logo with the word Azthena
    https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Norovirus.aspx
    Infection with noroviruses generally manifests a mild and self-limiting illness. The onset of the disease can be either gradual or abrupt, usually within 12-48 hours after exposure. Vomiting is often the introductory symptom, which is swiftly followed by fever (in up to one-half of all the cases), abdominal cramps, watery diarrhea, as well as the other constitutional symptoms such as headache, chills, and myalgias. […] The histopathological changes could be detected within 24 hours after virus challenge, with a pathognomonic sign of broadened and blunted villi in the small intestine. Furthermore, microvilli are shortened, and there is an infiltration of polymorphonuclear and mononuclear cells in the lamina propria. No histologic changes are observed in the gastric fundus, antrum, or colonic mucosa.
  • #11 Norovirus – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norovirus
    When a person becomes infected with norovirus, the virus replicates within the small intestine. The principal symptom is acute gastroenteritis, characterized by nausea, forceful vomiting, watery diarrhea, and abdominal pain, that develops 12 to 48 hours after exposure and lasts for 24–72 hours. […] Norovirus can establish a long-term infection in people who are immunocompromised, such as those with common variable immunodeficiency or with a suppressed immune system after organ transplantation. These infections can be with or without symptoms. In severe cases, persistent infections can lead to norovirus–associated enteropathy, intestinal villous atrophy, and malabsorption. […] The protein MDA-5 may be the primary immune sensor that detects the presence of noroviruses in the body. Some people have common variations of the MDA-5 gene that could make them more susceptible to norovirus infection.
  • #12 Norovirus encounters in the gut: multifaceted interactions and disease outcomes | Mucosal Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41385-019-0199-4
    Noroviruses are major causes of gastroenteritis, with epidemic outbreaks occurring frequently. […] In this Review, we summarize our current understanding of norovirus pathogenesis, noting the prominent role of murine norovirus as a small animal model for norovirus research. […] Our mechanistic understanding of norovirus pathogenesis continues to improve with increasing availability of powerful model systems, which will ultimately facilitate development of effective preventive and therapeutic approaches for this pathogen. […] In this article, after introducing the virus and its replication cycle, we will discuss virus-induced pathology and how both innate and adaptive immune mechanisms are involved in NoV control. […] The replication cycle of NoV begins with attachment of the virus to carbohydrates on the cell surface, where human norovirus (HNoV) binds histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) and murine norovirus (MNoV) binds other carbohydrates including sialic acids.
  • #13 Norovirus encounters in the gut: multifaceted interactions and disease outcomes | Mucosal Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41385-019-0199-4
    Upon successful virus attachment, entry and viral particle uncoating occur, and NoV positive-sense RNA (+RNA) is then exposed in the cytoplasm where viral RNA translation takes place. […] In humans, as shown in intestinal biopsies from immunocompromised patients, VP1 can be detected in enterocytes, macrophages, T cells, and dendritic cells (DCs), indicating possible active infection of these cell types. […] An infection model for MNoV has been proposed, whereby the virus uses microfold (M) cells to overcome the epithelial barrier in order to infect lymphocytes, macrophages, and DCs in the intestine, before being trafficked to local lymph nodes and distal sites by DCs. […] The distinct infection phenotypes observed with different MNoV strains suggest differential immune regulation mechanisms employed depending on the strain of the virus and the mode of infection.
  • #14 Norovirus and Foodborne Disease: A Review
    https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/foodsafetyfscj/2/3/2_2014027/_html/-char/en
    Development of a norovirus vaccine has many difficulties and limitations, but some progress and some vaccine candidates have passed a phase II clinical trial. […] This review provides an overview of norovirus infection and further discusses key characteristics of the virus, along with pathogenesis, clinical manifestation, diagnosis, treatment, prevention and control of the virus infection. […] Norovirus virion is non-enveloped. The capsid is composed of 180 VP1 proteins (90 dimers) with about 3840nm in diameter and T = 3 icosahedral symmetry. […] Lifecycle of norovirus is as follows; Norovirus attaches to host cells using carbohydrate receptor and probably another receptor, and enters into cells through clathrin- and caveolin-independent endocytosis. […] After that, the virus is uncoated and viral genomic RNA is released into the cytoplasm.
  • #15 Researchers Grow Human Norovirus Culture
    https://www.contagionlive.com/view/researchers-grow-human-norovirus-culture-
    The researchers also noted the norovirus infection B cells, a key immune cell, was dependent on the person having histo-blood group antigen (HBGA)-expressing enteric bacteria in their bodies. Present in the gut and commensal, HBGA-expressing enteric bacterias role in infection was surprising to researchers. […] According to Karst, What weve shown is that noroviruses attach to that carbohydrate expressed on commensal bacteria, and that this interaction stimulates viral infection of the B cell. […] We have identified B cells as a cellular target of noroviruses and enteric bacteria as a stimulatory factor for norovirus infection, leading to the development of an in vitro infection model for human noroviruses, the authors concluded.
  • #16 ROLE OF INTESTINAL BACTERIA IN HUMAN NOROVIRUS INFECTION | National Agricultural Library
    https://www.nal.usda.gov/research-tools/food-safety-research-projects/role-intestinal-bacteria-human-norovirus-infection
    Noroviruses are a significant cause of epidemic and sporadic gastroenteritis worldwide. […] The major barrier to this development has been the inability to culture Human noroviruses. […] We have made two remarkable discoveries to overcome this obstacle – (1) Human noroviruses infect B cells; and (2) they require enteric Bacteria for optimal Infection. […] Moreover, both of these findings provide fundamentally important clues to understanding Norovirus pathogenesis and to developing effective strategies to combat Infection. […] We speculate that Human noroviruses interact with commensal Bacteria in the gut lumen and virus:bacteria complexes are transcytosed across the Intestinal epithelium in order to access the underlying B cell targets. […] This model is supported by the long-standing knowledge that Norovirus infections are noninflammatory and they fail to elicit robust protective immunity.
  • #17 Recent Advances in Understanding Norovirus Pathogenesis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5203933/
    Available data from animal models suggest that norovirus cell tropism is regulated in vivo by yet-to-be-defined factors. […] Enterocytes are equipped to sample material from the gut lumen and transfer it to underlying immune cells for effective induction of tolerogenic and inflammatory responses. […] A specialized subset of enterocytes called microfold cells (M cells) are particularly important in this process. […] A recent study revealed that commensal bacteria can regulate the establishment of persistent norovirus infections. […] This intriguing example highlights how the complex interplay between immunologic, viral, and microbial determinants regulates the ability of noroviruses to establish persistence in the colon, and thus to be shed in feces for protracted periods of time even in immunocompetent hosts.
  • #18 Pathogenesis of Noroviruses, Emerging RNA Viruses
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3185648/
    Overall, noroviruses can infect their hosts for weeks or months even in the presence of a fully functional immune system. […] The mechanisms by which noroviruses maintain prolonged infection remain incompletely understood, but they may play a critical role in impairing adaptive immune responses such that they fail to protect from secondary challenge. […] Understanding the molecular aspects of viral replication can facilitate the development of rational therapies. […] Norovirus genomes are thought to be covalently associated with a viral protein called VPg at their 5 ends and are polyadenlyated at their 3 ends. […] The norovirus VPg can function as a primer in viral RNA replication following its uridylylation. […] Overall, available data suggest that norovirus NS2 and NS4 proteins both contribute to viral replication complex formation on intracellular membranes including that of the Golgi apparatus. […] Identifying critical determinants of norovirus receptor binding and antigenicity may be instrumental in the design of effective therapeutics and vaccines.
  • #19 Pathogenesis of Noroviruses, Emerging RNA Viruses
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3185648/
    Overall, noroviruses can infect their hosts for weeks or months even in the presence of a fully functional immune system. […] The mechanisms by which noroviruses maintain prolonged infection remain incompletely understood, but they may play a critical role in impairing adaptive immune responses such that they fail to protect from secondary challenge. […] Understanding the molecular aspects of viral replication can facilitate the development of rational therapies. […] Norovirus genomes are thought to be covalently associated with a viral protein called VPg at their 5 ends and are polyadenlyated at their 3 ends. […] The norovirus VPg can function as a primer in viral RNA replication following its uridylylation. […] Overall, available data suggest that norovirus NS2 and NS4 proteins both contribute to viral replication complex formation on intracellular membranes including that of the Golgi apparatus. […] Identifying critical determinants of norovirus receptor binding and antigenicity may be instrumental in the design of effective therapeutics and vaccines.
  • #20 Characterisation of the Mechanism of Norovirus VPg-Nucleotidylylation
    https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/items/c0de16c7-7b7e-4c4e-8bdd-c6c0b1dca52a
    Noroviruses, which belong to the Caliciviridae family, have a substantial yearly impact on the global economy of about $60 billion and cause about 200,000 deaths per annum in children under the age of 5. […] Infectious norovirus RNA is covalently linked to VPg (viral protein genome-linked) at the 5 end of the genome through VPg-mediated RNA priming of viral RNA synthesis. […] This process is reliant on the addition of a nucleotide to a highly conserved tyrosine residue within VPg – this process is referred to as VPg nucleotidylylation and is catalysed by the viral polymerase (NS7). […] Mass spectrometric analysis of the 5 end of infectious norovirus RNA purified from infected cells, confirmed that VPg is genome-linked via a GDP moiety at a highly conserved tyrosine residue. […] Therefore, developing a specific assay to measure in vitro VPg nucleotidylylation producing physiologically relevant readouts laid at the core of this project.
  • #21 Characterisation of the Mechanism of Norovirus VPg-Nucleotidylylation
    https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/items/c0de16c7-7b7e-4c4e-8bdd-c6c0b1dca52a
    Noroviruses, which belong to the Caliciviridae family, have a substantial yearly impact on the global economy of about $60 billion and cause about 200,000 deaths per annum in children under the age of 5. […] Infectious norovirus RNA is covalently linked to VPg (viral protein genome-linked) at the 5 end of the genome through VPg-mediated RNA priming of viral RNA synthesis. […] This process is reliant on the addition of a nucleotide to a highly conserved tyrosine residue within VPg – this process is referred to as VPg nucleotidylylation and is catalysed by the viral polymerase (NS7). […] Mass spectrometric analysis of the 5 end of infectious norovirus RNA purified from infected cells, confirmed that VPg is genome-linked via a GDP moiety at a highly conserved tyrosine residue. […] Therefore, developing a specific assay to measure in vitro VPg nucleotidylylation producing physiologically relevant readouts laid at the core of this project.
