Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Thromboangiitis Obliterans (Buerger Disease): Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology and Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/460027-overview

  Thromboangiitis obliterans (TAO), an inflammatory vasculopathy also known as Buerger disease, is characterized by an inflammatory endarteritis that causes a prothrombotic state and subsequent vaso-occlusive phenomena. The inflammatory process is initiated within the tunica intima. It characteristically affects small and medium-sized arteries as well as veins of the upper and lower extremities. The condition is strongly associated with heavy tobacco use, and disease progression is closely linked to continued use. […] As noted, the development of TAO is strongly associated with heavy use of tobacco, and the progression of the disease is closely linked to continued use. […] A few observations suggest the existence of an immunologic phenomenon leading to vasodysfunction and inflammatory thrombi. Patients with TAO exhibit hypersensitivity to intradermally injected tobacco extracts, increased cellular sensitivity to collagen types I and III, elevated serum antiendothelial cell antibody titers, and impaired peripheral endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation. They also show a higher prevalence of human leukocyte antigen (HLA)A9, HLA-A54, and HLA-B5, suggesting a genetic component to the disease.

• #2 Buerger’s Disease | The Foundation to Advance Vascular Cures

  https://www.vascularcures.org/buergers-disease

  Buergers Disease, also known as Thromboangiitis obliterans (TAO), is a rare disorder characterized by inflammation of the small and medium arteries and veins. […] Instead, TAO is caused by inflammation of the artery wall, along with the development of clots in the small and medium-sized arteries of the arms or legs causing the arteries to become blocked. […] The risk of amputation in TAO patients who stop smoking is much lower.

• #3 Buerger’s Disease (Thromboangiitis Obliterans) among Smokers: A Literature Review

  https://clinmedjournals.org/articles/ijrdd/international-journal-of-rare-diseases-and-disorders-ijrdd-6-050.php?jid=ijrdd

  Buerger’s disease or thromboangiitis obliterans [TAO] is a progressive inflammatory disease that is non atherosclerotic and segmental. […] Despite the etiology and pathophysiology of TAO being still unclear, smoking plays a vital role in the emergence and development of the disease. […] Although etiology of TAO is still unclear, TAO, which attacks the peripheral blood vessels, has a strong relationship with smoking. […] Thromboangiitis obliterans which is an autoimmune vasculitic disease that affects medium and large sized vessels has an unclear etiology, but smoking exposure is considered as the initiation of disease emergence and disease progression. […] Smoking exposure is thought to cause immunological dysfunction and hypersensitivity correlated with increased type-1 and type-3 collagen, impaired vasorelaxation in the endothelium, and increased anti-endothelial cell antibody titers.

• #4 Buerger’s Disease | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/care/surgery/services/vascular-surgery/conditions/arterial-conditions/buergers-disease

  Buerger’s disease, also called throboangitis obliterans, happens when your small blood vessels become swollen, especially the vessels in your hands and feet. […] Most people who are diagnosed with Buerger’s disease use tobacco in some form – cigarettes, cigars, or even chewing tobacco. If you use hand-rolled cigarettes, you may be at greatest risk. Experts suspect that there may also be a genetic and/or immune system component. […] Buerger’s disease can affect people of any age or race, though it mostly happens to Asian and Middle Eastern men who are between the ages of 40 and 45 and who have been heavy tobacco users. It is rare among African Americans. Other risk factors are chronic gum disease, clogged arteries (atherosclerosis), and Raynaud’s phenomenon.

• #5 Thromboangiitis obliterans (Buerger disease) – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/thromboangiitis-obliterans-buerger-disease

  Thromboangiitis obliterans (TAO), also called Buerger disease, is a nonatherosclerotic, segmental, inflammatory disease that most commonly affects the small to medium-sized arteries and veins of the extremities (upper and lower). […] The disease is strongly associated with the use of tobacco products, and smoking cessation is important to decrease the risk for amputation. […] TAO is observed worldwide but is more common in countries where tobacco is heavily used, especially among people who make homemade cigarettes from raw tobacco (sometimes mixed with cannabis). […] Males are more commonly affected than females. Of patients diagnosed with TAO, 70 to 91 percent are male and 11 to 30 percent are female. […] However, there are reports of increasing prevalence of disease in females, possibly due to the increasing use of cigarettes among females.

