Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Module 1 – Etiology and Pathogenesis of Tuberculosis

  https://globaltb.njms.rutgers.edu/wmatbcourse/module01/01-03a.html

  TB is an infectious disease caused by bacteria of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex, of which M. tuberculosis is the most common and important agent causing human disease. […] Similar disease occasionally results from the closely related mycobacteria, M. bovis, M. africanum, and M. microti. […] In 1882, Robert Koch demonstrated that the tubercle bacillus was the true cause of TB, a discovery for which he received the Nobel Prize in 1905.

• #2 Global TB Center

  https://globaltb.njms.rutgers.edu/abouttb/historyoftb.php

  Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the bacteria that causes tuberculosis (TB) has been present in the human population since antiquity – fragments of the spinal column from Egyptian mummies from 2400 BCE show definite signs of tuberculosis. […] In 1720, the English physician Benjamin Marten was the first to conjecture, in his publication, A New Theory of Consumption, that TB could be caused by „wonderfully minute living creatures,” which, once they had gained a foothold in the body, could generate the lesions and symptoms of the disease. […] In 1865, the French military doctor, Jean-Antoine Villemin single-handedly demonstrated that consumption could be passed from humans to cattle and from cattle to rabbits. On the basis of this revolutionary evidence, he postulated a specific microorganism as the cause of the disease, finally laying to rest the centuries-old belief that consumption arose spontaneously in each affected organism.

• #3 Tuberculosis Overview – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441916/

  Tuberculosis (TB) is a significant global health challenge; the World Health Organization has set an ambitious goal to reduce TB incidence by 90% between 2015 and 2035. […] Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of TB, has plagued humanity for millennia. […] Tuberculosis is a slow-growing organism with a generation time of approximately 20 hours. […] Humans are the only known reservoir of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, although other animals may become infected. […] Members of the Mtb family, also known as the tuberculosis complex, are closely related species capable of causing disease in humans and animals. […] The uniquely high concentration of lipids in the cell wall confers their acid-fast staining property and likely contributes to immunomodulation and virulence. […] Genetic variability exists among isolates worldwide and may confer differences in virulence.

• #4 Tuberculosis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis

  Tuberculosis (TB), also known colloquially as the „white death”, or historically as consumption, is a contagious disease usually caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) bacteria. […] The main cause of TB is Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), a small, aerobic, nonmotile bacillus. […] The term M. tuberculosis complex describes a genetically related group of Mycobacterium species that can cause tuberculosis in humans or other animals. […] There are other known mycobacteria which cause lung disease resembling TB.

• #5 Tuberculosis (TB) – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/mycobacteria/tuberculosis-tb

  Tuberculosis properly refers only to disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (for which humans are the main reservoir). Similar disease occasionally results from the closely related mycobacteria, M. bovis, M. africanum, and M. microti. These three bacteria, together with M. tuberculosis and other less common mycobacteria, are known as the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. […] TB results almost exclusively from inhalation of airborne particles (droplet nuclei) containing M. tuberculosis. They disperse primarily through coughing, singing, and other forced respiratory maneuvers by people who have active pulmonary or laryngeal TB and whose sputum contains a large number of organisms (about 10,000 organisms/mL, the limit of detection by fluorescent microscopy). […] Thus, estimates of contagiousness vary widely. Some studies suggest that only 1 in 3 patients with untreated pulmonary TB infect any close contacts, but the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that each untreated patient may infect 10 to 15 people per year. However, most of those who are infected do not develop active disease.

• #6 About Tuberculosis | Tuberculosis (TB) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/tb/about/index.html

  Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. […] Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by a bacterium (or germ) called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. In the United States, the majority of TB disease cases in people are caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Other mycobacteria (such as Mycobacterium bovis) can also cause TB disease in people. […] Tuberculosis is caused by bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The bacteria usually attack the lungs but can attack any part of the body.

• #7 Tuberculosis Overview – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441916/

  Tuberculosis (TB) is a significant global health challenge; the World Health Organization has set an ambitious goal to reduce TB incidence by 90% between 2015 and 2035. […] Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of TB, has plagued humanity for millennia. […] Tuberculosis is a slow-growing organism with a generation time of approximately 20 hours. […] Humans are the only known reservoir of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, although other animals may become infected. […] Members of the Mtb family, also known as the tuberculosis complex, are closely related species capable of causing disease in humans and animals. […] The uniquely high concentration of lipids in the cell wall confers their acid-fast staining property and likely contributes to immunomodulation and virulence. […] Genetic variability exists among isolates worldwide and may confer differences in virulence.

• #8 Tuberculosis (TB): Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/230802-overview

  TB is caused by M tuberculosis (Mtb), a slow-growing obligate aerobe and a facultative intracellular parasite. The organism grows in parallel groups called cords. […] Mtb are non-spore-forming and nonmotile curved intracellular rods measuring 0.2-0.5 m by 2-4 m. Their cell walls contain mycolic acid-rich, long-chain glycolipids and phosphoglycolipids (mycocides) that protect mycobacteria from cell lysosomal attack. […] Humans are the only known reservoir for Mtb. The organism is spread primarily via airborne aerosol from an individual in the infectious stage of TB (although transdermal and GI transmission have been reported). […] Risk factors for developing active disease after Mtb infection include recent acquisition (within 18 months), exposure to higher infectious inoculum, malnutrition, tobacco smoking, pulmonary fibrotic lesions, alcoholism, intravenous drug use, and comorbidities, including HIV, diabetes, silicosis, immunosuppression (particularly TNF-alpha inhibitors), cancer of head and neck, hematological malignancies, end-stage renal disease, chronic malabsorption, and gastrectomy.

• #9 Tuberculosis (TB): Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/230802-overview

  TB is caused by M tuberculosis (Mtb), a slow-growing obligate aerobe and a facultative intracellular parasite. The organism grows in parallel groups called cords. […] Mtb are non-spore-forming and nonmotile curved intracellular rods measuring 0.2-0.5 m by 2-4 m. Their cell walls contain mycolic acid-rich, long-chain glycolipids and phosphoglycolipids (mycocides) that protect mycobacteria from cell lysosomal attack. […] Humans are the only known reservoir for Mtb. The organism is spread primarily via airborne aerosol from an individual in the infectious stage of TB (although transdermal and GI transmission have been reported). […] Risk factors for developing active disease after Mtb infection include recent acquisition (within 18 months), exposure to higher infectious inoculum, malnutrition, tobacco smoking, pulmonary fibrotic lesions, alcoholism, intravenous drug use, and comorbidities, including HIV, diabetes, silicosis, immunosuppression (particularly TNF-alpha inhibitors), cancer of head and neck, hematological malignancies, end-stage renal disease, chronic malabsorption, and gastrectomy.

• #10 Tuberculosis Overview – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441916/

  Tuberculosis (TB) is a significant global health challenge; the World Health Organization has set an ambitious goal to reduce TB incidence by 90% between 2015 and 2035. […] Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of TB, has plagued humanity for millennia. […] Tuberculosis is a slow-growing organism with a generation time of approximately 20 hours. […] Humans are the only known reservoir of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, although other animals may become infected. […] Members of the Mtb family, also known as the tuberculosis complex, are closely related species capable of causing disease in humans and animals. […] The uniquely high concentration of lipids in the cell wall confers their acid-fast staining property and likely contributes to immunomodulation and virulence. […] Genetic variability exists among isolates worldwide and may confer differences in virulence.

• #11 Tuberculosis Overview – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441916/

  Tuberculosis (TB) is a significant global health challenge; the World Health Organization has set an ambitious goal to reduce TB incidence by 90% between 2015 and 2035. […] Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of TB, has plagued humanity for millennia. […] Tuberculosis is a slow-growing organism with a generation time of approximately 20 hours. […] Humans are the only known reservoir of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, although other animals may become infected. […] Members of the Mtb family, also known as the tuberculosis complex, are closely related species capable of causing disease in humans and animals. […] The uniquely high concentration of lipids in the cell wall confers their acid-fast staining property and likely contributes to immunomodulation and virulence. […] Genetic variability exists among isolates worldwide and may confer differences in virulence.

• #12 Tuberculosis (TB): Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/230802-overview

  TB is caused by M tuberculosis (Mtb), a slow-growing obligate aerobe and a facultative intracellular parasite. The organism grows in parallel groups called cords. […] Mtb are non-spore-forming and nonmotile curved intracellular rods measuring 0.2-0.5 m by 2-4 m. Their cell walls contain mycolic acid-rich, long-chain glycolipids and phosphoglycolipids (mycocides) that protect mycobacteria from cell lysosomal attack. […] Humans are the only known reservoir for Mtb. The organism is spread primarily via airborne aerosol from an individual in the infectious stage of TB (although transdermal and GI transmission have been reported). […] Risk factors for developing active disease after Mtb infection include recent acquisition (within 18 months), exposure to higher infectious inoculum, malnutrition, tobacco smoking, pulmonary fibrotic lesions, alcoholism, intravenous drug use, and comorbidities, including HIV, diabetes, silicosis, immunosuppression (particularly TNF-alpha inhibitors), cancer of head and neck, hematological malignancies, end-stage renal disease, chronic malabsorption, and gastrectomy.

• #13 Tuberculosis – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/tuberculosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20351250

  Tuberculosis is caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. […] People with active TB disease in the lungs or voice box can spread the disease. They release tiny droplets that carry the bacteria through the air. This can happen when they’re speaking, singing, laughing, coughing or sneezing. A person can get an infection after inhaling the droplets. […] The disease is more likely to spread when people spend a lot of time together in an indoor space. So the disease spreads easily in places where people live or work together for long periods. Also, the disease spreads more easily in crowded gatherings. […] A person with a latent TB infection cannot pass the disease to other people. A person taking medicine to treat active TB disease usually can’t pass the disease after 2 to 3 weeks of treatment.

• #14 Tuberculosis (TB) – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/mycobacteria/tuberculosis-tb

  Tuberculosis properly refers only to disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (for which humans are the main reservoir). Similar disease occasionally results from the closely related mycobacteria, M. bovis, M. africanum, and M. microti. These three bacteria, together with M. tuberculosis and other less common mycobacteria, are known as the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. […] TB results almost exclusively from inhalation of airborne particles (droplet nuclei) containing M. tuberculosis. They disperse primarily through coughing, singing, and other forced respiratory maneuvers by people who have active pulmonary or laryngeal TB and whose sputum contains a large number of organisms (about 10,000 organisms/mL, the limit of detection by fluorescent microscopy). […] Thus, estimates of contagiousness vary widely. Some studies suggest that only 1 in 3 patients with untreated pulmonary TB infect any close contacts, but the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that each untreated patient may infect 10 to 15 people per year. However, most of those who are infected do not develop active disease.