  • #22 Noroviruses: Evolutionary Dynamics, Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Vaccine Advances—A Comprehensive Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/12/6/590
    Noroviruses exhibit dual tropism as they target and infect the intestinal epithelial and nonepithelial (immune) cell types. […] The infection of gut-associated immune cells has a significant impact on the pathogenesis of norovirus and the immunological response of the host to viral infection. […] The pathogenic mechanisms of human norovirus infection are poorly understood because of the difficulty in cultivating the virus in the intestinal epithelial cells and the lack of an appropriate animal model that can perfectly express all aspects of human disease when challenged orally. […] The enteric mucosa of the small intestine is believed to be the focal point of localisation of human norovirus infection. […] In addition to the physiologic and structural changes in the gut enterocyte, norovirus infection has also been described in association with inflammatory infiltration into the human’s lamina propria following infection with the Norwalk and Hawaii viruses, an indication that the proinflammatory cytokines may be playing a role in the symptomatology of norovirus infection.
  • #23 Noroviruses: Evolutionary Dynamics, Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Vaccine Advances—A Comprehensive Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/12/6/590
    Noroviruses exhibit dual tropism as they target and infect the intestinal epithelial and nonepithelial (immune) cell types. […] The infection of gut-associated immune cells has a significant impact on the pathogenesis of norovirus and the immunological response of the host to viral infection. […] The pathogenic mechanisms of human norovirus infection are poorly understood because of the difficulty in cultivating the virus in the intestinal epithelial cells and the lack of an appropriate animal model that can perfectly express all aspects of human disease when challenged orally. […] The enteric mucosa of the small intestine is believed to be the focal point of localisation of human norovirus infection. […] In addition to the physiologic and structural changes in the gut enterocyte, norovirus infection has also been described in association with inflammatory infiltration into the human’s lamina propria following infection with the Norwalk and Hawaii viruses, an indication that the proinflammatory cytokines may be playing a role in the symptomatology of norovirus infection.
  • #24 Pathogenesis of Noroviruses, Emerging RNA Viruses
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3185648/
    Histological analysis of proximal intestinal biopsy samples from human volunteers that become ill after administration of either a GI (Norwalk; GI.1) or GII (Hawaii; GII.1) norovirus demonstrate an intact intestinal mucosa with specific histological changes, including broadening and blunting of the villi, shortening of the microvilli, enlarged and pale mitochondria, increased cytoplasmic vacuolization, and intercellular edema. […] Several recent studies suggest that noroviruses cause apoptosis of enterocytes in humans, pigs, and mice. […] While it has long been assumed that norovirus infection is confined to the intestine, there is no direct proof for this claim and several recent findings suggest that this dogma be re-considered. […] The physiological relevance of these splenic changes is unclear.
  • #25 Azthena logo with the word Azthena
    https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Norovirus.aspx
    Infection with noroviruses generally manifests a mild and self-limiting illness. The onset of the disease can be either gradual or abrupt, usually within 12-48 hours after exposure. Vomiting is often the introductory symptom, which is swiftly followed by fever (in up to one-half of all the cases), abdominal cramps, watery diarrhea, as well as the other constitutional symptoms such as headache, chills, and myalgias. […] The histopathological changes could be detected within 24 hours after virus challenge, with a pathognomonic sign of broadened and blunted villi in the small intestine. Furthermore, microvilli are shortened, and there is an infiltration of polymorphonuclear and mononuclear cells in the lamina propria. No histologic changes are observed in the gastric fundus, antrum, or colonic mucosa.
  • #26 Norovirus encounters in the gut: multifaceted interactions and disease outcomes | Mucosal Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41385-019-0199-4
    Upon successful virus attachment, entry and viral particle uncoating occur, and NoV positive-sense RNA (+RNA) is then exposed in the cytoplasm where viral RNA translation takes place. […] In humans, as shown in intestinal biopsies from immunocompromised patients, VP1 can be detected in enterocytes, macrophages, T cells, and dendritic cells (DCs), indicating possible active infection of these cell types. […] An infection model for MNoV has been proposed, whereby the virus uses microfold (M) cells to overcome the epithelial barrier in order to infect lymphocytes, macrophages, and DCs in the intestine, before being trafficked to local lymph nodes and distal sites by DCs. […] The distinct infection phenotypes observed with different MNoV strains suggest differential immune regulation mechanisms employed depending on the strain of the virus and the mode of infection.
  • #27 Recent Advances in Understanding Norovirus Pathogenesis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5203933/
    Despite the utility of animal models, a significant obstacle for the field has been the lack of any cell culture system for human noroviruses. […] For example, while there was a general belief that noroviruses preferentially infect the upper small intestine, studies in the murine norovirus model system firmly support the establishment of persistent infection in the colons of mice. […] It is now well-established that murine noroviruses efficiently infect immune cells, including cultured macrophages, dendritic cells, and B cells. […] Notably, human norovirus infection of B cells is facilitated by a co-factor derived from commensal bacteria. […] Considering that noroviruses enter their hosts in the gut lumen, they must possess a mechanism to breach the single layer of intestinal epithelial cells, or enterocytes, that line the gut wall in order to access underlying immune cells.
  • #28 Where does norovirus go? | VIROLOGY RESEARCH SERVICES
    https://virologyresearchservices.com/2018/04/27/where-does-norovirus-go/
    Norovirus infections cause 700 million cases of acute viral gastroenteritis each year and about 200,000 deaths. […] Murine norovirus (MNoV) is a good model for the human norovirus as it recapitulates both its pathogenesis and immunity, thus enabling the study of norovirus biology in a relevant in vivo model. […] These elusive populations can act as reservoirs for chronic infection. […] Recently, CD300lf was identified as the receptor for MNoV, information that Wilen et al. exploit in their quest to identify the target cells of the norovirus. […] This suggests that bone marrow cells are not the target of MNoVCR6 enteric infection. […] These same cells also stained positive for viral antigen, providing evidence that the long-sought targets of norovirus are indeed tuft cells. […] Tuft cells are known as the main producers of IL25, and they play a role in inducing type 2 immunity in response to parasites and helminths.
  • #29 Tuft cell tropism may aid norovirus pathogenesis | Immunopaedia
    https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/2018-articles/tuft-cell-tropism-may-aid-norovirus-pathogenesis/
    MNoV nonstructural protein NS6/7 colocalizes with DCLK1 in the coloneof WT mice infected with MNoVCR6 at 7 days postinfection. […] Norovirus is a highly infectious virus responsible for approximately 700 million cases and 200,000 deaths due to acute viral gastroenteritis annually. […] Recently researchers demonstrated using a murine norovirus model (MNoV) that a small population of epithelial cells are the reservoir for chronic norovirus infection. […] CD300lf is the protein receptor for MNoV, and mice deficient in CD300lf are resistant to MNoV infection. […] A study by Wilen et al., showed that CD300lf (norovirus receptor) expressing epithelial cells and not myeloid cells facilitated norovirus infection. […] These CD300lf expressing epithelial cells co-expressed doublecortin-like-kinase 1 and cytokeratin 18, tuft cell markers, illustrating that tuft cells are the target cell for MNoV.
  • #30 Tuft cell tropism may aid norovirus pathogenesis | Immunopaedia
    https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/breaking-news/2018-articles/tuft-cell-tropism-may-aid-norovirus-pathogenesis/
    MNoV nonstructural protein NS6/7 colocalizes with DCLK1 in the coloneof WT mice infected with MNoVCR6 at 7 days postinfection. […] Norovirus is a highly infectious virus responsible for approximately 700 million cases and 200,000 deaths due to acute viral gastroenteritis annually. […] Recently researchers demonstrated using a murine norovirus model (MNoV) that a small population of epithelial cells are the reservoir for chronic norovirus infection. […] CD300lf is the protein receptor for MNoV, and mice deficient in CD300lf are resistant to MNoV infection. […] A study by Wilen et al., showed that CD300lf (norovirus receptor) expressing epithelial cells and not myeloid cells facilitated norovirus infection. […] These CD300lf expressing epithelial cells co-expressed doublecortin-like-kinase 1 and cytokeratin 18, tuft cell markers, illustrating that tuft cells are the target cell for MNoV.
  • #31 Where does norovirus go? | VIROLOGY RESEARCH SERVICES
    https://virologyresearchservices.com/2018/04/27/where-does-norovirus-go/
    Norovirus infections cause 700 million cases of acute viral gastroenteritis each year and about 200,000 deaths. […] Murine norovirus (MNoV) is a good model for the human norovirus as it recapitulates both its pathogenesis and immunity, thus enabling the study of norovirus biology in a relevant in vivo model. […] These elusive populations can act as reservoirs for chronic infection. […] Recently, CD300lf was identified as the receptor for MNoV, information that Wilen et al. exploit in their quest to identify the target cells of the norovirus. […] This suggests that bone marrow cells are not the target of MNoVCR6 enteric infection. […] These same cells also stained positive for viral antigen, providing evidence that the long-sought targets of norovirus are indeed tuft cells. […] Tuft cells are known as the main producers of IL25, and they play a role in inducing type 2 immunity in response to parasites and helminths.
  • #32 Noroviruses: Evolutionary Dynamics, Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Vaccine Advances—A Comprehensive Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/12/6/590
    The findings from an in vitro stem cell-derived intestinal enteroid cell culture system that provided evidence of human norovirus replication further supports the idea that human enterocytes are permissive target cells for norovirus. […] The discovery of permissive enteroendocrine cells, which are specialised epithelial cells in the small intestine with both sensory and endocrine functions, may provide further insights into the pathogenic mechanism of human norovirus diarrhoea when fully explored.
  • #33 Recent Advances in Understanding Norovirus Pathogenesis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5203933/
    Despite the utility of animal models, a significant obstacle for the field has been the lack of any cell culture system for human noroviruses. […] For example, while there was a general belief that noroviruses preferentially infect the upper small intestine, studies in the murine norovirus model system firmly support the establishment of persistent infection in the colons of mice. […] It is now well-established that murine noroviruses efficiently infect immune cells, including cultured macrophages, dendritic cells, and B cells. […] Notably, human norovirus infection of B cells is facilitated by a co-factor derived from commensal bacteria. […] Considering that noroviruses enter their hosts in the gut lumen, they must possess a mechanism to breach the single layer of intestinal epithelial cells, or enterocytes, that line the gut wall in order to access underlying immune cells.
  • #34 Norovirus encounters in the gut: multifaceted interactions and disease outcomes | Mucosal Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41385-019-0199-4
    Upon successful virus attachment, entry and viral particle uncoating occur, and NoV positive-sense RNA (+RNA) is then exposed in the cytoplasm where viral RNA translation takes place. […] In humans, as shown in intestinal biopsies from immunocompromised patients, VP1 can be detected in enterocytes, macrophages, T cells, and dendritic cells (DCs), indicating possible active infection of these cell types. […] An infection model for MNoV has been proposed, whereby the virus uses microfold (M) cells to overcome the epithelial barrier in order to infect lymphocytes, macrophages, and DCs in the intestine, before being trafficked to local lymph nodes and distal sites by DCs. […] The distinct infection phenotypes observed with different MNoV strains suggest differential immune regulation mechanisms employed depending on the strain of the virus and the mode of infection.
  • #35 Recent Advances in Understanding Norovirus Pathogenesis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5203933/
    Available data from animal models suggest that norovirus cell tropism is regulated in vivo by yet-to-be-defined factors. […] Enterocytes are equipped to sample material from the gut lumen and transfer it to underlying immune cells for effective induction of tolerogenic and inflammatory responses. […] A specialized subset of enterocytes called microfold cells (M cells) are particularly important in this process. […] A recent study revealed that commensal bacteria can regulate the establishment of persistent norovirus infections. […] This intriguing example highlights how the complex interplay between immunologic, viral, and microbial determinants regulates the ability of noroviruses to establish persistence in the colon, and thus to be shed in feces for protracted periods of time even in immunocompetent hosts.
  • #36 Recent Advances in Understanding Norovirus Pathogenesis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5203933/
    Available data from animal models suggest that norovirus cell tropism is regulated in vivo by yet-to-be-defined factors. […] Enterocytes are equipped to sample material from the gut lumen and transfer it to underlying immune cells for effective induction of tolerogenic and inflammatory responses. […] A specialized subset of enterocytes called microfold cells (M cells) are particularly important in this process. […] A recent study revealed that commensal bacteria can regulate the establishment of persistent norovirus infections. […] This intriguing example highlights how the complex interplay between immunologic, viral, and microbial determinants regulates the ability of noroviruses to establish persistence in the colon, and thus to be shed in feces for protracted periods of time even in immunocompetent hosts.
  • #37 Human norovirus GII.4 exploits unexpected entry mechanism to cause gastroenteritis
    https://medicalxpress.com/news/2023-03-human-norovirus-gii4-exploits-unexpected.html
    Human noroviruses are the leading cause of acute gastroenteritis worldwide, a major global health problem for which there are no specific treatments or vaccines. Understanding the first phase of infection—the process the virus follows to invade cells—is a decisive step in the development of effective preventive and therapeutic strategies. A team led by researchers at Baylor College of Medicine is making strides in that direction. […] The researchers report in Nature Communications that the globally dominant human norovirus GII.4 strain invades gastrointestinal cells via an unexpected mechanism. The viral strategy involves interactions between specific components on both viral and human cell surface proteins and activates mechanisms that destabilize the cell membrane. The findings provide insight into the viral infection process, highlighting unique pathways and targets for developing effective therapeutics.
  • #38 Human norovirus GII.4 exploits unexpected entry mechanism to cause gastroenteritis | BCM
    https://www.bcm.edu/news/human-norovirus-gii-4-exploits-unexpected-entry-mechanism-to-cause-gastroenteritis
    We discovered that the binding of human norovirus GII.4 to enteroid cells wounds the cells membranes, which in turn triggers a membrane repair mechanism to the injury site, activating another cellular pathway known as the CLIC pathway, Ayyar said. We observed crosstalk between CLIC-mediated internalization of viral particles and host repair mechanisms. We propose that these pathways could be manipulated to interfere with viral entry in human intestinal cells. […] To our knowledge, this is a previously uncharacterized complex entry process into human enteroids that combines several independent pathways. There may be more molecules involved in this entry pathway than what have been reported for other viruses, said Estes, Distinguished Service Professor and Cullen Foundation Endowed Chair of molecular virology and microbiology at Baylor.
  • #39 Viral Gastroenteritis: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/176515-overview
    Viral spread from person to person occurs by fecal-oral transmission of contaminated food and water. Some viruses, like noroviruses, may be transmitted by an airborne route. Clinical manifestations are related to intestinal infection, but the exact mechanism of the induction of diarrhea is not clear. […] An animal study in zebrafish suggests that the viral capsid and possibly the minor capsid protein VP2 may have key roles in human norovirus symptomatology, perhaps behaving functionally as a viral enterotoxin. […] Noroviruses are recognized as a common cause of gastroenteritis in new settings, including nursing homes and other healthcare settings, cruise ships, in other travelers, and in immunocompromised patients. […] Norovirus was associated with about 800 deaths annually, although there were 50% more deaths in years when epidemics were caused by new strains of the virus. […] New norovirus strains continue to emerge.
  • #40 Norovirus infection pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Norovirus_infection_pathophysiology
    Noroviruses are highly transmissible since only 10 virions (ID50 = 10 virions) per individual is required to infect half proportion of those individuals. […] The virus primarily damages the microvilli of the cells of the small intestine. […] It affects the motility of stomach leading to delayed gastric emptying and eventually nausea and vomiting. […] The virus is responsible for the enzymatic disorder, leak flux, anion secretion and fat malabsorption at the brush border leading to diarrhea in infected individuals.
  • #41 Norovirus infection pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Norovirus_infection_pathophysiology
    Noroviruses are highly transmissible since only 10 virions (ID50 = 10 virions) per individual is required to infect half proportion of those individuals. […] The virus primarily damages the microvilli of the cells of the small intestine. […] It affects the motility of stomach leading to delayed gastric emptying and eventually nausea and vomiting. […] The virus is responsible for the enzymatic disorder, leak flux, anion secretion and fat malabsorption at the brush border leading to diarrhea in infected individuals.
  • #42 Norovirus | Concise Medical Knowledge
    https://www.lecturio.com/concepts/norovirus/
    Humans are the only known reservoir for human norovirus. […] This highly virulent disease is transmitted by: Fecal-oral route (contaminated food, water, or surfaces/fomites) […] The mechanism is not entirely understood. […] The virus may enter a human host through: Enterocytes, M cells. […] The virus replicates in macrophages, dendritic cells, and B cells. […] The disease is associated with: Delayed gastric acid emptying, nausea, and vomiting. […] Brush border enzyme activity malabsorptive diarrhea. […] Virions are shed in the stool. […] Pathogenesis of norovirus infection. […] Norovirus gastroenteritis is associated with the following reversible findings: Jejunal biopsy shows blunting of the microvilli, but the mucosa is otherwise intact. […] Cytoplasmic vacuolization is seen along with mononuclear infiltrates of tissue.
  • #43 Norovirus infection pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Norovirus_infection_pathophysiology
    Noroviruses are highly transmissible since only 10 virions (ID50 = 10 virions) per individual is required to infect half proportion of those individuals. […] The virus primarily damages the microvilli of the cells of the small intestine. […] It affects the motility of stomach leading to delayed gastric emptying and eventually nausea and vomiting. […] The virus is responsible for the enzymatic disorder, leak flux, anion secretion and fat malabsorption at the brush border leading to diarrhea in infected individuals.
  • #44 Norwalk Virus (Norovirus)- An Overview
    https://microbenotes.com/norwalk-virus-norovirus/
    The virus enters the body predominantly via the oral route. […] Virions are acid-stable, consistent with an ability to survive passage through the stomach and replication occurs in the jejunum. […] As few as 10 virions will initiate disease in humans. […] Damage to the intestinal brush border prevents proper absorption of water and nutrients and causes watery diarrhea. […] Partial flattening and broadening of villi with disorganization of the mucosal epithelium. […] Lamina propria infiltrated with mononuclear cells and vacuolization of mucosal epithelium. […] Crypt cell hyperplasia is common. […] Dilatation of the rough and smooth ER with an increase in multivesicular bodies in mucosal epithelial cells. […] Microvilli were significantly shortened and amorphous electron-dense was present in the expanded intercellular spaces. […] Shedding of the virus may continue for 2 weeks after symptoms have ceased. […] Immunity is generally short-lived and may not be protective.
  • #45 Norwalk Virus (Norovirus)- An Overview
    https://microbenotes.com/norwalk-virus-norovirus/
    The virus enters the body predominantly via the oral route. […] Virions are acid-stable, consistent with an ability to survive passage through the stomach and replication occurs in the jejunum. […] As few as 10 virions will initiate disease in humans. […] Damage to the intestinal brush border prevents proper absorption of water and nutrients and causes watery diarrhea. […] Partial flattening and broadening of villi with disorganization of the mucosal epithelium. […] Lamina propria infiltrated with mononuclear cells and vacuolization of mucosal epithelium. […] Crypt cell hyperplasia is common. […] Dilatation of the rough and smooth ER with an increase in multivesicular bodies in mucosal epithelial cells. […] Microvilli were significantly shortened and amorphous electron-dense was present in the expanded intercellular spaces. […] Shedding of the virus may continue for 2 weeks after symptoms have ceased. […] Immunity is generally short-lived and may not be protective.
  • #46 Noroviruses: Evolutionary Dynamics, Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Vaccine Advances—A Comprehensive Review
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/12/6/590
    Noroviruses exhibit dual tropism as they target and infect the intestinal epithelial and nonepithelial (immune) cell types. […] The infection of gut-associated immune cells has a significant impact on the pathogenesis of norovirus and the immunological response of the host to viral infection. […] The pathogenic mechanisms of human norovirus infection are poorly understood because of the difficulty in cultivating the virus in the intestinal epithelial cells and the lack of an appropriate animal model that can perfectly express all aspects of human disease when challenged orally. […] The enteric mucosa of the small intestine is believed to be the focal point of localisation of human norovirus infection. […] In addition to the physiologic and structural changes in the gut enterocyte, norovirus infection has also been described in association with inflammatory infiltration into the human’s lamina propria following infection with the Norwalk and Hawaii viruses, an indication that the proinflammatory cytokines may be playing a role in the symptomatology of norovirus infection.
  • #47 Mechanism behind virally-caused vomiting identified | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/07/110718085218.htm
    Now a research team, led by Professor Lennart Svensson at Linkping University, has produced results that show for the first time how the viruses give rise to vomiting. […] What researchers have found is that the viral infection and the toxin excreted from infected cells stimulate a type of sensory cell called enterochromaffin cells in the walls of the digestive tract. These cells can communicate with the brain via the vagus nerve. […] „We have shown that the viral toxin stimulates the cells to release serotonin, a signalling substance that in turn activates the brain’s vomiting centre,” says Maria Hagbom, laboratory engineer in the Department of Molecular Virology at LiU and the chief author of the article in PLoS Pathogens. […] The pattern was studied both in cell cultures, where the researchers demonstrated that the viral toxin caused a release of serotonin, and in mice, where it was seen that a rotavirus infection in the intestines activated the areas in the brain where the vomiting centre is located.