• #15 Tuberculosis – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/tuberculosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20351250

  Tuberculosis is caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. […] People with active TB disease in the lungs or voice box can spread the disease. They release tiny droplets that carry the bacteria through the air. This can happen when they’re speaking, singing, laughing, coughing or sneezing. A person can get an infection after inhaling the droplets. […] The disease is more likely to spread when people spend a lot of time together in an indoor space. So the disease spreads easily in places where people live or work together for long periods. Also, the disease spreads more easily in crowded gatherings. […] A person with a latent TB infection cannot pass the disease to other people. A person taking medicine to treat active TB disease usually can’t pass the disease after 2 to 3 weeks of treatment.

• #16 Understanding Tuberculosis: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment Options

  https://www.webmd.com/lung/understanding-tuberculosis-basics

  Tuberculosis bacteria spread through the air, just like a cold or the flu. You can get TB only if you come into contact with people who have it. […] When someone who has TB coughs, sneezes, talks, laughs, or sings, they release tiny droplets that contain the germs. If you breathe in these germs, you can get the disease. This is why people who have active tuberculosis in their lungs or throat are more likely to infect others. You usually can’t spread TB if you have it in other areas of your body. […] TB is not easy to catch. Youre most likely to get it from co-workers, friends, or family members with whom you spend lots of time indoors. […] Tuberculosis germs dont thrive on surfaces. You cant get it from: Shaking hands, Kissing, Sharing food or drink, Sharing bed sheets, towels, or toothbrushes, Toilet seats.

• #17 Tuberculosis: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/11301-tuberculosis

  Tuberculosis (TB) is an illness caused by a bacterial infection. It commonly affects your lungs, but it can also affect other areas of your body like your spine, brain or kidneys. […] Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria cause TB. The germs spread through the air and can infect your lungs when you breathe them in. Sometimes, they also infect other parts of your body. […] The most common type of TB is pulmonary (lung) tuberculosis. But the bacterium can also affect other parts of your body (extrapulmonary tuberculosis). […] TB can spread when a person with active TB coughs, sneezes, talks, sings or laughs. Only people with an active lung infection are contagious. […] You might be at a higher risk for TB exposure if you are a resident or employee in group settings where TB can spread, such as jails, hospices, skilled nursing facilities, shelters and other healthcare facilities.

• #18

  https://www.who.int/health-topics/tuberculosis

  TB is caused by bacteria (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) and it most often affects the lungs. […] A person needs to inhale only a few germs to become infected. […] Despite being a preventable and curable disease, 1.5 million people die from TB each year making it the worlds top infectious killer. […] TB is the leading cause of death of people with HIV and also a major contributor to antimicrobial resistance. […] About a quarter of the global population is estimated to have been infected with TB bacteria, but most people will not go on to develop TB disease and some will clear the infection. […] People infected with TB bacteria have a 510% lifetime risk of falling ill with TB. Those with compromised immune systems, such as people living with HIV, malnutrition or diabetes, or people who use tobacco, have a higher risk of falling ill. […] TB disease is curable. […] In some cases the TB bacteria does not respond to the standard drugs. […] In the case of TB infection (where the patient is infected with TB bacteria but not ill), TB preventive treatment can be given to stop the onset of disease.

• #19 Tuberculosis (TB) – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/mycobacteria/tuberculosis-tb

  TB of the tonsils, lymph nodes, abdominal organs, bones, and joints was once commonly caused by ingestion of milk or milk products (eg, cheese) contaminated with M. bovis, but this transmission route has been largely eradicated in countries where milk is pasteurized and cows that have a positive tuberculin skin test result are slaughtered. […] Tuberculosis due to M. bovis still occurs in countries where bovine tuberculosis is endemic (eg, some Latin American countries) and in immigrants from those countries. […] Infection requires inhalation of particles small enough to traverse the upper respiratory defenses and deposit deep in the lungs, usually in the subpleural airspaces of the middle or lower lobes. […] Infection usually begins from a single droplet nucleus, which typically carries few organisms.

• #20 Tuberculosis (TB) – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/mycobacteria/tuberculosis-tb

  TB of the tonsils, lymph nodes, abdominal organs, bones, and joints was once commonly caused by ingestion of milk or milk products (eg, cheese) contaminated with M. bovis, but this transmission route has been largely eradicated in countries where milk is pasteurized and cows that have a positive tuberculin skin test result are slaughtered. […] Tuberculosis due to M. bovis still occurs in countries where bovine tuberculosis is endemic (eg, some Latin American countries) and in immigrants from those countries. […] Infection requires inhalation of particles small enough to traverse the upper respiratory defenses and deposit deep in the lungs, usually in the subpleural airspaces of the middle or lower lobes. […] Infection usually begins from a single droplet nucleus, which typically carries few organisms.

• #21 Tuberculosis – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/tuberculosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20351250

  Tuberculosis is caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. […] People with active TB disease in the lungs or voice box can spread the disease. They release tiny droplets that carry the bacteria through the air. This can happen when they’re speaking, singing, laughing, coughing or sneezing. A person can get an infection after inhaling the droplets. […] The disease is more likely to spread when people spend a lot of time together in an indoor space. So the disease spreads easily in places where people live or work together for long periods. Also, the disease spreads more easily in crowded gatherings. […] A person with a latent TB infection cannot pass the disease to other people. A person taking medicine to treat active TB disease usually can’t pass the disease after 2 to 3 weeks of treatment.

• #22 Tuberculosis: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/11301-tuberculosis

  Tuberculosis (TB) is an illness caused by a bacterial infection. It commonly affects your lungs, but it can also affect other areas of your body like your spine, brain or kidneys. […] Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria cause TB. The germs spread through the air and can infect your lungs when you breathe them in. Sometimes, they also infect other parts of your body. […] The most common type of TB is pulmonary (lung) tuberculosis. But the bacterium can also affect other parts of your body (extrapulmonary tuberculosis). […] TB can spread when a person with active TB coughs, sneezes, talks, sings or laughs. Only people with an active lung infection are contagious. […] You might be at a higher risk for TB exposure if you are a resident or employee in group settings where TB can spread, such as jails, hospices, skilled nursing facilities, shelters and other healthcare facilities.

• #23 Understanding Tuberculosis: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment Options

  https://www.webmd.com/lung/understanding-tuberculosis-basics

  Tuberculosis bacteria spread through the air, just like a cold or the flu. You can get TB only if you come into contact with people who have it. […] When someone who has TB coughs, sneezes, talks, laughs, or sings, they release tiny droplets that contain the germs. If you breathe in these germs, you can get the disease. This is why people who have active tuberculosis in their lungs or throat are more likely to infect others. You usually can’t spread TB if you have it in other areas of your body. […] TB is not easy to catch. Youre most likely to get it from co-workers, friends, or family members with whom you spend lots of time indoors. […] Tuberculosis germs dont thrive on surfaces. You cant get it from: Shaking hands, Kissing, Sharing food or drink, Sharing bed sheets, towels, or toothbrushes, Toilet seats.

• #24 Understanding Tuberculosis: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment Options

  https://www.webmd.com/lung/understanding-tuberculosis-basics

  Tuberculosis bacteria spread through the air, just like a cold or the flu. You can get TB only if you come into contact with people who have it. […] When someone who has TB coughs, sneezes, talks, laughs, or sings, they release tiny droplets that contain the germs. If you breathe in these germs, you can get the disease. This is why people who have active tuberculosis in their lungs or throat are more likely to infect others. You usually can’t spread TB if you have it in other areas of your body. […] TB is not easy to catch. Youre most likely to get it from co-workers, friends, or family members with whom you spend lots of time indoors. […] Tuberculosis germs dont thrive on surfaces. You cant get it from: Shaking hands, Kissing, Sharing food or drink, Sharing bed sheets, towels, or toothbrushes, Toilet seats.

• #25 Tuberculosis: Risk Factors, Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment

  https://www.thehealthsite.com/DISEASES-conditions/tuberculosis/

  Tuberculosis is an airborne, infectious lung disease caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis bacterium. […] You get tuberculosis from the air just the way one catches a cold and flu. […] The tuberculosis bacteria cant survive on surfaces. […] According to experts, about 90 per cent of active TB infections stem from a latent one.

• #26 Tuberculosis (TB) – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/mycobacteria/tuberculosis-tb

  TB of the tonsils, lymph nodes, abdominal organs, bones, and joints was once commonly caused by ingestion of milk or milk products (eg, cheese) contaminated with M. bovis, but this transmission route has been largely eradicated in countries where milk is pasteurized and cows that have a positive tuberculin skin test result are slaughtered. […] Tuberculosis due to M. bovis still occurs in countries where bovine tuberculosis is endemic (eg, some Latin American countries) and in immigrants from those countries. […] Infection requires inhalation of particles small enough to traverse the upper respiratory defenses and deposit deep in the lungs, usually in the subpleural airspaces of the middle or lower lobes. […] Infection usually begins from a single droplet nucleus, which typically carries few organisms.

• #27 Tuberculosis (TB) – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/mycobacteria/tuberculosis-tb

  TB of the tonsils, lymph nodes, abdominal organs, bones, and joints was once commonly caused by ingestion of milk or milk products (eg, cheese) contaminated with M. bovis, but this transmission route has been largely eradicated in countries where milk is pasteurized and cows that have a positive tuberculin skin test result are slaughtered. […] Tuberculosis due to M. bovis still occurs in countries where bovine tuberculosis is endemic (eg, some Latin American countries) and in immigrants from those countries. […] Infection requires inhalation of particles small enough to traverse the upper respiratory defenses and deposit deep in the lungs, usually in the subpleural airspaces of the middle or lower lobes. […] Infection usually begins from a single droplet nucleus, which typically carries few organisms.

• #28 Tuberculosis (TB) – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/mycobacteria/tuberculosis-tb

  TB of the tonsils, lymph nodes, abdominal organs, bones, and joints was once commonly caused by ingestion of milk or milk products (eg, cheese) contaminated with M. bovis, but this transmission route has been largely eradicated in countries where milk is pasteurized and cows that have a positive tuberculin skin test result are slaughtered. […] Tuberculosis due to M. bovis still occurs in countries where bovine tuberculosis is endemic (eg, some Latin American countries) and in immigrants from those countries. […] Infection requires inhalation of particles small enough to traverse the upper respiratory defenses and deposit deep in the lungs, usually in the subpleural airspaces of the middle or lower lobes. […] Infection usually begins from a single droplet nucleus, which typically carries few organisms.