  • #48 Mechanism behind virally-caused vomiting identified | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/07/110718085218.htm
    Now a research team, led by Professor Lennart Svensson at Linkping University, has produced results that show for the first time how the viruses give rise to vomiting. […] What researchers have found is that the viral infection and the toxin excreted from infected cells stimulate a type of sensory cell called enterochromaffin cells in the walls of the digestive tract. These cells can communicate with the brain via the vagus nerve. […] „We have shown that the viral toxin stimulates the cells to release serotonin, a signalling substance that in turn activates the brain’s vomiting centre,” says Maria Hagbom, laboratory engineer in the Department of Molecular Virology at LiU and the chief author of the article in PLoS Pathogens. […] The pattern was studied both in cell cultures, where the researchers demonstrated that the viral toxin caused a release of serotonin, and in mice, where it was seen that a rotavirus infection in the intestines activated the areas in the brain where the vomiting centre is located.
  • #49 Mechanism behind virally-caused vomiting identified | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/07/110718085218.htm
    Now a research team, led by Professor Lennart Svensson at Linkping University, has produced results that show for the first time how the viruses give rise to vomiting. […] What researchers have found is that the viral infection and the toxin excreted from infected cells stimulate a type of sensory cell called enterochromaffin cells in the walls of the digestive tract. These cells can communicate with the brain via the vagus nerve. […] „We have shown that the viral toxin stimulates the cells to release serotonin, a signalling substance that in turn activates the brain’s vomiting centre,” says Maria Hagbom, laboratory engineer in the Department of Molecular Virology at LiU and the chief author of the article in PLoS Pathogens. […] The pattern was studied both in cell cultures, where the researchers demonstrated that the viral toxin caused a release of serotonin, and in mice, where it was seen that a rotavirus infection in the intestines activated the areas in the brain where the vomiting centre is located.
  • #50 Recent Advances in Understanding Norovirus Pathogenesis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5203933/
    Available data from animal models suggest that norovirus cell tropism is regulated in vivo by yet-to-be-defined factors. […] Enterocytes are equipped to sample material from the gut lumen and transfer it to underlying immune cells for effective induction of tolerogenic and inflammatory responses. […] A specialized subset of enterocytes called microfold cells (M cells) are particularly important in this process. […] A recent study revealed that commensal bacteria can regulate the establishment of persistent norovirus infections. […] This intriguing example highlights how the complex interplay between immunologic, viral, and microbial determinants regulates the ability of noroviruses to establish persistence in the colon, and thus to be shed in feces for protracted periods of time even in immunocompetent hosts.
  • #51 Norovirus encounters in the gut: multifaceted interactions and disease outcomes | Mucosal Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41385-019-0199-4
    In addition to the acute symptomatic manifestations of NoV infection, there has been some evidence linking NoV infections to sequelae including post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). […] An interesting connection between MNoV and IBD has also been identified. […] These studies have suggested that NoVs may serve as viral triggers for IBS or IBD in some environmental and genetic contexts, and also indicated that the microbiota may be important for NoV pathogenesis. […] The microbiota plays a fundamental role in the induction, training, and function of the host immune system, and the gut microbiota has an important role in maintaining intestinal homeostasis by preventing colonization by exogenous pathogens and potentially harmful indigenous microorganisms.
  • #52 Recent Advances in Understanding Norovirus Pathogenesis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5203933/
    Available data from animal models suggest that norovirus cell tropism is regulated in vivo by yet-to-be-defined factors. […] Enterocytes are equipped to sample material from the gut lumen and transfer it to underlying immune cells for effective induction of tolerogenic and inflammatory responses. […] A specialized subset of enterocytes called microfold cells (M cells) are particularly important in this process. […] A recent study revealed that commensal bacteria can regulate the establishment of persistent norovirus infections. […] This intriguing example highlights how the complex interplay between immunologic, viral, and microbial determinants regulates the ability of noroviruses to establish persistence in the colon, and thus to be shed in feces for protracted periods of time even in immunocompetent hosts.
  • #53 Norovirus encounters in the gut: multifaceted interactions and disease outcomes | Mucosal Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41385-019-0199-4
    Experimental alteration of the microbiota dramatically alters MNoV infection, as pretreatment of mice with an antibiotic cocktail prevents infection of the intestine by both acute strain MNV-1 and by persistent MNoV strains MNV-3 and CR6. […] Another mechanism by which the microbiota promotes NoV infection involves secretory Igs. […] NoVs are a diverse but related group of viruses that have the ability to infect different hosts including humans, rodents, felines, canines, and pigs. […] Because minor changes in the NoV genome can dramatically alter pathogenesis, development of effective vaccination and antiviral treatments to limit HNoV persistence and transmission are urgently needed to prevent emergence of novel pathogenic variants.
  • #54 Recent Advances in Understanding Norovirus Pathogenesis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5203933/
    Despite the utility of animal models, a significant obstacle for the field has been the lack of any cell culture system for human noroviruses. […] For example, while there was a general belief that noroviruses preferentially infect the upper small intestine, studies in the murine norovirus model system firmly support the establishment of persistent infection in the colons of mice. […] It is now well-established that murine noroviruses efficiently infect immune cells, including cultured macrophages, dendritic cells, and B cells. […] Notably, human norovirus infection of B cells is facilitated by a co-factor derived from commensal bacteria. […] Considering that noroviruses enter their hosts in the gut lumen, they must possess a mechanism to breach the single layer of intestinal epithelial cells, or enterocytes, that line the gut wall in order to access underlying immune cells.
  • #55 Human norovirus transmission and evolution in a changing world | Nature Reviews Microbiology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro.2016.48
    Norovirus infections pose a substantial risk to human health worldwide. Modes of viral transmission, the severity of illness and evolutionary pressures all contribute to this risk and can vary between viral genotypes. […] Many details about the transmission of noroviruses remain unknown, especially regarding the origin of newly emerging strains. […] Bacteria in the host microbiota might influence human norovirus infections by providing HBGA-like sugars for norovirus attachment and by modulating host immunity. […] B cells support norovirus replication in the presence of bacteria that express histo-blood group antigen (HBGA)-like sugars. A recently described cell culture system for the study of noroviruses in B cells will hopefully advance our understanding of many aspects of human noroviruses, ranging from the molecular characterization of their life cycle to the development of improved vaccines.
  • #56 Recent Advances in Understanding Norovirus Pathogenesis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5203933/
    Available data from animal models suggest that norovirus cell tropism is regulated in vivo by yet-to-be-defined factors. […] Enterocytes are equipped to sample material from the gut lumen and transfer it to underlying immune cells for effective induction of tolerogenic and inflammatory responses. […] A specialized subset of enterocytes called microfold cells (M cells) are particularly important in this process. […] A recent study revealed that commensal bacteria can regulate the establishment of persistent norovirus infections. […] This intriguing example highlights how the complex interplay between immunologic, viral, and microbial determinants regulates the ability of noroviruses to establish persistence in the colon, and thus to be shed in feces for protracted periods of time even in immunocompetent hosts.
  • #57 Mechanisms of GII.4 Norovirus Persistence in Human Populations | PLOS Medicine
    https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.0050031
    Noroviruses are the leading cause of viral acute gastroenteritis in humans, noted for causing epidemic outbreaks in communities, the military, cruise ships, hospitals, and assisted living communities. […] The evolutionary mechanisms governing the persistence and emergence of new norovirus strains in human populations are unknown. […] Previous studies by our laboratory and others indicate that some noroviruses readily infect individuals who carry a gene encoding a functional alpha-1,2-fucosyltransferase (FUT2) and are designated secretor-positive to indicate that they express ABH histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs), a highly heterogeneous group of related carbohydrates on mucosal surfaces. […] Individuals with defects in the FUT2 gene are termed secretor-negative, do not express the appropriate HBGA necessary for docking, and are resistant to Norwalk infection.
  • #58 Mechanisms of GII.4 Norovirus Persistence in Human Populations | PLOS Medicine
    https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.0050031
    Noroviruses are the leading cause of viral acute gastroenteritis in humans, noted for causing epidemic outbreaks in communities, the military, cruise ships, hospitals, and assisted living communities. […] The evolutionary mechanisms governing the persistence and emergence of new norovirus strains in human populations are unknown. […] Previous studies by our laboratory and others indicate that some noroviruses readily infect individuals who carry a gene encoding a functional alpha-1,2-fucosyltransferase (FUT2) and are designated secretor-positive to indicate that they express ABH histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs), a highly heterogeneous group of related carbohydrates on mucosal surfaces. […] Individuals with defects in the FUT2 gene are termed secretor-negative, do not express the appropriate HBGA necessary for docking, and are resistant to Norwalk infection.
  • #59 Mechanisms of GII.4 Norovirus Persistence in Human Populations | PLOS Medicine
    https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.0050031
    Noroviruses are the leading cause of viral acute gastroenteritis in humans, noted for causing epidemic outbreaks in communities, the military, cruise ships, hospitals, and assisted living communities. […] The evolutionary mechanisms governing the persistence and emergence of new norovirus strains in human populations are unknown. […] Previous studies by our laboratory and others indicate that some noroviruses readily infect individuals who carry a gene encoding a functional alpha-1,2-fucosyltransferase (FUT2) and are designated secretor-positive to indicate that they express ABH histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs), a highly heterogeneous group of related carbohydrates on mucosal surfaces. […] Individuals with defects in the FUT2 gene are termed secretor-negative, do not express the appropriate HBGA necessary for docking, and are resistant to Norwalk infection.
  • #60 Mechanisms of GII.4 Norovirus Persistence in Human Populations | PLOS Medicine
    https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.0050031
    These data argue that FUT2 and other genes encoding enzymes that regulate processing of the HBGA carbohydrates function as susceptibility alleles. […] However, secretor-negative individuals can be infected with other norovirus strains, and reinfection with the GII.4 strains is common in human populations. […] In this article, we analyze molecular mechanisms governing GII.4 epidemiology, susceptibility, and persistence in human populations. […] Phylogenetic analyses of the GII.4 capsid sequences suggested an epochal evolution over the last 20 y with periods of stasis followed by rapid evolution of novel epidemic strains. […] Variation in surface-exposed residues and in residues that surround the fucose ligand interaction domain suggests that antigenic drift may promote GII.4 persistence in human populations.
  • #61 Your blood type may influence your vulnerability to norovirus: BioNews: Spring 2020: Newsletters: News & Events: Department of Biology: Indiana University Bloomington
    https://biology.indiana.edu/news-events/newsletters/2020-spr-newsletter/norovirus.html
    Your blood type may influence your vulnerability to norovirus, the winter vomiting virus. […] Norovirus is very infectious and spreads rapidly through a confined population, such as at a school or on a cruise ship. […] When norovirus is ingested, it initially infects the cells that line the small intestine. Researchers dont know exactly how this infection then causes the symptoms of the disease. But a fascinating aspect of norovirus is that, after exposure, blood type determines, in a large part, whether a person gets sick. […] The same oligosaccharides on red blood cells also appear on the surface of cells that line the small intestine. Norovirus and a few other viruses use these oligosaccharides to grab onto and infect the intestinal cells. Its the specific structure of these oligosaccharides that determines whether a given strain of virus can attach and invade.
  • #62 Your blood type may influence your vulnerability to norovirus: BioNews: Spring 2020: Newsletters: News & Events: Department of Biology: Indiana University Bloomington
    https://biology.indiana.edu/news-events/newsletters/2020-spr-newsletter/norovirus.html
    Your blood type may influence your vulnerability to norovirus, the winter vomiting virus. […] Norovirus is very infectious and spreads rapidly through a confined population, such as at a school or on a cruise ship. […] When norovirus is ingested, it initially infects the cells that line the small intestine. Researchers dont know exactly how this infection then causes the symptoms of the disease. But a fascinating aspect of norovirus is that, after exposure, blood type determines, in a large part, whether a person gets sick. […] The same oligosaccharides on red blood cells also appear on the surface of cells that line the small intestine. Norovirus and a few other viruses use these oligosaccharides to grab onto and infect the intestinal cells. Its the specific structure of these oligosaccharides that determines whether a given strain of virus can attach and invade.
  • #63 Pathogenesis of Noroviruses, Emerging RNA Viruses
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3185648/
    Overall, noroviruses can infect their hosts for weeks or months even in the presence of a fully functional immune system. […] The mechanisms by which noroviruses maintain prolonged infection remain incompletely understood, but they may play a critical role in impairing adaptive immune responses such that they fail to protect from secondary challenge. […] Understanding the molecular aspects of viral replication can facilitate the development of rational therapies. […] Norovirus genomes are thought to be covalently associated with a viral protein called VPg at their 5 ends and are polyadenlyated at their 3 ends. […] The norovirus VPg can function as a primer in viral RNA replication following its uridylylation. […] Overall, available data suggest that norovirus NS2 and NS4 proteins both contribute to viral replication complex formation on intracellular membranes including that of the Golgi apparatus. […] Identifying critical determinants of norovirus receptor binding and antigenicity may be instrumental in the design of effective therapeutics and vaccines.
  • #64 Pathogenesis of Noroviruses, Emerging RNA Viruses
    https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/2/3/748
    Histological analysis of proximal intestinal biopsy samples from human volunteers that become ill after administration of either a GI (Norwalk; GI.1) or GII (Hawaii; GII.1) norovirus demonstrate an intact intestinal mucosa with specific histological changes, including broadening and blunting of the villi, shortening of the microvilli, enlarged and pale mitochondria, increased cytoplasmic vacuolization, and intercellular edema. […] Several recent studies suggest that noroviruses cause apoptosis of enterocytes in humans, pigs, and mice. […] While it has long been assumed that norovirus infection is confined to the intestine, there is no direct proof for this claim and several recent findings suggest that this dogma be re-considered. […] Overall, noroviruses can infect their hosts for weeks or months even in the presence of a fully functional immune system. […] The mechanisms by which noroviruses maintain prolonged infection remain incompletely understood, but they may play a critical role in impairing adaptive immune responses such that they fail to protect from secondary challenge.
  • #65 Pathogenesis of Noroviruses, Emerging RNA Viruses
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3185648/
    Overall, noroviruses can infect their hosts for weeks or months even in the presence of a fully functional immune system. […] The mechanisms by which noroviruses maintain prolonged infection remain incompletely understood, but they may play a critical role in impairing adaptive immune responses such that they fail to protect from secondary challenge. […] Understanding the molecular aspects of viral replication can facilitate the development of rational therapies. […] Norovirus genomes are thought to be covalently associated with a viral protein called VPg at their 5 ends and are polyadenlyated at their 3 ends. […] The norovirus VPg can function as a primer in viral RNA replication following its uridylylation. […] Overall, available data suggest that norovirus NS2 and NS4 proteins both contribute to viral replication complex formation on intracellular membranes including that of the Golgi apparatus. […] Identifying critical determinants of norovirus receptor binding and antigenicity may be instrumental in the design of effective therapeutics and vaccines.
  • #66 Pathogenesis of Noroviruses, Emerging RNA Viruses
    https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4915/2/3/748
    Histological analysis of proximal intestinal biopsy samples from human volunteers that become ill after administration of either a GI (Norwalk; GI.1) or GII (Hawaii; GII.1) norovirus demonstrate an intact intestinal mucosa with specific histological changes, including broadening and blunting of the villi, shortening of the microvilli, enlarged and pale mitochondria, increased cytoplasmic vacuolization, and intercellular edema. […] Several recent studies suggest that noroviruses cause apoptosis of enterocytes in humans, pigs, and mice. […] While it has long been assumed that norovirus infection is confined to the intestine, there is no direct proof for this claim and several recent findings suggest that this dogma be re-considered. […] Overall, noroviruses can infect their hosts for weeks or months even in the presence of a fully functional immune system. […] The mechanisms by which noroviruses maintain prolonged infection remain incompletely understood, but they may play a critical role in impairing adaptive immune responses such that they fail to protect from secondary challenge.
  • #67 Norovirus encounters in the gut: multifaceted interactions and disease outcomes | Mucosal Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41385-019-0199-4
    An intact immune system is critical to effective control of NoV infection, and data from responses to both human and mouse NoV infection support important roles for both the innate and adaptive arms of immunity to keep NoVs in check. […] For MNoV, it has been shown that MDA-5 is required to control infection through induction of interferon (IFN). […] IFN responses in the mouse limit MNoV viral replication, as shown for mice lacking type I IFN receptor, which die after acute MNoV challenge. […] Although effective in inhibiting and regulating virus replication, endogenous IFN responses are counteracted by a number of viral evasion mechanisms. […] The major targets of acute norovirus infection are immune cells in the gut-associated lymphoid tissue. […] HNoV infection is mostly acute with symptoms manifested after an incubation period of 12-48h.
  • #68 Norovirus encounters in the gut: multifaceted interactions and disease outcomes | Mucosal Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41385-019-0199-4
    An intact immune system is critical to effective control of NoV infection, and data from responses to both human and mouse NoV infection support important roles for both the innate and adaptive arms of immunity to keep NoVs in check. […] For MNoV, it has been shown that MDA-5 is required to control infection through induction of interferon (IFN). […] IFN responses in the mouse limit MNoV viral replication, as shown for mice lacking type I IFN receptor, which die after acute MNoV challenge. […] Although effective in inhibiting and regulating virus replication, endogenous IFN responses are counteracted by a number of viral evasion mechanisms. […] The major targets of acute norovirus infection are immune cells in the gut-associated lymphoid tissue. […] HNoV infection is mostly acute with symptoms manifested after an incubation period of 12-48h.
  • #69 Norovirus encounters in the gut: multifaceted interactions and disease outcomes | Mucosal Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41385-019-0199-4
    An intact immune system is critical to effective control of NoV infection, and data from responses to both human and mouse NoV infection support important roles for both the innate and adaptive arms of immunity to keep NoVs in check. […] For MNoV, it has been shown that MDA-5 is required to control infection through induction of interferon (IFN). […] IFN responses in the mouse limit MNoV viral replication, as shown for mice lacking type I IFN receptor, which die after acute MNoV challenge. […] Although effective in inhibiting and regulating virus replication, endogenous IFN responses are counteracted by a number of viral evasion mechanisms. […] The major targets of acute norovirus infection are immune cells in the gut-associated lymphoid tissue. […] HNoV infection is mostly acute with symptoms manifested after an incubation period of 12-48h.
  • #70 Norovirus – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norovirus
    When a person becomes infected with norovirus, the virus replicates within the small intestine. The principal symptom is acute gastroenteritis, characterized by nausea, forceful vomiting, watery diarrhea, and abdominal pain, that develops 12 to 48 hours after exposure and lasts for 24–72 hours. […] Norovirus can establish a long-term infection in people who are immunocompromised, such as those with common variable immunodeficiency or with a suppressed immune system after organ transplantation. These infections can be with or without symptoms. In severe cases, persistent infections can lead to norovirus–associated enteropathy, intestinal villous atrophy, and malabsorption. […] The protein MDA-5 may be the primary immune sensor that detects the presence of noroviruses in the body. Some people have common variations of the MDA-5 gene that could make them more susceptible to norovirus infection.
  • #71 Norovirus encounters in the gut: multifaceted interactions and disease outcomes | Mucosal Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41385-019-0199-4
    An intact immune system is critical to effective control of NoV infection, and data from responses to both human and mouse NoV infection support important roles for both the innate and adaptive arms of immunity to keep NoVs in check. […] For MNoV, it has been shown that MDA-5 is required to control infection through induction of interferon (IFN). […] IFN responses in the mouse limit MNoV viral replication, as shown for mice lacking type I IFN receptor, which die after acute MNoV challenge. […] Although effective in inhibiting and regulating virus replication, endogenous IFN responses are counteracted by a number of viral evasion mechanisms. […] The major targets of acute norovirus infection are immune cells in the gut-associated lymphoid tissue. […] HNoV infection is mostly acute with symptoms manifested after an incubation period of 12-48h.
  • #72 Norovirus encounters in the gut: multifaceted interactions and disease outcomes | Mucosal Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41385-019-0199-4
    An intact immune system is critical to effective control of NoV infection, and data from responses to both human and mouse NoV infection support important roles for both the innate and adaptive arms of immunity to keep NoVs in check. […] For MNoV, it has been shown that MDA-5 is required to control infection through induction of interferon (IFN). […] IFN responses in the mouse limit MNoV viral replication, as shown for mice lacking type I IFN receptor, which die after acute MNoV challenge. […] Although effective in inhibiting and regulating virus replication, endogenous IFN responses are counteracted by a number of viral evasion mechanisms. […] The major targets of acute norovirus infection are immune cells in the gut-associated lymphoid tissue. […] HNoV infection is mostly acute with symptoms manifested after an incubation period of 12-48h.
  • #73 Norovirus: new developments and implications for travelers’ diarrhea | Tropical Diseases, Travel Medicine and Vaccines | Full Text
    https://tdtmvjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40794-016-0017-x
    Noroviruses are the leading cause of acute gastroenteritis in the United States and are responsible for at least 50 % of acute gastroenteritis outbreaks occurring worldwide each year. […] The aim of this review is to describe the role of noroviruses in travelers diarrhea in terms of epidemiology, current diagnostics, treatment and vaccine development efforts. […] Studies have shown prevalence rates of noroviruses in travelers diarrhea cases ranging from 10-65 %. […] It is likely that norovirus prevalence rates are highly underestimated in travelers diarrhea due to rapid onset, short duration of the illness, limited availability of laboratory facilities, and the fact that most clinical laboratories lack the diagnostic capability to detect noroviruses in stool. […] NoVs exhibit considerable genetic diversity and are categorized into seven known genotypes (GI-GVII), of which GI, GII, and GIV have been found to cause disease in humans.