• #29 Tuberculosis (TB) – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/mycobacteria/tuberculosis-tb

  To initiate infection, M. tuberculosis bacilli must be ingested by alveolar macrophages. […] In the early weeks of infection, some infected macrophages migrate to regional lymph nodes (eg, hilar, mediastinal), where they access the bloodstream. […] Infection is usually not transmissible in the primary stage and is never contagious in the latent stage. […] Reactivation occurs most often in the lung apices, presumably because of favorable local conditions such as high oxygen tension. […] Conditions that impair cellular immunity (which is essential for defense against TB) significantly facilitate reactivation. […] TB damages tissues through delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH), typically producing granulomatous necrosis with a caseous histologic appearance. […] The course of TB varies greatly, depending on the virulence of the organism and the state of host defenses.

• #30 Tuberculosis (TB) – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/mycobacteria/tuberculosis-tb

  To initiate infection, M. tuberculosis bacilli must be ingested by alveolar macrophages. […] In the early weeks of infection, some infected macrophages migrate to regional lymph nodes (eg, hilar, mediastinal), where they access the bloodstream. […] Infection is usually not transmissible in the primary stage and is never contagious in the latent stage. […] Reactivation occurs most often in the lung apices, presumably because of favorable local conditions such as high oxygen tension. […] Conditions that impair cellular immunity (which is essential for defense against TB) significantly facilitate reactivation. […] TB damages tissues through delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH), typically producing granulomatous necrosis with a caseous histologic appearance. […] The course of TB varies greatly, depending on the virulence of the organism and the state of host defenses.

• #31 Tuberculosis (TB) – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/mycobacteria/tuberculosis-tb

  To initiate infection, M. tuberculosis bacilli must be ingested by alveolar macrophages. […] In the early weeks of infection, some infected macrophages migrate to regional lymph nodes (eg, hilar, mediastinal), where they access the bloodstream. […] Infection is usually not transmissible in the primary stage and is never contagious in the latent stage. […] Reactivation occurs most often in the lung apices, presumably because of favorable local conditions such as high oxygen tension. […] Conditions that impair cellular immunity (which is essential for defense against TB) significantly facilitate reactivation. […] TB damages tissues through delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH), typically producing granulomatous necrosis with a caseous histologic appearance. […] The course of TB varies greatly, depending on the virulence of the organism and the state of host defenses.

• #32 Tuberculosis (TB) – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/mycobacteria/tuberculosis-tb

  To initiate infection, M. tuberculosis bacilli must be ingested by alveolar macrophages. […] In the early weeks of infection, some infected macrophages migrate to regional lymph nodes (eg, hilar, mediastinal), where they access the bloodstream. […] Infection is usually not transmissible in the primary stage and is never contagious in the latent stage. […] Reactivation occurs most often in the lung apices, presumably because of favorable local conditions such as high oxygen tension. […] Conditions that impair cellular immunity (which is essential for defense against TB) significantly facilitate reactivation. […] TB damages tissues through delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH), typically producing granulomatous necrosis with a caseous histologic appearance. […] The course of TB varies greatly, depending on the virulence of the organism and the state of host defenses.

• #33 Tuberculosis (TB) – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/mycobacteria/tuberculosis-tb

  To initiate infection, M. tuberculosis bacilli must be ingested by alveolar macrophages. […] In the early weeks of infection, some infected macrophages migrate to regional lymph nodes (eg, hilar, mediastinal), where they access the bloodstream. […] Infection is usually not transmissible in the primary stage and is never contagious in the latent stage. […] Reactivation occurs most often in the lung apices, presumably because of favorable local conditions such as high oxygen tension. […] Conditions that impair cellular immunity (which is essential for defense against TB) significantly facilitate reactivation. […] TB damages tissues through delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH), typically producing granulomatous necrosis with a caseous histologic appearance. […] The course of TB varies greatly, depending on the virulence of the organism and the state of host defenses.

• #34 Tuberculosis (TB) – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/mycobacteria/tuberculosis-tb

  To initiate infection, M. tuberculosis bacilli must be ingested by alveolar macrophages. […] In the early weeks of infection, some infected macrophages migrate to regional lymph nodes (eg, hilar, mediastinal), where they access the bloodstream. […] Infection is usually not transmissible in the primary stage and is never contagious in the latent stage. […] Reactivation occurs most often in the lung apices, presumably because of favorable local conditions such as high oxygen tension. […] Conditions that impair cellular immunity (which is essential for defense against TB) significantly facilitate reactivation. […] TB damages tissues through delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH), typically producing granulomatous necrosis with a caseous histologic appearance. […] The course of TB varies greatly, depending on the virulence of the organism and the state of host defenses.

• #35 Tuberculosis (TB) – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/mycobacteria/tuberculosis-tb

  To initiate infection, M. tuberculosis bacilli must be ingested by alveolar macrophages. […] In the early weeks of infection, some infected macrophages migrate to regional lymph nodes (eg, hilar, mediastinal), where they access the bloodstream. […] Infection is usually not transmissible in the primary stage and is never contagious in the latent stage. […] Reactivation occurs most often in the lung apices, presumably because of favorable local conditions such as high oxygen tension. […] Conditions that impair cellular immunity (which is essential for defense against TB) significantly facilitate reactivation. […] TB damages tissues through delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH), typically producing granulomatous necrosis with a caseous histologic appearance. […] The course of TB varies greatly, depending on the virulence of the organism and the state of host defenses.

• #36 Tuberculosis (TB) | National Jewish Health

  https://www.nationaljewish.org/conditions/tuberculosis-tb

  Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease. It is caused by a type of bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). TB is the leading cause of death from an infection globally. TB often affects the lungs. However, it may involve any organ and may infect anyone at any age. When it affects the lungs, it is called pulmonary TB. […] Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis, or Mtb. The body’s response to active TB infection produces inflammation that can lead to scarring in the lungs. Sometimes the body can completely wall off and compartmentalize the bacteria in a structure called a granuloma. If this granuloma breaks down or isn’t able to form completely, then a person can become ill with TB. […] Tuberculosis is a contagious or infectious disease. […] Inhaling TB germs does not mean you will develop active disease. A person’s natural body defenses are often able to control the infection so that it does not cause disease. In many cases, people are infected do not have active disease. Only about 5-10% of those infected develop active TB over their lifetime.

• #37 Tuberculosis Overview – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441916/

  The molecular and immunologic mechanisms responsible for dormancy and reactivation remain unknown and represent an important area of research. […] The risk factors associated with the development of active TB are immunocompromised state, tobacco use, and excessive alcohol use. […] The WHO publishes an annual report outlining the current epidemiology and progress towards the WHO End TB Strategy goals. […] Approximately 25% of the world’s population is infected, of which 5% to 10% develop active TB. […] Drug-resistant TB is a serious public health concern. […] The complexity of treatment and management led to the establishment of strategies to intensify treatment programs. […] The HIV epidemic heralded a new era in the long history of TB, warranting a separate discussion of pathogenesis.

• #38 Tuberculosis: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/11301-tuberculosis

  Tuberculosis (TB) is an illness caused by a bacterial infection. It commonly affects your lungs, but it can also affect other areas of your body like your spine, brain or kidneys. […] Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria cause TB. The germs spread through the air and can infect your lungs when you breathe them in. Sometimes, they also infect other parts of your body. […] The most common type of TB is pulmonary (lung) tuberculosis. But the bacterium can also affect other parts of your body (extrapulmonary tuberculosis). […] TB can spread when a person with active TB coughs, sneezes, talks, sings or laughs. Only people with an active lung infection are contagious. […] You might be at a higher risk for TB exposure if you are a resident or employee in group settings where TB can spread, such as jails, hospices, skilled nursing facilities, shelters and other healthcare facilities.

• #39 Etiology: Introduction to TB

  https://www.museumofhealthcare.ca/explore/exhibits/breath/etiology.html

  Tuberculosis is caused by an infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, rod-shaped bacteria that are spread mostly through air-born droplets or dust microparticles of dried sputum. […] The bacteria infect cows, buffalo, deer, and elk, among others. It can be transmitted to humans through unpasteurized milk and cheeses. […] Although Mycobacterium tuberculosis or bovis are typically inhaled or ingested, once in the body the bacteria are able to migrate to different areas if they are left untreated. […] Representing approximately 75% of all tuberculosis cases, pulmonary TB is the most common form of the disease. […] Miliary tuberculosis refers to a tuberculosis infection that has spread to multiple locations in the body through the blood stream or lymph system.

• #40 Etiology: Introduction to TB

  https://www.museumofhealthcare.ca/explore/exhibits/breath/etiology.html

  Tuberculosis is caused by an infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, rod-shaped bacteria that are spread mostly through air-born droplets or dust microparticles of dried sputum. […] The bacteria infect cows, buffalo, deer, and elk, among others. It can be transmitted to humans through unpasteurized milk and cheeses. […] Although Mycobacterium tuberculosis or bovis are typically inhaled or ingested, once in the body the bacteria are able to migrate to different areas if they are left untreated. […] Representing approximately 75% of all tuberculosis cases, pulmonary TB is the most common form of the disease. […] Miliary tuberculosis refers to a tuberculosis infection that has spread to multiple locations in the body through the blood stream or lymph system.

• #41

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/tuberculosis

  Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by bacteria that most often affects the lungs. It spreads through the air when people with TB cough, sneeze or spit. […] Tuberculosis is preventable and curable. […] About a quarter of the global population is estimated to have been infected with TB bacteria. About 5-10% of people infected with TB will eventually get symptoms and develop TB disease. […] TB disease is usually treated with antibiotics and can be fatal without treatment. […] Drug resistance emerges when TB medicines are used inappropriately, through incorrect prescription by health care providers, poor quality drugs, or patients stopping treatment prematurely. […] MDR-TB is a form of TB caused by bacteria that do not respond to isoniazid and rifampicin, the two most effective first-line TB drugs. MDR-TB is treatable and curable by using other drugs, which tend to be more expensive and toxic.

• #42

  https://www.who.int/health-topics/tuberculosis

  TB is caused by bacteria (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) and it most often affects the lungs. […] A person needs to inhale only a few germs to become infected. […] Despite being a preventable and curable disease, 1.5 million people die from TB each year making it the worlds top infectious killer. […] TB is the leading cause of death of people with HIV and also a major contributor to antimicrobial resistance. […] About a quarter of the global population is estimated to have been infected with TB bacteria, but most people will not go on to develop TB disease and some will clear the infection. […] People infected with TB bacteria have a 510% lifetime risk of falling ill with TB. Those with compromised immune systems, such as people living with HIV, malnutrition or diabetes, or people who use tobacco, have a higher risk of falling ill. […] TB disease is curable. […] In some cases the TB bacteria does not respond to the standard drugs. […] In the case of TB infection (where the patient is infected with TB bacteria but not ill), TB preventive treatment can be given to stop the onset of disease.