  • #74 Norovirus: Causes, symptoms and treatment | Live ScienceLive Science
    https://www.livescience.com/42944-what-is-norovirus.html
    Norovirus is a virus that causes vomiting and diarrhea in humans. It is the leading cause of gastrointestinal illness worldwide and across all age groups, according to a 2022 review in the journal Viruses. […] Norovirus is notorious for causing major outbreaks on cruise ships and in food outlets. However, the vast majority of infections occur in facilities where there is a high number of immunocompromised people, such as hospitals and hospices. Norovirus is not only highly contagious, but also difficult to treat, researchers noted. […] Dr. Lijuan Yuan, a professor of virology and immunology at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in Blacksburg, Virginia, said that norovirus has a very high mutability rate. […] „There are at least 30 different genotypes of noroviruses that can infect humans, and new strains are emerging over time,” she told Live Science in an email. „Not all cases of norovirus infection are reported or diagnosed, so it’s difficult to know exactly how many different strains are currently in circulation,” she said.
  • #75 Norovirus and Foodborne Disease: A Review
    https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/foodsafetyfscj/2/3/2_2014027/_html/-char/en
    Norovirus gastroenteritis remains a leading cause of morbidity and is still a major public health problem worldwide. […] The virus usually causes mild and self-limiting gastroenteritis symptoms in all age groups, mainly through the fecal-oral transmission route. However, the virus is highly contagious, relatively stable in the environment, and has long virus-shedding duration. […] In addition, the diversity of norovirus genetic characteristics and the emergence of new variants every one or two years may make the virus escape the immunity. […] Moreover, the human immune response to norovirus infection still remains unclear and recurrent infection is possible. […] The diagnosis of norovirus infection is mainly based on reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), and immunochromatography (IC).
  • #76 Mechanisms of GII.4 Norovirus Persistence in Human Populations | PLOS Medicine
    https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.0050031
    Noroviruses are the leading cause of viral acute gastroenteritis in humans, noted for causing epidemic outbreaks in communities, the military, cruise ships, hospitals, and assisted living communities. […] The evolutionary mechanisms governing the persistence and emergence of new norovirus strains in human populations are unknown. […] In this article, we analyze molecular mechanisms governing GII.4 epidemiology, susceptibility, and persistence in human populations. […] Phylogenetic analyses of the GII.4 capsid sequences suggested an epochal evolution over the last 20 y with periods of stasis followed by rapid evolution of novel epidemic strains. […] Variation in surface-exposed residues and in residues that surround the fucose ligand interaction domain suggests that antigenic drift may promote GII.4 persistence in human populations.
  • #77 Mechanisms of GII.4 Norovirus Persistence in Human Populations | PLOS Medicine
    https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.0050031
    Noroviruses are the leading cause of viral acute gastroenteritis in humans, noted for causing epidemic outbreaks in communities, the military, cruise ships, hospitals, and assisted living communities. […] The evolutionary mechanisms governing the persistence and emergence of new norovirus strains in human populations are unknown. […] In this article, we analyze molecular mechanisms governing GII.4 epidemiology, susceptibility, and persistence in human populations. […] Phylogenetic analyses of the GII.4 capsid sequences suggested an epochal evolution over the last 20 y with periods of stasis followed by rapid evolution of novel epidemic strains. […] Variation in surface-exposed residues and in residues that surround the fucose ligand interaction domain suggests that antigenic drift may promote GII.4 persistence in human populations.
  • #78 Mechanisms of GII.4 Norovirus Persistence in Human Populations | PLOS Medicine
    https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.0050031
    Our data suggest that the surface-exposed carbohydrate ligand binding domain in the norovirus capsid is under heavy immune selection and likely evolves by antigenic drift in the face of human herd immunity. […] The continuing evolution of new replacement strains suggests that, as with influenza viruses, vaccines could be targeted that protect against norovirus infections, and that continued epidemiologic surveillance and reformulations of norovirus vaccines will be essential in the control of future outbreaks.
  • #79 Mechanisms of GII.4 Norovirus Persistence in Human Populations | PLOS Medicine
    https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.0050031
    Our data suggest that the surface-exposed carbohydrate ligand binding domain in the norovirus capsid is under heavy immune selection and likely evolves by antigenic drift in the face of human herd immunity. […] The continuing evolution of new replacement strains suggests that, as with influenza viruses, vaccines could be targeted that protect against norovirus infections, and that continued epidemiologic surveillance and reformulations of norovirus vaccines will be essential in the control of future outbreaks.
  • #80 Norovirus has two alternative capsid structures which change before infection
    https://phys.org/news/2020-07-norovirus-alternative-capsid-infection.html
    Norovirus has two alternative capsid structures which change before infection. Human noroviruses are a major cause of gastroenteritis outbreaks worldwide. They cause approximately 200,000 deaths each year in developing countries. However, no effective vaccine or antiviral agent for noroviruses yet exists because cell culture methods to produce noroviruses are very limited and there is a lack of the viral structural knowledge about the virus. […] In this study, the researchers have investigated the mouse norovirus structures using cryo-electron microscopy and discovered that the noroviruses present two alternative capsid structures (type A and type B, Fig. 1 top). Noroviruses are covered by two layered proteinaceous domains, an outer protruding (P) domain and an inner shell (S) domain. Type A shows tight interaction between the two domains, with no space between them, while type B displays the P domain dislocated above the S domain with a space between them. This result has raised the questions, 'How do these capsid structures switch?’ and 'Why do noroviruses need two capsid structures?’
  • #81 Norovirus has two alternative capsid structures which change before infection
    https://phys.org/news/2020-07-norovirus-alternative-capsid-infection.html
    Norovirus has two alternative capsid structures which change before infection. Human noroviruses are a major cause of gastroenteritis outbreaks worldwide. They cause approximately 200,000 deaths each year in developing countries. However, no effective vaccine or antiviral agent for noroviruses yet exists because cell culture methods to produce noroviruses are very limited and there is a lack of the viral structural knowledge about the virus. […] In this study, the researchers have investigated the mouse norovirus structures using cryo-electron microscopy and discovered that the noroviruses present two alternative capsid structures (type A and type B, Fig. 1 top). Noroviruses are covered by two layered proteinaceous domains, an outer protruding (P) domain and an inner shell (S) domain. Type A shows tight interaction between the two domains, with no space between them, while type B displays the P domain dislocated above the S domain with a space between them. This result has raised the questions, 'How do these capsid structures switch?’ and 'Why do noroviruses need two capsid structures?’
  • #82 Norovirus has two alternative capsid structures which change before infection
    https://phys.org/news/2020-07-norovirus-alternative-capsid-infection.html
    Further investigations showed that the two structures of mouse norovirus particles switch depending on aqueous conditions. Viral particles showed the type A structure in lower pH solutions including metal ions, while type B structure was favored in higher pH solutions lacking metal ions. Type A was formed by rotation and shrinkage of the P domain and stabilized with an interaction between neighbors at the upper part, while type B was formed by the reverse rotation and extension of the P domain and stabilized with an interaction between neighbors at the lower part (Fig 1 middle). […] Mouse noroviruses showing two structures were individually infected into cultured cells. Type B particles showed four hours delay of propagation comparing to type A particles (Fig. 1 bottom). Another experiment found that type B particles showed less adsorption to host cell surface than type A particles. It was concluded that mouse noroviruses change their structure from B to A before infection.
  • #83 Norovirus has two alternative capsid structures which change before infection
    https://phys.org/news/2020-07-norovirus-alternative-capsid-infection.html
    Further investigations showed that the two structures of mouse norovirus particles switch depending on aqueous conditions. Viral particles showed the type A structure in lower pH solutions including metal ions, while type B structure was favored in higher pH solutions lacking metal ions. Type A was formed by rotation and shrinkage of the P domain and stabilized with an interaction between neighbors at the upper part, while type B was formed by the reverse rotation and extension of the P domain and stabilized with an interaction between neighbors at the lower part (Fig 1 middle). […] Mouse noroviruses showing two structures were individually infected into cultured cells. Type B particles showed four hours delay of propagation comparing to type A particles (Fig. 1 bottom). Another experiment found that type B particles showed less adsorption to host cell surface than type A particles. It was concluded that mouse noroviruses change their structure from B to A before infection.
  • #84 Norovirus has two alternative capsid structures which change before infection
    https://phys.org/news/2020-07-norovirus-alternative-capsid-infection.html
    Further investigations showed that the two structures of mouse norovirus particles switch depending on aqueous conditions. Viral particles showed the type A structure in lower pH solutions including metal ions, while type B structure was favored in higher pH solutions lacking metal ions. Type A was formed by rotation and shrinkage of the P domain and stabilized with an interaction between neighbors at the upper part, while type B was formed by the reverse rotation and extension of the P domain and stabilized with an interaction between neighbors at the lower part (Fig 1 middle). […] Mouse noroviruses showing two structures were individually infected into cultured cells. Type B particles showed four hours delay of propagation comparing to type A particles (Fig. 1 bottom). Another experiment found that type B particles showed less adsorption to host cell surface than type A particles. It was concluded that mouse noroviruses change their structure from B to A before infection.
  • #85 Norovirus has two alternative capsid structures which change before infection
    https://phys.org/news/2020-07-norovirus-alternative-capsid-infection.html
    Further investigations showed that the two structures of mouse norovirus particles switch depending on aqueous conditions. Viral particles showed the type A structure in lower pH solutions including metal ions, while type B structure was favored in higher pH solutions lacking metal ions. Type A was formed by rotation and shrinkage of the P domain and stabilized with an interaction between neighbors at the upper part, while type B was formed by the reverse rotation and extension of the P domain and stabilized with an interaction between neighbors at the lower part (Fig 1 middle). […] Mouse noroviruses showing two structures were individually infected into cultured cells. Type B particles showed four hours delay of propagation comparing to type A particles (Fig. 1 bottom). Another experiment found that type B particles showed less adsorption to host cell surface than type A particles. It was concluded that mouse noroviruses change their structure from B to A before infection.
  • #86 Norovirus has two alternative capsid structures which change before infection
    https://phys.org/news/2020-07-norovirus-alternative-capsid-infection.html
    ’Why do noroviruses need two structures?’ This has not been clarified, but the researchers speculate that it is used to evade the host animal’s immune system. Noroviruses are transmitted primarily through the oral route, and infect cells of the small intestine. Noroviruses may evade the immune system with the type B structure, and approach the small intestine. Then, they finally infect cells by changing to the type A structure. […] The research reveals a part of viral structural change and infection mechanism of mouse noroviruses. Two capsid structures were also identified in the human norovirus VLP, but it has not elucidated the switching mechanism of the structure yet. It is hypothesized that a similar mechanism is also used in human norovirus. Further investigation will clarify the switching mechanism of the structure and infection manner of human norovirus, hopefully assisting development of therapeutic drugs and vaccines in the future.