• #43 What Is Tuberculosis? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/tuberculosis/guide/

  While most people are able to tolerate the drugs well during treatment, TB medication can lead to some complications, as well. […] Even though you may not hear much about tuberculosis, its still a common disease affecting many people around the world. […] About one-quarter of the worlds population is infected with TB, and most cases occur in Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Western Pacific region. […] People living with HIV are up to 18 times more likely to develop TB than people without HIV, notes the WHO. (8) […] The risk of TB is 2 to 3 times greater in people with diabetes, according to the WHO. (19) […] There’s also a risk involved with taking certain biologic drugs used to treat autoimmune inflammatory diseases, such as Crohn’s disease (an inflammatory bowel disease) or rheumatoid arthritis.

• #44 Tuberculosis (TB) – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/mycobacteria/tuberculosis-tb

  To initiate infection, M. tuberculosis bacilli must be ingested by alveolar macrophages. […] In the early weeks of infection, some infected macrophages migrate to regional lymph nodes (eg, hilar, mediastinal), where they access the bloodstream. […] Infection is usually not transmissible in the primary stage and is never contagious in the latent stage. […] Reactivation occurs most often in the lung apices, presumably because of favorable local conditions such as high oxygen tension. […] Conditions that impair cellular immunity (which is essential for defense against TB) significantly facilitate reactivation. […] TB damages tissues through delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH), typically producing granulomatous necrosis with a caseous histologic appearance. […] The course of TB varies greatly, depending on the virulence of the organism and the state of host defenses.

• #45 Tuberculosis Overview – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441916/

  Data from the WHO indicates that people living with HIV (PLHIV) are approximately 19 times more likely to develop active TB disease than those without HIV. […] The underlying alterations in immune function that account for these findings in the HIV-TB coinfected population are not well understood. […] The features of TB in PLHIV who have high CD4+ T lymphocyte counts are similar to those of people without HIV. […] The most common mechanism leading to active disease is the reactivation of a latent focus of infection. […] The initiation of antiretroviral therapy (ART) does not completely restore immunity to baseline. […] The return of TB-specific CD4+ T cells after initiating ART can also lead to TB-immune reconstitution syndrome.

• #46

  https://www.who.int/health-topics/tuberculosis

  TB is caused by bacteria (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) and it most often affects the lungs. […] A person needs to inhale only a few germs to become infected. […] Despite being a preventable and curable disease, 1.5 million people die from TB each year making it the worlds top infectious killer. […] TB is the leading cause of death of people with HIV and also a major contributor to antimicrobial resistance. […] About a quarter of the global population is estimated to have been infected with TB bacteria, but most people will not go on to develop TB disease and some will clear the infection. […] People infected with TB bacteria have a 510% lifetime risk of falling ill with TB. Those with compromised immune systems, such as people living with HIV, malnutrition or diabetes, or people who use tobacco, have a higher risk of falling ill. […] TB disease is curable. […] In some cases the TB bacteria does not respond to the standard drugs. […] In the case of TB infection (where the patient is infected with TB bacteria but not ill), TB preventive treatment can be given to stop the onset of disease.

• #47

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/tuberculosis

  TB is the leading cause of death among people with HIV. […] WHO recommends a 12-component approach of collaborative TB-HIV activities, including actions for prevention and treatment of infection and disease, to reduce deaths. […] TB occurs in every part of the world. […] Those with compromised immune systems, such as people living with HIV, undernutrition or diabetes, or people who use tobacco, have a higher risk of falling ill. […] US$ 22 billion are needed annually for TB prevention, diagnosis, treatment and care to achieve global targets by 2027 agreed on at the 2023 UN high level-TB meeting.

• #48 Tuberculosis (TB) Test, Causes & Risk Factors

  https://www.medicinenet.com/tuberculosis_tb_causes_and_risk_factors/views.htm

  Tuberculosis (TB) is an infection, primarily in the lungs (a pneumonia), caused by bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is spread usually from person to person by breathing infected air during close contact. […] The risk factors for acquiring TB include close-contact situations, alcohol and IV drug abuse, and certain diseases (for example, diabetes, cancer, and HIV) and occupations (for example, health-care workers). […] The occurrence of HIV has been responsible for an increased frequency of tuberculosis. Control of HIV in the future, however, should substantially decrease the frequency of TB. […] A person can become infected with tuberculosis bacteria when he or she inhales minute particles of infected sputum from the air. […] Tuberculosis is spread (transmitted) primarily from person to person by breathing infected air during close contact.

• #49 What Is Tuberculosis? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/tuberculosis/guide/

  While most people are able to tolerate the drugs well during treatment, TB medication can lead to some complications, as well. […] Even though you may not hear much about tuberculosis, its still a common disease affecting many people around the world. […] About one-quarter of the worlds population is infected with TB, and most cases occur in Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Western Pacific region. […] People living with HIV are up to 18 times more likely to develop TB than people without HIV, notes the WHO. (8) […] The risk of TB is 2 to 3 times greater in people with diabetes, according to the WHO. (19) […] There’s also a risk involved with taking certain biologic drugs used to treat autoimmune inflammatory diseases, such as Crohn’s disease (an inflammatory bowel disease) or rheumatoid arthritis.

• #50

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/tuberculosis

  TB is the leading cause of death among people with HIV. […] WHO recommends a 12-component approach of collaborative TB-HIV activities, including actions for prevention and treatment of infection and disease, to reduce deaths. […] TB occurs in every part of the world. […] Those with compromised immune systems, such as people living with HIV, undernutrition or diabetes, or people who use tobacco, have a higher risk of falling ill. […] US$ 22 billion are needed annually for TB prevention, diagnosis, treatment and care to achieve global targets by 2027 agreed on at the 2023 UN high level-TB meeting.

• #51 Tuberculosis (TB): Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.careinsurance.com/blog/health-insurance-articles/tuberculosis-symptoms-causes-and-treatment

  Diabetes and Kidney Disease – People having Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) are at a risk of contracting tuberculosis infection because of suppressed immunity. Similarly, diabetic patients are also at a high risk. […] Organ Transplant – There are many reported cases of the recipient getting an infection from the donor graft. This happens when the donor is from a place where TB infection is common. Many times an infection stays undetected and is passed from the donor to the recipient. […] Air Pollution – Air pollution is also one of the major risk factors causing tuberculosis. Passive smoking, industrial smoke, burning of fuel etc. are potential hazards. […] Pregnancy – A child born to an untreated mother is most likely to get a tuberculosis infection. Such a child often has a very low birth weight. […] Healthcare Workers – Healthcare workers who are working with active TB patients are more likely to get an infection.

• #52 Tuberculosis (TB): Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.careinsurance.com/blog/health-insurance-articles/tuberculosis-symptoms-causes-and-treatment

  Diabetes and Kidney Disease – People having Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) are at a risk of contracting tuberculosis infection because of suppressed immunity. Similarly, diabetic patients are also at a high risk. […] Organ Transplant – There are many reported cases of the recipient getting an infection from the donor graft. This happens when the donor is from a place where TB infection is common. Many times an infection stays undetected and is passed from the donor to the recipient. […] Air Pollution – Air pollution is also one of the major risk factors causing tuberculosis. Passive smoking, industrial smoke, burning of fuel etc. are potential hazards. […] Pregnancy – A child born to an untreated mother is most likely to get a tuberculosis infection. Such a child often has a very low birth weight. […] Healthcare Workers – Healthcare workers who are working with active TB patients are more likely to get an infection.

• #53 Quick Facts:Tuberculosis (TB) – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/quick-facts-infections/tuberculosis-and-leprosy/tuberculosis-tb

  Tuberculosis (TB) is a common, serious infection caused by bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. […] TB is caused by breathing in the tuberculosis bacteria, Mycobacterium tuberculosis. […] Diseases and medicines that weaken your immune system make TB more likely to become active. […] The most common risk factor is: HIV infection. […] Other risk factors include: Diabetes, Severe kidney failure, Certain cancers, Medicines such as corticosteroids and inflammation-blocking medicines. […] Sometimes TB becomes active even if you don’t have risk factors. […] Some strains of TB have transformed so they can no longer be killed off by common antibiotics.

• #54

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/tuberculosis

  TB is the leading cause of death among people with HIV. […] WHO recommends a 12-component approach of collaborative TB-HIV activities, including actions for prevention and treatment of infection and disease, to reduce deaths. […] TB occurs in every part of the world. […] Those with compromised immune systems, such as people living with HIV, undernutrition or diabetes, or people who use tobacco, have a higher risk of falling ill. […] US$ 22 billion are needed annually for TB prevention, diagnosis, treatment and care to achieve global targets by 2027 agreed on at the 2023 UN high level-TB meeting.

• #55 Tuberculosis – Symptoms, Types, Causes, Treatment & Prevention | Healthshots

  https://www.healthshots.com/disease/tuberculosis/

  Having a weakened immune system significantly increases susceptibility to TB. […] Individuals aged 65 and older, as well as young children, face heightened susceptibility due to developing or weakened immune systems, respectively. […] Poverty, overcrowded living conditions, and a lack of access to healthcare amplify TB risk. […] Substance abuse, particularly alcohol and tobacco, can compromise immune function and increase vulnerability. […] Undernourished people are also at higher risk of TB as compared to healthy people. […] People who are suffering from diabetes and are on medicines such as steroids also exacerbate the risk of TB infection and progression to active disease.

• #56 Quick Facts:Tuberculosis (TB) – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/quick-facts-infections/tuberculosis-and-leprosy/tuberculosis-tb

  Tuberculosis (TB) is a common, serious infection caused by bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. […] TB is caused by breathing in the tuberculosis bacteria, Mycobacterium tuberculosis. […] Diseases and medicines that weaken your immune system make TB more likely to become active. […] The most common risk factor is: HIV infection. […] Other risk factors include: Diabetes, Severe kidney failure, Certain cancers, Medicines such as corticosteroids and inflammation-blocking medicines. […] Sometimes TB becomes active even if you don’t have risk factors. […] Some strains of TB have transformed so they can no longer be killed off by common antibiotics.

• #57 Tuberculosis Co-Infections: Conditions That Increase Risk – Mississippi State Department of Health

  https://msdh.ms.gov/msdhsite/index.cfm/14,17432,125,729,html

  Smoking, immunosuppressive medications, such as the popular TNF inhibitors, and chronic diseases such as diabetes and HIV infection increase the chances that tuberculosis (TB) infection will progress to TB disease. […] TB is an under-recognized risk in the presence of these conditions. […] Patients and healthcare providers need to be aware of these increased risks. […] TNF inhibitors are among the most popular medications in the U.S., and are recognized to significantly increase the risk of progressing from TB infection to TB disease. […] TB is one of the leading causes of death among people living with HIV. […] People with diabetes have a tuberculosis risk 2 to 3 times higher than people without diabetes. […] Smoking increases the risk of developing TB infection and disease, and it inhibits the effectiveness of life-saving treatment for TB and HIV. […] Early detection and treatment is essential to recovering from tuberculosis and living a better life.

• #58 What Is Tuberculosis? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/tuberculosis/guide/

  While most people are able to tolerate the drugs well during treatment, TB medication can lead to some complications, as well. […] Even though you may not hear much about tuberculosis, its still a common disease affecting many people around the world. […] About one-quarter of the worlds population is infected with TB, and most cases occur in Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Western Pacific region. […] People living with HIV are up to 18 times more likely to develop TB than people without HIV, notes the WHO. (8) […] The risk of TB is 2 to 3 times greater in people with diabetes, according to the WHO. (19) […] There’s also a risk involved with taking certain biologic drugs used to treat autoimmune inflammatory diseases, such as Crohn’s disease (an inflammatory bowel disease) or rheumatoid arthritis.

• #59 Tuberculosis (TB): Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/230802-overview

  TB is caused by M tuberculosis (Mtb), a slow-growing obligate aerobe and a facultative intracellular parasite. The organism grows in parallel groups called cords. […] Mtb are non-spore-forming and nonmotile curved intracellular rods measuring 0.2-0.5 m by 2-4 m. Their cell walls contain mycolic acid-rich, long-chain glycolipids and phosphoglycolipids (mycocides) that protect mycobacteria from cell lysosomal attack. […] Humans are the only known reservoir for Mtb. The organism is spread primarily via airborne aerosol from an individual in the infectious stage of TB (although transdermal and GI transmission have been reported). […] Risk factors for developing active disease after Mtb infection include recent acquisition (within 18 months), exposure to higher infectious inoculum, malnutrition, tobacco smoking, pulmonary fibrotic lesions, alcoholism, intravenous drug use, and comorbidities, including HIV, diabetes, silicosis, immunosuppression (particularly TNF-alpha inhibitors), cancer of head and neck, hematological malignancies, end-stage renal disease, chronic malabsorption, and gastrectomy.

• #60 Quick Facts:Tuberculosis (TB) – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/quick-facts-infections/tuberculosis-and-leprosy/tuberculosis-tb

  Tuberculosis (TB) is a common, serious infection caused by bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. […] TB is caused by breathing in the tuberculosis bacteria, Mycobacterium tuberculosis. […] Diseases and medicines that weaken your immune system make TB more likely to become active. […] The most common risk factor is: HIV infection. […] Other risk factors include: Diabetes, Severe kidney failure, Certain cancers, Medicines such as corticosteroids and inflammation-blocking medicines. […] Sometimes TB becomes active even if you don’t have risk factors. […] Some strains of TB have transformed so they can no longer be killed off by common antibiotics.

• #61 Tuberculosis (TB): Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.careinsurance.com/blog/health-insurance-articles/tuberculosis-symptoms-causes-and-treatment

  Diabetes and Kidney Disease – People having Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) are at a risk of contracting tuberculosis infection because of suppressed immunity. Similarly, diabetic patients are also at a high risk. […] Organ Transplant – There are many reported cases of the recipient getting an infection from the donor graft. This happens when the donor is from a place where TB infection is common. Many times an infection stays undetected and is passed from the donor to the recipient. […] Air Pollution – Air pollution is also one of the major risk factors causing tuberculosis. Passive smoking, industrial smoke, burning of fuel etc. are potential hazards. […] Pregnancy – A child born to an untreated mother is most likely to get a tuberculosis infection. Such a child often has a very low birth weight. […] Healthcare Workers – Healthcare workers who are working with active TB patients are more likely to get an infection.

• #62 Environmental Tuberculosis: causes and treatment – TeleMed2U

  https://www.telemed2u.com/infectious-disease/environmental-tuberculosis

  The following factors increase the risks of TB infection by increasing the situations that bring TB-positive people in close contact with others. They also make it more likely that latent TB will progress to active TB disease. […] Most of the following factors are closely tied to poverty. TB has always been a disease of the poor. […] TB causes wasting, suppresses the immune system, and causes other symptoms. […] Indoor air pollution largely comes from burning solid fuels for cooking. […] Smoking tobacco harms both the smoker and those who inhale the secondhand smoke, and reduces immune system strength. […] Excessive alcohol use also lowers immune system strength and increases infection risks. […] Poor access to health care increases the TB risk factors of HIV infection and diabetes, and decreases the chances of successful TB treatment.

• #63 Environmental Tuberculosis: causes and treatment – TeleMed2U

  https://www.telemed2u.com/infectious-disease/environmental-tuberculosis

  Other environmental factors that enhance TB transmission and worsen outcomes include air and soil pollution. […] Urbanization creates the perfect conditions to enhance TB transmission and increase progression of latent TB to active TB disease. […] Environmental and socio-economic risk factors are associated with a higher risk of getting a TB infection. The risk of TB progressing from exposure, to infection, to active TB disease is largely determined by outside environmental factors.

• #64 Environmental Tuberculosis: causes and treatment – TeleMed2U

  https://www.telemed2u.com/infectious-disease/environmental-tuberculosis

  The following factors increase the risks of TB infection by increasing the situations that bring TB-positive people in close contact with others. They also make it more likely that latent TB will progress to active TB disease. […] Most of the following factors are closely tied to poverty. TB has always been a disease of the poor. […] TB causes wasting, suppresses the immune system, and causes other symptoms. […] Indoor air pollution largely comes from burning solid fuels for cooking. […] Smoking tobacco harms both the smoker and those who inhale the secondhand smoke, and reduces immune system strength. […] Excessive alcohol use also lowers immune system strength and increases infection risks. […] Poor access to health care increases the TB risk factors of HIV infection and diabetes, and decreases the chances of successful TB treatment.

• #65 Tuberculosis – Symptoms, Types, Causes, Treatment & Prevention | Healthshots

  https://www.healthshots.com/disease/tuberculosis/

  Having a weakened immune system significantly increases susceptibility to TB. […] Individuals aged 65 and older, as well as young children, face heightened susceptibility due to developing or weakened immune systems, respectively. […] Poverty, overcrowded living conditions, and a lack of access to healthcare amplify TB risk. […] Substance abuse, particularly alcohol and tobacco, can compromise immune function and increase vulnerability. […] Undernourished people are also at higher risk of TB as compared to healthy people. […] People who are suffering from diabetes and are on medicines such as steroids also exacerbate the risk of TB infection and progression to active disease.

• #66 Tuberculosis – Symptoms, Types, Causes, Treatment & Prevention | Healthshots

  https://www.healthshots.com/disease/tuberculosis/

  TB spreads through the air when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks, releasing tiny infectious droplets containing the bacteria. […] People with compromised immune systems, such as those living with HIV/AIDS, malnutrition, or certain chronic diseases like diabetes, are more susceptible to TB infection due to their inability to fight against the bacteria. […] TB thrives in overcrowded and poorly ventilated environments, such as prisons, refugee camps, and homeless shelters. […] Limited access to healthcare services, including diagnostic tools and treatment, contributes to TB prevalence. […] Misuse or incomplete courses of antibiotics can lead to the development of drug-resistant strains of TB. […] While TB is caused by exposure to Mycobacterium bacteria, some risk factors increase your chances of developing this disease:

• #67 Environmental Tuberculosis: causes and treatment – TeleMed2U

  https://www.telemed2u.com/infectious-disease/environmental-tuberculosis

  The following factors increase the risks of TB infection by increasing the situations that bring TB-positive people in close contact with others. They also make it more likely that latent TB will progress to active TB disease. […] Most of the following factors are closely tied to poverty. TB has always been a disease of the poor. […] TB causes wasting, suppresses the immune system, and causes other symptoms. […] Indoor air pollution largely comes from burning solid fuels for cooking. […] Smoking tobacco harms both the smoker and those who inhale the secondhand smoke, and reduces immune system strength. […] Excessive alcohol use also lowers immune system strength and increases infection risks. […] Poor access to health care increases the TB risk factors of HIV infection and diabetes, and decreases the chances of successful TB treatment.

• #68 Environmental Tuberculosis: causes and treatment – TeleMed2U

  https://www.telemed2u.com/infectious-disease/environmental-tuberculosis

  Other environmental factors that enhance TB transmission and worsen outcomes include air and soil pollution. […] Urbanization creates the perfect conditions to enhance TB transmission and increase progression of latent TB to active TB disease. […] Environmental and socio-economic risk factors are associated with a higher risk of getting a TB infection. The risk of TB progressing from exposure, to infection, to active TB disease is largely determined by outside environmental factors.

• #69 Tuberculosis (TB): Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.careinsurance.com/blog/health-insurance-articles/tuberculosis-symptoms-causes-and-treatment

  Diabetes and Kidney Disease – People having Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) are at a risk of contracting tuberculosis infection because of suppressed immunity. Similarly, diabetic patients are also at a high risk. […] Organ Transplant – There are many reported cases of the recipient getting an infection from the donor graft. This happens when the donor is from a place where TB infection is common. Many times an infection stays undetected and is passed from the donor to the recipient. […] Air Pollution – Air pollution is also one of the major risk factors causing tuberculosis. Passive smoking, industrial smoke, burning of fuel etc. are potential hazards. […] Pregnancy – A child born to an untreated mother is most likely to get a tuberculosis infection. Such a child often has a very low birth weight. […] Healthcare Workers – Healthcare workers who are working with active TB patients are more likely to get an infection.

• #70 Environmental Tuberculosis: causes and treatment – TeleMed2U

  https://www.telemed2u.com/infectious-disease/environmental-tuberculosis

  Other environmental factors that enhance TB transmission and worsen outcomes include air and soil pollution. […] Urbanization creates the perfect conditions to enhance TB transmission and increase progression of latent TB to active TB disease. […] Environmental and socio-economic risk factors are associated with a higher risk of getting a TB infection. The risk of TB progressing from exposure, to infection, to active TB disease is largely determined by outside environmental factors.

• #71 Environmental Tuberculosis: causes and treatment – TeleMed2U

  https://www.telemed2u.com/infectious-disease/environmental-tuberculosis

  The following factors increase the risks of TB infection by increasing the situations that bring TB-positive people in close contact with others. They also make it more likely that latent TB will progress to active TB disease. […] Most of the following factors are closely tied to poverty. TB has always been a disease of the poor. […] TB causes wasting, suppresses the immune system, and causes other symptoms. […] Indoor air pollution largely comes from burning solid fuels for cooking. […] Smoking tobacco harms both the smoker and those who inhale the secondhand smoke, and reduces immune system strength. […] Excessive alcohol use also lowers immune system strength and increases infection risks. […] Poor access to health care increases the TB risk factors of HIV infection and diabetes, and decreases the chances of successful TB treatment.