  • #87 Lack of Protective Immunity to Murine Norovirus Infection | National Agricultural Library
    https://www.nal.usda.gov/research-tools/food-safety-research-projects/lack-protective-immunity-murine-norovirus-infection
    Human noroviruses in the Caliciviridae family are the major cause of non-bacterial epidemic gastroenteritis worldwide. […] Our long term goal is to elucidate the mechanisms by which noroviruses avoid the induction of protective immunity, ultimately translating this knowledge into successful vaccination approaches. […] Little is known regarding the pathogenesis of human noroviruses or the immune responses that control them because there has previously been no small animal model or cell culture system of infection. […] We have now used these unique models to examine norovirus pathogenesis and immunity. […] Importantly, we have also determined that primary MNV-1 infection fails to afford protection to re-challenge with homologous virus. Thus, MNV-1 represents a valuable model with which to dissect the pathophysiological basis for the lack of lasting protection to human norovirus infection.
  • #88 Pathogenesis of Noroviruses, Emerging RNA Viruses
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3185648/
    Human noroviruses in the family Caliciviridae are a major cause of epidemic gastroenteritis. […] Norovirus infections are typically acute and self-limited. However, disease can be much more severe and prolonged in infants, elderly, and immunocompromised individuals. […] Despite the impact of human norovirus-induced disease and the potential for emergence of highly virulent strains, the pathogenic features of infection are not well understood due to the lack of a cell culture system and previous lack of animal models. This review summarizes the current understanding of norovirus pathogenesis from the histological to the molecular level, including contributions from new model systems. […] In recent years, work in porcine, bovine, and murine models has also begun to contribute to our understanding of norovirus pathogenesis.
  • #89 Recent Advances in Understanding Norovirus Pathogenesis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5203933/
    Noroviruses constitute a family of ubiquitous and highly efficient human pathogens. Recent findings have begun to unravel the complex mechanisms that regulate norovirus pathogenesis and persistent infection, including the important interplay between the virus, the host immune system, and commensal bacteria. […] Human volunteer studies have been instrumental to studying various aspects of norovirus pathogenesis and immunity. […] The most widely studied animal model of norovirus infection is the murine norovirus system which facilitates investigation of a norovirus in its natural host species. […] Although murine norovirus infection of wild-type mice does not cause overt gastroenteritis, infection of mice lacking functional interferon (IFN) signaling pathways results in severe diarrhea, gastric bloating, weight loss, and systemic disease.
  • #90 Recent Advances in Understanding Norovirus Pathogenesis
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5203933/
    Noroviruses constitute a family of ubiquitous and highly efficient human pathogens. Recent findings have begun to unravel the complex mechanisms that regulate norovirus pathogenesis and persistent infection, including the important interplay between the virus, the host immune system, and commensal bacteria. […] Human volunteer studies have been instrumental to studying various aspects of norovirus pathogenesis and immunity. […] The most widely studied animal model of norovirus infection is the murine norovirus system which facilitates investigation of a norovirus in its natural host species. […] Although murine norovirus infection of wild-type mice does not cause overt gastroenteritis, infection of mice lacking functional interferon (IFN) signaling pathways results in severe diarrhea, gastric bloating, weight loss, and systemic disease.
  • #91 Murine Norovirus Pathogenesis and Immunity
    https://www.caister.com/hsp/abstracts/calicivirus/10.html
    The first murine norovirus, murine norovirus 1 (MNV-1), was discovered in 2003. […] Murine noroviruses share pathogenic properties with human noroviruses. Specifically, they are infectious orally, they spread between mice, and at least one strain, MNV-1, causes mild diarrhea in wild-type hosts. […] Furthermore, primary MNV-1 infection fails to elicit protection from a secondary challenge with homologous virus in at least some situations, which is similar to the lack of long-term protective immunity elicited by primary human norovirus infection. […] In particular, studies of murine norovirus infection have provided valuable information regarding the critical nature of innate immunity in controlling infection. […] Mice deficient in components of the interferon signaling pathway are highly susceptible to MNV-1-induced gastroenteritis, systemic infection, and ultimately death.
  • #92 Murine Norovirus Pathogenesis and Immunity
    https://www.caister.com/hsp/abstracts/calicivirus/10.html
    The first murine norovirus, murine norovirus 1 (MNV-1), was discovered in 2003. […] Murine noroviruses share pathogenic properties with human noroviruses. Specifically, they are infectious orally, they spread between mice, and at least one strain, MNV-1, causes mild diarrhea in wild-type hosts. […] Furthermore, primary MNV-1 infection fails to elicit protection from a secondary challenge with homologous virus in at least some situations, which is similar to the lack of long-term protective immunity elicited by primary human norovirus infection. […] In particular, studies of murine norovirus infection have provided valuable information regarding the critical nature of innate immunity in controlling infection. […] Mice deficient in components of the interferon signaling pathway are highly susceptible to MNV-1-induced gastroenteritis, systemic infection, and ultimately death.
  • #93 Murine Norovirus Pathogenesis and Immunity
    https://www.caister.com/hsp/abstracts/calicivirus/10.html
    The first murine norovirus, murine norovirus 1 (MNV-1), was discovered in 2003. […] Murine noroviruses share pathogenic properties with human noroviruses. Specifically, they are infectious orally, they spread between mice, and at least one strain, MNV-1, causes mild diarrhea in wild-type hosts. […] Furthermore, primary MNV-1 infection fails to elicit protection from a secondary challenge with homologous virus in at least some situations, which is similar to the lack of long-term protective immunity elicited by primary human norovirus infection. […] In particular, studies of murine norovirus infection have provided valuable information regarding the critical nature of innate immunity in controlling infection. […] Mice deficient in components of the interferon signaling pathway are highly susceptible to MNV-1-induced gastroenteritis, systemic infection, and ultimately death.
  • #94 Researchers Grow Human Norovirus Culture
    https://www.contagionlive.com/view/researchers-grow-human-norovirus-culture-
    Hoping their discovery will lead to novel treatments, University of Florida researchers have successfully manufactured the human norovirus in a cell culture dish. […] The biggest hurdle to doing norovirus research for its entire history it was discovered in 1972 has been that we cant culture the human viruses in a cell culture dish, said Stephanie Karst, the studys author, UF Health researcher and an associate professor in the department of molecular genetics and microbiology in the UF College of Medicine. Karst continued, That complicates every aspect of research. We cant study how it replicates, we cant test therapeutics and we cant generate live virus vaccines. […] UF investigators study published in Science had implicated white cells common to the intestine, or targets B cells role in norovirus infection, contradicting previous belief that intestinal epithelial cells, which line the intestine and protect it from pathogens, were the target for the virus.
  • #95 Researchers Grow Human Norovirus Culture
    https://www.contagionlive.com/view/researchers-grow-human-norovirus-culture-
    Hoping their discovery will lead to novel treatments, University of Florida researchers have successfully manufactured the human norovirus in a cell culture dish. […] The biggest hurdle to doing norovirus research for its entire history it was discovered in 1972 has been that we cant culture the human viruses in a cell culture dish, said Stephanie Karst, the studys author, UF Health researcher and an associate professor in the department of molecular genetics and microbiology in the UF College of Medicine. Karst continued, That complicates every aspect of research. We cant study how it replicates, we cant test therapeutics and we cant generate live virus vaccines. […] UF investigators study published in Science had implicated white cells common to the intestine, or targets B cells role in norovirus infection, contradicting previous belief that intestinal epithelial cells, which line the intestine and protect it from pathogens, were the target for the virus.
  • #96 Researchers Grow Human Norovirus Culture
    https://www.contagionlive.com/view/researchers-grow-human-norovirus-culture-
    The researchers also noted the norovirus infection B cells, a key immune cell, was dependent on the person having histo-blood group antigen (HBGA)-expressing enteric bacteria in their bodies. Present in the gut and commensal, HBGA-expressing enteric bacterias role in infection was surprising to researchers. […] According to Karst, What weve shown is that noroviruses attach to that carbohydrate expressed on commensal bacteria, and that this interaction stimulates viral infection of the B cell. […] We have identified B cells as a cellular target of noroviruses and enteric bacteria as a stimulatory factor for norovirus infection, leading to the development of an in vitro infection model for human noroviruses, the authors concluded.
  • #97 Researchers Grow Human Norovirus Culture
    https://www.contagionlive.com/view/researchers-grow-human-norovirus-culture-
    The researchers also noted the norovirus infection B cells, a key immune cell, was dependent on the person having histo-blood group antigen (HBGA)-expressing enteric bacteria in their bodies. Present in the gut and commensal, HBGA-expressing enteric bacterias role in infection was surprising to researchers. […] According to Karst, What weve shown is that noroviruses attach to that carbohydrate expressed on commensal bacteria, and that this interaction stimulates viral infection of the B cell. […] We have identified B cells as a cellular target of noroviruses and enteric bacteria as a stimulatory factor for norovirus infection, leading to the development of an in vitro infection model for human noroviruses, the authors concluded.
  • #98 Human norovirus GII.4 exploits unexpected entry mechanism to cause gastroenteritis
    https://medicalxpress.com/news/2023-03-human-norovirus-gii4-exploits-unexpected.html
    Ayyar, Estes and their colleagues worked with human intestinal enteroids, a laboratory model of the human gastrointestinal tract that recapitulates its cellular complexity, diversity and physiology. Human enteroids mimic strain-specific host-virus infection patterns, making them an ideal system to dissect human norovirus infection, identify strain-specific growth requirements and develop and test treatments and vaccines. […] „We discovered that the binding of human norovirus GII.4 to enteroid cells wounds the cells’ membranes, which in turn triggers a membrane repair mechanism to the injury site, activating another cellular pathway known as the CLIC pathway,” Ayyar said. „We observed crosstalk between CLIC-mediated internalization of viral particles and host repair mechanisms. We propose that these pathways could be manipulated to interfere with viral entry in human intestinal cells.”
  • #99 Human norovirus GII.4 exploits unexpected entry mechanism to cause gastroenteritis
    https://medicalxpress.com/news/2023-03-human-norovirus-gii4-exploits-unexpected.html
    Ayyar, Estes and their colleagues worked with human intestinal enteroids, a laboratory model of the human gastrointestinal tract that recapitulates its cellular complexity, diversity and physiology. Human enteroids mimic strain-specific host-virus infection patterns, making them an ideal system to dissect human norovirus infection, identify strain-specific growth requirements and develop and test treatments and vaccines. […] „We discovered that the binding of human norovirus GII.4 to enteroid cells wounds the cells’ membranes, which in turn triggers a membrane repair mechanism to the injury site, activating another cellular pathway known as the CLIC pathway,” Ayyar said. „We observed crosstalk between CLIC-mediated internalization of viral particles and host repair mechanisms. We propose that these pathways could be manipulated to interfere with viral entry in human intestinal cells.”
  • #100 Norovirus encounters in the gut: multifaceted interactions and disease outcomes | Mucosal Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41385-019-0199-4
    Noroviruses are major causes of gastroenteritis, with epidemic outbreaks occurring frequently. […] In this Review, we summarize our current understanding of norovirus pathogenesis, noting the prominent role of murine norovirus as a small animal model for norovirus research. […] Our mechanistic understanding of norovirus pathogenesis continues to improve with increasing availability of powerful model systems, which will ultimately facilitate development of effective preventive and therapeutic approaches for this pathogen. […] In this article, after introducing the virus and its replication cycle, we will discuss virus-induced pathology and how both innate and adaptive immune mechanisms are involved in NoV control. […] The replication cycle of NoV begins with attachment of the virus to carbohydrates on the cell surface, where human norovirus (HNoV) binds histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) and murine norovirus (MNoV) binds other carbohydrates including sialic acids.
  • #101 Pathogenesis of Noroviruses, Emerging RNA Viruses
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3185648/
    Overall, noroviruses can infect their hosts for weeks or months even in the presence of a fully functional immune system. […] The mechanisms by which noroviruses maintain prolonged infection remain incompletely understood, but they may play a critical role in impairing adaptive immune responses such that they fail to protect from secondary challenge. […] Understanding the molecular aspects of viral replication can facilitate the development of rational therapies. […] Norovirus genomes are thought to be covalently associated with a viral protein called VPg at their 5 ends and are polyadenlyated at their 3 ends. […] The norovirus VPg can function as a primer in viral RNA replication following its uridylylation. […] Overall, available data suggest that norovirus NS2 and NS4 proteins both contribute to viral replication complex formation on intracellular membranes including that of the Golgi apparatus. […] Identifying critical determinants of norovirus receptor binding and antigenicity may be instrumental in the design of effective therapeutics and vaccines.
  • #102 Pathogenesis of Noroviruses, Emerging RNA Viruses
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3185648/
    Overall, noroviruses can infect their hosts for weeks or months even in the presence of a fully functional immune system. […] The mechanisms by which noroviruses maintain prolonged infection remain incompletely understood, but they may play a critical role in impairing adaptive immune responses such that they fail to protect from secondary challenge. […] Understanding the molecular aspects of viral replication can facilitate the development of rational therapies. […] Norovirus genomes are thought to be covalently associated with a viral protein called VPg at their 5 ends and are polyadenlyated at their 3 ends. […] The norovirus VPg can function as a primer in viral RNA replication following its uridylylation. […] Overall, available data suggest that norovirus NS2 and NS4 proteins both contribute to viral replication complex formation on intracellular membranes including that of the Golgi apparatus. […] Identifying critical determinants of norovirus receptor binding and antigenicity may be instrumental in the design of effective therapeutics and vaccines.
  • #103 Norovirus: new developments and implications for travelers’ diarrhea | Tropical Diseases, Travel Medicine and Vaccines | Full Text
    https://tdtmvjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40794-016-0017-x
    The development of a safe efficacious vaccine to protect both travelers and non-travelers against NoV is considered one of the most feasible and economical approaches to limiting the potential impact of NoV infections. […] Currently there are no approved vaccines directed against NoV and development of a vaccine has been hampered by several challenges highlighted below. […] Jiang, et al. reported in 1992 that the VP1 protein of NoV, when expressed in cell culture, is able to self-assemble into virus-like particles (VLPs). […] With structural and antigenic properties similar to native virus but in a noninfectious, non-replicating form, these VLPs were identified as potential vaccine candidates and many studies have been conducted over the last 10 years showing good serum responses and initial efficacy, providing the foundation for recent promising studies. […] NoV will continue to remain a pathogen of critical importance as a major cause of AGE worldwide.
  • #104 Norovirus and Foodborne Disease: A Review
    https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/foodsafetyfscj/2/3/2_2014027/_html/-char/en
    Development of a norovirus vaccine has many difficulties and limitations, but some progress and some vaccine candidates have passed a phase II clinical trial. […] This review provides an overview of norovirus infection and further discusses key characteristics of the virus, along with pathogenesis, clinical manifestation, diagnosis, treatment, prevention and control of the virus infection. […] Norovirus virion is non-enveloped. The capsid is composed of 180 VP1 proteins (90 dimers) with about 3840nm in diameter and T = 3 icosahedral symmetry. […] Lifecycle of norovirus is as follows; Norovirus attaches to host cells using carbohydrate receptor and probably another receptor, and enters into cells through clathrin- and caveolin-independent endocytosis. […] After that, the virus is uncoated and viral genomic RNA is released into the cytoplasm.
  • #105 Norovirus: new developments and implications for travelers’ diarrhea | Tropical Diseases, Travel Medicine and Vaccines | Full Text
    https://tdtmvjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40794-016-0017-x
    The development of a safe efficacious vaccine to protect both travelers and non-travelers against NoV is considered one of the most feasible and economical approaches to limiting the potential impact of NoV infections. […] Currently there are no approved vaccines directed against NoV and development of a vaccine has been hampered by several challenges highlighted below. […] Jiang, et al. reported in 1992 that the VP1 protein of NoV, when expressed in cell culture, is able to self-assemble into virus-like particles (VLPs). […] With structural and antigenic properties similar to native virus but in a noninfectious, non-replicating form, these VLPs were identified as potential vaccine candidates and many studies have been conducted over the last 10 years showing good serum responses and initial efficacy, providing the foundation for recent promising studies. […] NoV will continue to remain a pathogen of critical importance as a major cause of AGE worldwide.
  • #106 Norovirus: new developments and implications for travelers’ diarrhea | Tropical Diseases, Travel Medicine and Vaccines | Full Text
    https://tdtmvjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40794-016-0017-x
    The development of a safe efficacious vaccine to protect both travelers and non-travelers against NoV is considered one of the most feasible and economical approaches to limiting the potential impact of NoV infections. […] Currently there are no approved vaccines directed against NoV and development of a vaccine has been hampered by several challenges highlighted below. […] Jiang, et al. reported in 1992 that the VP1 protein of NoV, when expressed in cell culture, is able to self-assemble into virus-like particles (VLPs). […] With structural and antigenic properties similar to native virus but in a noninfectious, non-replicating form, these VLPs were identified as potential vaccine candidates and many studies have been conducted over the last 10 years showing good serum responses and initial efficacy, providing the foundation for recent promising studies. […] NoV will continue to remain a pathogen of critical importance as a major cause of AGE worldwide.
  • #107
    https://wilenlab.com/research
    Human norovirus causes profuse diarrhea and vomiting. […] There are currently no medications or vaccines to treat or prevent human norovirus infection. […] This is, in part, a result of our limited understanding about how norovirus establishes infection and causes disease. […] For instance, it is unknown what types of cells norovirus infects, how it infects a given cell, how it spreads between cells, and how it establishes persistent infection in some people. […] We use mouse models and stem-cell derived intestinal enteroids to study norovirus pathogenesis in vitro and in vivo.
  • #108 Norovirus and Foodborne Disease: A Review
    https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/foodsafetyfscj/2/3/2_2014027/_html/-char/en
    Noroviruses can also spread via a droplet route from vomitus. […] The symptoms may vary from asymptomatic to severe diarrhea, vomiting, and dehydration even after similar exposure to infectious units due to the complicated relationship of virus binding to host cells. […] Norovirus infection is rarely fatal due to malnutrition and dehydration. […] There are no specific anti-norovirus drugs and vaccine at this moment. Treatment focuses on supportive care, especially preventing and treating dehydration. […] According to the norovirus lifecycle, several candidate drugs have been developed to target the actions of polymerase and protease enzymes. […] The key principle for controlling foodborne norovirus outbreak is do not bring norovirus from outside, do not proliferate norovirus at the place, and do not bring norovirus to outside.
  • #109 Norovirus and Foodborne Disease: A Review
    https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/foodsafetyfscj/2/3/2_2014027/_html/-char/en
    Noroviruses can also spread via a droplet route from vomitus. […] The symptoms may vary from asymptomatic to severe diarrhea, vomiting, and dehydration even after similar exposure to infectious units due to the complicated relationship of virus binding to host cells. […] Norovirus infection is rarely fatal due to malnutrition and dehydration. […] There are no specific anti-norovirus drugs and vaccine at this moment. Treatment focuses on supportive care, especially preventing and treating dehydration. […] According to the norovirus lifecycle, several candidate drugs have been developed to target the actions of polymerase and protease enzymes. […] The key principle for controlling foodborne norovirus outbreak is do not bring norovirus from outside, do not proliferate norovirus at the place, and do not bring norovirus to outside.
  • #110 How highly contagious norovirus infection gets its start – WashU Medicine
    https://medicine.washu.edu/news/how-fast-spreading-norovirus-infection-gets-its-start/
    Norovirus – the highly contagious gastrointestinal illness best known for spreading rapidly on cruise chips, in nursing homes, schools and other densely populated spaces – kills an estimated 200,000 people annually, mostly in the developing world. […] Now, researchers at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis have shown, in mice, that the virus infects a rare type of intestinal cell called a tuft cell, so named because each cell sports a cluster of hairlike extensions on its surface. While tuft cells are few in number, the scientists’ findings indicate that once the virus strikes, such cells multiply the virus quickly and set off severe infections. […] The research, published April 12 in Science, suggests that targeting tuft cells with a vaccine or a drug may be a viable strategy for preventing or treating norovirus infections.
  • #111 Where does norovirus go? | VIROLOGY RESEARCH SERVICES
    https://virologyresearchservices.com/2018/04/27/where-does-norovirus-go/
    Epithelial cell-specific IL4 receptor conditional KO mice revealed that the effect of IL4 is not immune-mediated, but that the cytokine acts directly on tuft cells, possibly by regulating expression. […] The authors provide an interesting explanation for this unusual and counterintuitive observation. […] This also indicates that the number of tuft cells is likely to be more important than their anatomic location in determining infection outcome and that these cells might represent an immune privileged site for viral replication. […] However, the findings of Wilen et al. have overcome a major barrier to understanding norovirus infection and pathogenesis. […] New drugs directed at tuft cells or their surface receptor (CD300lf) can now be developed, thereby creating new therapeutic opportunities. […] if tuft cells can effectively act as virus reservoirs, it will be critical to understand their contribution to other chronic infections of the gut.