• #72 Tuberculosis – Symptoms, Types, Causes, Treatment & Prevention | Healthshots

  https://www.healthshots.com/disease/tuberculosis/

  TB spreads through the air when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks, releasing tiny infectious droplets containing the bacteria. […] People with compromised immune systems, such as those living with HIV/AIDS, malnutrition, or certain chronic diseases like diabetes, are more susceptible to TB infection due to their inability to fight against the bacteria. […] TB thrives in overcrowded and poorly ventilated environments, such as prisons, refugee camps, and homeless shelters. […] Limited access to healthcare services, including diagnostic tools and treatment, contributes to TB prevalence. […] Misuse or incomplete courses of antibiotics can lead to the development of drug-resistant strains of TB. […] While TB is caused by exposure to Mycobacterium bacteria, some risk factors increase your chances of developing this disease:

• #73 Tuberculosis Overview – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441916/

  The molecular and immunologic mechanisms responsible for dormancy and reactivation remain unknown and represent an important area of research. […] The risk factors associated with the development of active TB are immunocompromised state, tobacco use, and excessive alcohol use. […] The WHO publishes an annual report outlining the current epidemiology and progress towards the WHO End TB Strategy goals. […] Approximately 25% of the world’s population is infected, of which 5% to 10% develop active TB. […] Drug-resistant TB is a serious public health concern. […] The complexity of treatment and management led to the establishment of strategies to intensify treatment programs. […] The HIV epidemic heralded a new era in the long history of TB, warranting a separate discussion of pathogenesis.

• #74 Tuberculosis – Symptoms, Types, Causes, Treatment & Prevention | Healthshots

  https://www.healthshots.com/disease/tuberculosis/

  TB spreads through the air when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks, releasing tiny infectious droplets containing the bacteria. […] People with compromised immune systems, such as those living with HIV/AIDS, malnutrition, or certain chronic diseases like diabetes, are more susceptible to TB infection due to their inability to fight against the bacteria. […] TB thrives in overcrowded and poorly ventilated environments, such as prisons, refugee camps, and homeless shelters. […] Limited access to healthcare services, including diagnostic tools and treatment, contributes to TB prevalence. […] Misuse or incomplete courses of antibiotics can lead to the development of drug-resistant strains of TB. […] While TB is caused by exposure to Mycobacterium bacteria, some risk factors increase your chances of developing this disease:

• #75 Tuberculosis – Symptoms, Types, Causes, Treatment & Prevention | Healthshots

  https://www.healthshots.com/disease/tuberculosis/

  Having a weakened immune system significantly increases susceptibility to TB. […] Individuals aged 65 and older, as well as young children, face heightened susceptibility due to developing or weakened immune systems, respectively. […] Poverty, overcrowded living conditions, and a lack of access to healthcare amplify TB risk. […] Substance abuse, particularly alcohol and tobacco, can compromise immune function and increase vulnerability. […] Undernourished people are also at higher risk of TB as compared to healthy people. […] People who are suffering from diabetes and are on medicines such as steroids also exacerbate the risk of TB infection and progression to active disease.

• #76 Environmental Tuberculosis: causes and treatment – TeleMed2U

  https://www.telemed2u.com/infectious-disease/environmental-tuberculosis

  The following factors increase the risks of TB infection by increasing the situations that bring TB-positive people in close contact with others. They also make it more likely that latent TB will progress to active TB disease. […] Most of the following factors are closely tied to poverty. TB has always been a disease of the poor. […] TB causes wasting, suppresses the immune system, and causes other symptoms. […] Indoor air pollution largely comes from burning solid fuels for cooking. […] Smoking tobacco harms both the smoker and those who inhale the secondhand smoke, and reduces immune system strength. […] Excessive alcohol use also lowers immune system strength and increases infection risks. […] Poor access to health care increases the TB risk factors of HIV infection and diabetes, and decreases the chances of successful TB treatment.

• #77 Tuberculosis Co-Infections: Conditions That Increase Risk – Mississippi State Department of Health

  https://msdh.ms.gov/msdhsite/index.cfm/14,17432,125,729,html

  Smoking, immunosuppressive medications, such as the popular TNF inhibitors, and chronic diseases such as diabetes and HIV infection increase the chances that tuberculosis (TB) infection will progress to TB disease. […] TB is an under-recognized risk in the presence of these conditions. […] Patients and healthcare providers need to be aware of these increased risks. […] TNF inhibitors are among the most popular medications in the U.S., and are recognized to significantly increase the risk of progressing from TB infection to TB disease. […] TB is one of the leading causes of death among people living with HIV. […] People with diabetes have a tuberculosis risk 2 to 3 times higher than people without diabetes. […] Smoking increases the risk of developing TB infection and disease, and it inhibits the effectiveness of life-saving treatment for TB and HIV. […] Early detection and treatment is essential to recovering from tuberculosis and living a better life.

• #78 Tuberculosis (TB): Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.careinsurance.com/blog/health-insurance-articles/tuberculosis-symptoms-causes-and-treatment

  Tuberculosis is a life-threatening disease that affects the human lungs. It is caused by a bacteria called Mycobacterium Tuberculosis. […] Tuberculosis is a bacterial infection that is caused when you come in contact with an infected person. The following are the main causes of getting a tuberculosis infection. […] Coming in Contact with an Infected Person – When an infected person coughs or sneezes, the bacteria is released into the air and if you are breathing in the same air, you can contract an infection. […] Low Immunity – Anyone having low immunity has a high risk of contracting an infection. For instance, an individual with an HIV infection can contract Tuberculosis easily. […] Smoking increases the risk of tuberculosis, the disease may reoccur or if you are undergoing treatment, smoking reduces its effectiveness.

• #79 Tuberculosis Overview – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441916/

  The molecular and immunologic mechanisms responsible for dormancy and reactivation remain unknown and represent an important area of research. […] The risk factors associated with the development of active TB are immunocompromised state, tobacco use, and excessive alcohol use. […] The WHO publishes an annual report outlining the current epidemiology and progress towards the WHO End TB Strategy goals. […] Approximately 25% of the world’s population is infected, of which 5% to 10% develop active TB. […] Drug-resistant TB is a serious public health concern. […] The complexity of treatment and management led to the establishment of strategies to intensify treatment programs. […] The HIV epidemic heralded a new era in the long history of TB, warranting a separate discussion of pathogenesis.

• #80 Environmental Tuberculosis: causes and treatment – TeleMed2U

  https://www.telemed2u.com/infectious-disease/environmental-tuberculosis

  The following factors increase the risks of TB infection by increasing the situations that bring TB-positive people in close contact with others. They also make it more likely that latent TB will progress to active TB disease. […] Most of the following factors are closely tied to poverty. TB has always been a disease of the poor. […] TB causes wasting, suppresses the immune system, and causes other symptoms. […] Indoor air pollution largely comes from burning solid fuels for cooking. […] Smoking tobacco harms both the smoker and those who inhale the secondhand smoke, and reduces immune system strength. […] Excessive alcohol use also lowers immune system strength and increases infection risks. […] Poor access to health care increases the TB risk factors of HIV infection and diabetes, and decreases the chances of successful TB treatment.

• #81 Tuberculosis – Symptoms, Types, Causes, Treatment & Prevention | Healthshots

  https://www.healthshots.com/disease/tuberculosis/

  Having a weakened immune system significantly increases susceptibility to TB. […] Individuals aged 65 and older, as well as young children, face heightened susceptibility due to developing or weakened immune systems, respectively. […] Poverty, overcrowded living conditions, and a lack of access to healthcare amplify TB risk. […] Substance abuse, particularly alcohol and tobacco, can compromise immune function and increase vulnerability. […] Undernourished people are also at higher risk of TB as compared to healthy people. […] People who are suffering from diabetes and are on medicines such as steroids also exacerbate the risk of TB infection and progression to active disease.

• #82 Tuberculosis – Symptoms, Types, Causes, Treatment & Prevention | Healthshots

  https://www.healthshots.com/disease/tuberculosis/

  Having a weakened immune system significantly increases susceptibility to TB. […] Individuals aged 65 and older, as well as young children, face heightened susceptibility due to developing or weakened immune systems, respectively. […] Poverty, overcrowded living conditions, and a lack of access to healthcare amplify TB risk. […] Substance abuse, particularly alcohol and tobacco, can compromise immune function and increase vulnerability. […] Undernourished people are also at higher risk of TB as compared to healthy people. […] People who are suffering from diabetes and are on medicines such as steroids also exacerbate the risk of TB infection and progression to active disease.

• #83 Tuberculosis (TB): Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.careinsurance.com/blog/health-insurance-articles/tuberculosis-symptoms-causes-and-treatment

  Diabetes and Kidney Disease – People having Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) are at a risk of contracting tuberculosis infection because of suppressed immunity. Similarly, diabetic patients are also at a high risk. […] Organ Transplant – There are many reported cases of the recipient getting an infection from the donor graft. This happens when the donor is from a place where TB infection is common. Many times an infection stays undetected and is passed from the donor to the recipient. […] Air Pollution – Air pollution is also one of the major risk factors causing tuberculosis. Passive smoking, industrial smoke, burning of fuel etc. are potential hazards. […] Pregnancy – A child born to an untreated mother is most likely to get a tuberculosis infection. Such a child often has a very low birth weight. […] Healthcare Workers – Healthcare workers who are working with active TB patients are more likely to get an infection.

• #84 Cutaneous tuberculosis (TB)

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/cutaneous-tuberculosis

  Cutaneous tuberculosis (TB) results from skin infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis), the same bacterium that causes tuberculosis of the lungs (pulmonary TB). […] Risk factors for developing tuberculosis include: Close contact with a patient with active TB, Living in or visiting a country or community where TB is common, Living in a crowded community, including institutions such as aged care residences, long-stay hospitals, and prisons, Working in hospitals and healthcare environments. […] Not everyone exposed to M. tuberculosis will develop disease as genetic susceptibility (MIM 607948) affects the development of infection; it has been estimated that 10% of those infected will develop active tuberculosis. […] Cutaneous tuberculosis is nearly always caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the tubercle bacillus.

• #85 What Is Tuberculosis? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/tuberculosis/guide/

  Risk factors for TB include: […] When active tuberculosis is diagnosed in the United States, it’s often in a person who has emigrated from or traveled to a country with a much higher rate of TB. […] People with a normal, healthy immune system probably dont have to be worried much about tuberculosis because catching TB is relatively hard, according to Lee Reichman, MD, professor of medicine and epidemiology and executive director emeritus of the Rutgers Global Tuberculosis Institute in Newark, New Jersey. […] The first test used to find TB is called the tuberculin skin test, also known as the Mantoux test or PPD (purified protein derivative). […] A blood test can provide more conclusive results. The interferon gamma release assay (IGRA) test measures the body’s immune response to the presence of M. tuberculosis.

• #86 Tuberculosis (TB) Test, Causes & Risk Factors

  https://www.medicinenet.com/tuberculosis_tb_causes_and_risk_factors/views.htm

  There is a form of atypical tuberculosis, however, that is transmitted by drinking unpasteurized milk. […] When the inhaled tuberculosis bacteria enter the lungs, they can multiply and cause a local lung infection (pneumonia). […] Sometimes, however, the body’s immune system becomes weakened, and the TB bacteria break through the scar tissue and can cause active disease, referred to as reactivation tuberculosis or secondary TB. […] Data from 2011 show that approximately 8.7 million new cases of TB occur each year worldwide, with 1.4 million estimated deaths. […] Anyone can get TB, but certain people are at higher risk, including people who live with individuals who have an active TB infection, poor or homeless people, foreign-born people from countries that have a high prevalence of TB, nursing-home residents and prison inmates, alcoholics and intravenous drug users, people with diabetes, certain cancers, and HIV infection (the AIDS virus), health-care workers.

• #87 Tuberculosis (TB): Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.careinsurance.com/blog/health-insurance-articles/tuberculosis-symptoms-causes-and-treatment

  Diabetes and Kidney Disease – People having Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) are at a risk of contracting tuberculosis infection because of suppressed immunity. Similarly, diabetic patients are also at a high risk. […] Organ Transplant – There are many reported cases of the recipient getting an infection from the donor graft. This happens when the donor is from a place where TB infection is common. Many times an infection stays undetected and is passed from the donor to the recipient. […] Air Pollution – Air pollution is also one of the major risk factors causing tuberculosis. Passive smoking, industrial smoke, burning of fuel etc. are potential hazards. […] Pregnancy – A child born to an untreated mother is most likely to get a tuberculosis infection. Such a child often has a very low birth weight. […] Healthcare Workers – Healthcare workers who are working with active TB patients are more likely to get an infection.

• #88 Tuberculosis Overview – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441916/

  The molecular and immunologic mechanisms responsible for dormancy and reactivation remain unknown and represent an important area of research. […] The risk factors associated with the development of active TB are immunocompromised state, tobacco use, and excessive alcohol use. […] The WHO publishes an annual report outlining the current epidemiology and progress towards the WHO End TB Strategy goals. […] Approximately 25% of the world’s population is infected, of which 5% to 10% develop active TB. […] Drug-resistant TB is a serious public health concern. […] The complexity of treatment and management led to the establishment of strategies to intensify treatment programs. […] The HIV epidemic heralded a new era in the long history of TB, warranting a separate discussion of pathogenesis.

• #89

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/tuberculosis

  Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by bacteria that most often affects the lungs. It spreads through the air when people with TB cough, sneeze or spit. […] Tuberculosis is preventable and curable. […] About a quarter of the global population is estimated to have been infected with TB bacteria. About 5-10% of people infected with TB will eventually get symptoms and develop TB disease. […] TB disease is usually treated with antibiotics and can be fatal without treatment. […] Drug resistance emerges when TB medicines are used inappropriately, through incorrect prescription by health care providers, poor quality drugs, or patients stopping treatment prematurely. […] MDR-TB is a form of TB caused by bacteria that do not respond to isoniazid and rifampicin, the two most effective first-line TB drugs. MDR-TB is treatable and curable by using other drugs, which tend to be more expensive and toxic.

• #90 Tuberculosis – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/tuberculosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20351250

  Some forms of the TB bacteria have become drug resistant. This means that medicines that once cured the disease no longer work. […] This happens, in part, because of naturally occurring genetic changes in bacteria. A random genetic change in a bacterium might give it some quality that makes it more likely to survive the attack of an antibiotic. If it does survive, then it can multiply. […] When antibiotic medicines aren’t used correctly or medicines fail to clear out all the bacteria for another reason the conditions are ideal for more-resistant versions of the bacteria to take hold and multiply. If these bacteria are passed on to other people, a new drug-resistant strain can grow over time.

• #91 Tuberculosis (TB) – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/mycobacteria/tuberculosis-tb

  The diagnosis of MDR-TB and consequent need to use second-line drugs has great significance in terms of length, cost, and success of treatment. […] Drug resistance is a major concern. It develops through spontaneous genetic mutation. Incomplete, erratic, or single drug therapy and poor adherence select for these resistant organisms. […] The new anti-TB drugs bedaquiline, delamanid, and pretomanid and the fluoroquinolone moxifloxacin are oral drugs highly active against drug-resistant strains using shorter treatment duration than other regimens. […] The cost to patients of DR-TB and its treatment is estimated to be catastrophic in as high as 49% of cases.

• #92 Tuberculosis – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/tuberculosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20351250

  Some forms of the TB bacteria have become drug resistant. This means that medicines that once cured the disease no longer work. […] This happens, in part, because of naturally occurring genetic changes in bacteria. A random genetic change in a bacterium might give it some quality that makes it more likely to survive the attack of an antibiotic. If it does survive, then it can multiply. […] When antibiotic medicines aren’t used correctly or medicines fail to clear out all the bacteria for another reason the conditions are ideal for more-resistant versions of the bacteria to take hold and multiply. If these bacteria are passed on to other people, a new drug-resistant strain can grow over time.

• #93 Tuberculosis – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/tuberculosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20351250

  Some forms of the TB bacteria have become drug resistant. This means that medicines that once cured the disease no longer work. […] This happens, in part, because of naturally occurring genetic changes in bacteria. A random genetic change in a bacterium might give it some quality that makes it more likely to survive the attack of an antibiotic. If it does survive, then it can multiply. […] When antibiotic medicines aren’t used correctly or medicines fail to clear out all the bacteria for another reason the conditions are ideal for more-resistant versions of the bacteria to take hold and multiply. If these bacteria are passed on to other people, a new drug-resistant strain can grow over time.

• #94

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/tuberculosis

  Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by bacteria that most often affects the lungs. It spreads through the air when people with TB cough, sneeze or spit. […] Tuberculosis is preventable and curable. […] About a quarter of the global population is estimated to have been infected with TB bacteria. About 5-10% of people infected with TB will eventually get symptoms and develop TB disease. […] TB disease is usually treated with antibiotics and can be fatal without treatment. […] Drug resistance emerges when TB medicines are used inappropriately, through incorrect prescription by health care providers, poor quality drugs, or patients stopping treatment prematurely. […] MDR-TB is a form of TB caused by bacteria that do not respond to isoniazid and rifampicin, the two most effective first-line TB drugs. MDR-TB is treatable and curable by using other drugs, which tend to be more expensive and toxic.

• #95 Tuberculosis: PPD Test, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, and Prognosis

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/tuberculosis/article_em.htm

  Tuberculosis (TB) describes an infectious disease that has plagued humans since the Neolithic times. Two organisms cause tuberculosis — Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium bovis. […] All cases of TB are passed from person to person via droplets. When someone with TB infection coughs, sneezes, or talks, tiny droplets of saliva or mucus are expelled into the air, which can be inhaled by another person. […] Risk factors for TB include the following: HIV infection, low socioeconomic status, alcoholism, homelessness, crowded living conditions, diseases that weaken the immune system, migration from a country with a high number of cases, and health-care workers. […] Most strains of the TB bacteria require at least two drugs for treatment to prevent resistance. Resistance is caused by inconsistent or partial treatment. In some instances, patients are prescribed inadequate therapy or enough drug is not available.

• #96

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/tuberculosis

  Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by bacteria that most often affects the lungs. It spreads through the air when people with TB cough, sneeze or spit. […] Tuberculosis is preventable and curable. […] About a quarter of the global population is estimated to have been infected with TB bacteria. About 5-10% of people infected with TB will eventually get symptoms and develop TB disease. […] TB disease is usually treated with antibiotics and can be fatal without treatment. […] Drug resistance emerges when TB medicines are used inappropriately, through incorrect prescription by health care providers, poor quality drugs, or patients stopping treatment prematurely. […] MDR-TB is a form of TB caused by bacteria that do not respond to isoniazid and rifampicin, the two most effective first-line TB drugs. MDR-TB is treatable and curable by using other drugs, which tend to be more expensive and toxic.

• #97 Tuberculosis: PPD Test, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, and Prognosis

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/tuberculosis/article_em.htm

  Multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) is caused by a bacteria that is resistant to at least isoniazid and rifampicin. Prolonged alternative therapy is required to treat this form of TB, often for up to two years. […] Extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB) is rare but extremely problematic. This form of TB is very difficult to treat and often requires prolonged isolation of the individual to protect the community at large. If TB is treated properly and consistently, these resistant forms are much less likely to spread.

• #98

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/tuberculosis

  Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by bacteria that most often affects the lungs. It spreads through the air when people with TB cough, sneeze or spit. […] Tuberculosis is preventable and curable. […] About a quarter of the global population is estimated to have been infected with TB bacteria. About 5-10% of people infected with TB will eventually get symptoms and develop TB disease. […] TB disease is usually treated with antibiotics and can be fatal without treatment. […] Drug resistance emerges when TB medicines are used inappropriately, through incorrect prescription by health care providers, poor quality drugs, or patients stopping treatment prematurely. […] MDR-TB is a form of TB caused by bacteria that do not respond to isoniazid and rifampicin, the two most effective first-line TB drugs. MDR-TB is treatable and curable by using other drugs, which tend to be more expensive and toxic.

• #99 Tuberculosis: PPD Test, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, and Prognosis

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/tuberculosis/article_em.htm

  Multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) is caused by a bacteria that is resistant to at least isoniazid and rifampicin. Prolonged alternative therapy is required to treat this form of TB, often for up to two years. […] Extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB) is rare but extremely problematic. This form of TB is very difficult to treat and often requires prolonged isolation of the individual to protect the community at large. If TB is treated properly and consistently, these resistant forms are much less likely to spread.

• #100 Complete Tuberculosis : Causes, Symptoms, Risk Factors and Treatment

  https://www.apollohospitals.com/health-library/tuberculosis

  Tuberculosis or TB is an infectious disease caused by the bacteria, Mycobacterium tuberculosis. […] Tuberculosis is an infectious disease caused by the bacteria, Mycobacterium tuberculosis also called tubercle bacilli. […] The bacteria primarily infect the lungs, but it can spread via blood or lymphatic systems to most organs such as kidneys, and bones (especially those organs that have rich oxygen supply). […] In patients with HIV infection, the immune system is weak, thus making it more difficult for the body to fight the tubercle bacilli. […] Few patients are resistant to the two most potent TB drugs (isoniazid and rifampin) and are known to have Multi-drug resistant tuberculosis. […] This resistance of mycobacteria develops in cases where the patient does not take proper treatment or failure of treatment is seen. […] In rare cases, few patients are resistant to rifampin and isoniazid, plus any fluoroquinolone along with at least one of the three second-line drugs such as kanamycin, amikacin, or capreomycin. These patients are known to have XDR tuberculosis (Extensively-drug resistant).

• #101 Tuberculosis: PPD Test, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, and Prognosis

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/tuberculosis/article_em.htm

  Multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) is caused by a bacteria that is resistant to at least isoniazid and rifampicin. Prolonged alternative therapy is required to treat this form of TB, often for up to two years. […] Extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB) is rare but extremely problematic. This form of TB is very difficult to treat and often requires prolonged isolation of the individual to protect the community at large. If TB is treated properly and consistently, these resistant forms are much less likely to spread.

• #102 Tuberculosis (TB) – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/mycobacteria/tuberculosis-tb

  The diagnosis of MDR-TB and consequent need to use second-line drugs has great significance in terms of length, cost, and success of treatment. […] Drug resistance is a major concern. It develops through spontaneous genetic mutation. Incomplete, erratic, or single drug therapy and poor adherence select for these resistant organisms. […] The new anti-TB drugs bedaquiline, delamanid, and pretomanid and the fluoroquinolone moxifloxacin are oral drugs highly active against drug-resistant strains using shorter treatment duration than other regimens. […] The cost to patients of DR-TB and its treatment is estimated to be catastrophic in as high as 49% of cases.

• #103 Tuberculosis Overview – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441916/

  Tuberculosis (TB) is a significant global health challenge; the World Health Organization has set an ambitious goal to reduce TB incidence by 90% between 2015 and 2035. […] Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of TB, has plagued humanity for millennia. […] Tuberculosis is a slow-growing organism with a generation time of approximately 20 hours. […] Humans are the only known reservoir of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, although other animals may become infected. […] Members of the Mtb family, also known as the tuberculosis complex, are closely related species capable of causing disease in humans and animals. […] The uniquely high concentration of lipids in the cell wall confers their acid-fast staining property and likely contributes to immunomodulation and virulence. […] Genetic variability exists among isolates worldwide and may confer differences in virulence.

• #104

  https://www.who.int/health-topics/tuberculosis

  TB is caused by bacteria (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) and it most often affects the lungs. […] A person needs to inhale only a few germs to become infected. […] Despite being a preventable and curable disease, 1.5 million people die from TB each year making it the worlds top infectious killer. […] TB is the leading cause of death of people with HIV and also a major contributor to antimicrobial resistance. […] About a quarter of the global population is estimated to have been infected with TB bacteria, but most people will not go on to develop TB disease and some will clear the infection. […] People infected with TB bacteria have a 510% lifetime risk of falling ill with TB. Those with compromised immune systems, such as people living with HIV, malnutrition or diabetes, or people who use tobacco, have a higher risk of falling ill. […] TB disease is curable. […] In some cases the TB bacteria does not respond to the standard drugs. […] In the case of TB infection (where the patient is infected with TB bacteria but not ill), TB preventive treatment can be given to stop the onset of disease.

• #105 Tuberculosis | NIAID: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases

  https://www.niaid.nih.gov/diseases-conditions/tuberculosis

  Tuberculosis (TB) is a contagious disease caused by infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) bacteria. […] TB typically affects the lungs, but it can also affect other parts of the body, including the kidney, spine and brain. […] Individuals with active TB disease, however, are sick and may also be able to transmit the bacteria to others. […] For people with weakened immune systems, such as those living with HIV infection, the risk of developing TB disease is much higher than for those with normal immune systems. […] Both latent TB infection and active TB disease can be treated. […] Without treatment, latent TB infection can progress to TB disease, and without proper treatment, TB disease can kill. […] Tuberculosis is the leading infectious cause of death worldwide. […] Although TB treatment exists, drug resistance is a continued threat. […] Tuberculosis is the second leading infectious cause of death worldwide.

• #106 Tuberculosis (TB) Test, Causes & Risk Factors

  https://www.medicinenet.com/tuberculosis_tb_causes_and_risk_factors/views.htm

  There is a form of atypical tuberculosis, however, that is transmitted by drinking unpasteurized milk. […] When the inhaled tuberculosis bacteria enter the lungs, they can multiply and cause a local lung infection (pneumonia). […] Sometimes, however, the body’s immune system becomes weakened, and the TB bacteria break through the scar tissue and can cause active disease, referred to as reactivation tuberculosis or secondary TB. […] Data from 2011 show that approximately 8.7 million new cases of TB occur each year worldwide, with 1.4 million estimated deaths. […] Anyone can get TB, but certain people are at higher risk, including people who live with individuals who have an active TB infection, poor or homeless people, foreign-born people from countries that have a high prevalence of TB, nursing-home residents and prison inmates, alcoholics and intravenous drug users, people with diabetes, certain cancers, and HIV infection (the AIDS virus), health-care workers.

• #107 What Is Tuberculosis? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/tuberculosis/guide/

  While most people are able to tolerate the drugs well during treatment, TB medication can lead to some complications, as well. […] Even though you may not hear much about tuberculosis, its still a common disease affecting many people around the world. […] About one-quarter of the worlds population is infected with TB, and most cases occur in Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Western Pacific region. […] People living with HIV are up to 18 times more likely to develop TB than people without HIV, notes the WHO. (8) […] The risk of TB is 2 to 3 times greater in people with diabetes, according to the WHO. (19) […] There’s also a risk involved with taking certain biologic drugs used to treat autoimmune inflammatory diseases, such as Crohn’s disease (an inflammatory bowel disease) or rheumatoid arthritis.

• #108

  https://www.who.int/health-topics/tuberculosis

  TB is caused by bacteria (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) and it most often affects the lungs. […] A person needs to inhale only a few germs to become infected. […] Despite being a preventable and curable disease, 1.5 million people die from TB each year making it the worlds top infectious killer. […] TB is the leading cause of death of people with HIV and also a major contributor to antimicrobial resistance. […] About a quarter of the global population is estimated to have been infected with TB bacteria, but most people will not go on to develop TB disease and some will clear the infection. […] People infected with TB bacteria have a 510% lifetime risk of falling ill with TB. Those with compromised immune systems, such as people living with HIV, malnutrition or diabetes, or people who use tobacco, have a higher risk of falling ill. […] TB disease is curable. […] In some cases the TB bacteria does not respond to the standard drugs. […] In the case of TB infection (where the patient is infected with TB bacteria but not ill), TB preventive treatment can be given to stop the onset of disease.

• #109

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/tuberculosis

  TB is the leading cause of death among people with HIV. […] WHO recommends a 12-component approach of collaborative TB-HIV activities, including actions for prevention and treatment of infection and disease, to reduce deaths. […] TB occurs in every part of the world. […] Those with compromised immune systems, such as people living with HIV, undernutrition or diabetes, or people who use tobacco, have a higher risk of falling ill. […] US$ 22 billion are needed annually for TB prevention, diagnosis, treatment and care to achieve global targets by 2027 agreed on at the 2023 UN high level-TB meeting.

• #110

  https://www.who.int/health-topics/tuberculosis

  TB is caused by bacteria (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) and it most often affects the lungs. […] A person needs to inhale only a few germs to become infected. […] Despite being a preventable and curable disease, 1.5 million people die from TB each year making it the worlds top infectious killer. […] TB is the leading cause of death of people with HIV and also a major contributor to antimicrobial resistance. […] About a quarter of the global population is estimated to have been infected with TB bacteria, but most people will not go on to develop TB disease and some will clear the infection. […] People infected with TB bacteria have a 510% lifetime risk of falling ill with TB. Those with compromised immune systems, such as people living with HIV, malnutrition or diabetes, or people who use tobacco, have a higher risk of falling ill. […] TB disease is curable. […] In some cases the TB bacteria does not respond to the standard drugs. […] In the case of TB infection (where the patient is infected with TB bacteria but not ill), TB preventive treatment can be given to stop the onset of disease.

• #111

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/tuberculosis

  TB is the leading cause of death among people with HIV. […] WHO recommends a 12-component approach of collaborative TB-HIV activities, including actions for prevention and treatment of infection and disease, to reduce deaths. […] TB occurs in every part of the world. […] Those with compromised immune systems, such as people living with HIV, undernutrition or diabetes, or people who use tobacco, have a higher risk of falling ill. […] US$ 22 billion are needed annually for TB prevention, diagnosis, treatment and care to achieve global targets by 2027 agreed on at the 2023 UN high level-TB meeting.

• #112 Tuberculosis (TB): Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://patient.info/infections/tuberculosis-leaflet

  TB is more common in people with HIV infection. It may be more difficult to diagnose, because the symptoms and test results may not be typical. Also, treatment can be more complex because the TB medication and the HIV medication can interfere with each other. Specialist advice may be needed. […] TB is both preventable and treatable. It is a tragedy that it remains one of the biggest killers worldwide. Relieving poverty, better nutrition and prompt treatment of TB are the most important ways of reducing TB worldwide. Having the TB vaccination also helps.

• #113 Tuberculosis (TB) – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/mycobacteria/tuberculosis-tb

  The diagnosis of MDR-TB and consequent need to use second-line drugs has great significance in terms of length, cost, and success of treatment. […] Drug resistance is a major concern. It develops through spontaneous genetic mutation. Incomplete, erratic, or single drug therapy and poor adherence select for these resistant organisms. […] The new anti-TB drugs bedaquiline, delamanid, and pretomanid and the fluoroquinolone moxifloxacin are oral drugs highly active against drug-resistant strains using shorter treatment duration than other regimens. […] The cost to patients of DR-TB and its treatment is estimated to be catastrophic in as high as 49% of cases.

• #114 Tuberculosis – Symptoms, Types, Causes, Treatment & Prevention | Healthshots

  https://www.healthshots.com/disease/tuberculosis/

  TB spreads through the air when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks, releasing tiny infectious droplets containing the bacteria. […] People with compromised immune systems, such as those living with HIV/AIDS, malnutrition, or certain chronic diseases like diabetes, are more susceptible to TB infection due to their inability to fight against the bacteria. […] TB thrives in overcrowded and poorly ventilated environments, such as prisons, refugee camps, and homeless shelters. […] Limited access to healthcare services, including diagnostic tools and treatment, contributes to TB prevalence. […] Misuse or incomplete courses of antibiotics can lead to the development of drug-resistant strains of TB. […] While TB is caused by exposure to Mycobacterium bacteria, some risk factors increase your chances of developing this disease:

• #115 Tuberculosis Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment – Cura4U

  https://cura4u.com/conditions/tuberculosis

  Tuberculosis (TB) is a disease caused by bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. […] Tuberculosis (TB): an old disease caused by bacteria (Mycobacterium tuberculosis), is still responsible for more deaths in the world every year than any other infectious disease, including HIV, despite the availability of effective treatment that has existed for over 50 years since the 1940s. […] Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a species of pathogenic bacteria in the family Mycobacteriaceae and thus the primary causative agent of tuberculosis. […] A latent or active TB infection can also be drug-resistant, meaning certain medications dont work against the bacteria.

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