• #6 Buerger Disease – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/books/NBK430858/

  There is no definitive etiology of Buerger disease, yet tobacco exposure is required for both disease initiation and progression. […] The mechanism of the disease remains a mystery, but it may involve immunologic dysfunction and tobacco hypersensitivity that is associated with enhanced cellular sensitivity to type-1 and type-3 collagen, impaired endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation, and increased anti-endothelial cell antibody titers. […] A genetic link may exist as affected subjects have an increased prevalence of human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-A9, HLA-B5, and HLA-54.

• #7 Thromboangiitis obliterans (Buerger’s disease) | Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases | Full Text

  https://ojrd.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1750-1172-1-14

  Thromboangiitis obliterans or Buerger’s disease is a segmental occlusive inflammatory condition of arteries and veins, characterized by thrombosis and recanalization of the affected vessels. […] The etiology of thromboangiitis obliterans is unknown, but use or exposure to tobacco is central to the initiation and progression of the disease. […] Although the cause of Buerger’s disease remains unknown, a strong association with tobacco use has been established. […] Use or exposure to tobacco plays central role in the initiation and progression of the disease. […] Most investigators feel that Buerger’s disease is an immune-mediated endarteritis. […] The role of hyperhomocysteinemia in the pathogenesis of Buerger’s disease is controversial. […] An association between thrombophilic conditions such as antiphospholipid syndrome and Buerger’s disease has also been suggested.

• #8 Buerger’s Disease (Thromboangiitis Obliterans) among Smokers: A Literature Review

  http://clinmedjournals.org/articles/ijrdd/international-journal-of-rare-diseases-and-disorders-ijrdd-6-050.php?jid=ijrdd

  Buerger’s disease or thromboangiitis obliterans [TAO] is a progressive inflammatory disease that is non atherosclerotic and segmental. […] Despite the etiology and pathophysiology of TAO being still unclear, smoking plays a vital role in the emergence and development of the disease. […] Although etiology of TAO is still unclear, TAO, which attacks the peripheral blood vessels, has a strong relationship with smoking. […] Thromboangiitis obliterans which is an autoimmune vasculitic disease that affects medium and large sized vessels has an unclear etiology, but smoking exposure is considered as the initiation of disease emergence and disease progression. […] Smoking exposure is thought to cause immunological dysfunction and hypersensitivity correlated with increased type-1 and type-3 collagen, impaired vasorelaxation in the endothelium, and increased anti-endothelial cell antibody titers.

• #9 Buerger’s Disease: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21680-buergers-disease

  Buergers disease (thromboangiitis obliterans) is a rare disease most often found in those who smoke. […] The cause of Buergers disease isnt known, but scientists think something in tobacco hurts the lining in your blood vessels. Most people with Buergers disease use tobacco. […] Your genes may make you more likely to get Buergers disease. Some scientists think its an autoimmune disease.

• #10 Buerger’s Disease: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatments

  https://www.healthline.com/health/thromboangiitis-obliterans

  Buergers disease is a disease that can cause inflammation of blood vessels in the hands and feet. Using tobacco increases your risk of developing it and the likelihood of serious complications. […] The specific cause of Buergers disease remains unknown. But the risk of developing Buergers disease increases when you smoke heavily. […] According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), certain chemicals in tobacco may irritate the lining of the blood vessels and cause inflammation. This can prevent blood flow and lead to blood clots. […] Almost everyone with Buergers disease uses tobacco in some form. […] There may be a genetic component to Buergers disease. […] Buergers disease can cause inflammation of small- and medium-sized blood vessels, which can lead to blood clots and other complications. It typically occurs in people who use tobacco.

• #11 Buerger’s Disease : Johns Hopkins Vasculitis Center

  https://www.hopkinsvasculitis.org/types-vasculitis/buergers-disease/

  The association of Buergers Disease with tobacco use, particularly cigarette smoking, cannot be overemphasized. Most patients with Buergers are heavy smokers, but some cases occur in patients who smoke moderately; others have been reported in users of smokeless tobacco. It has been postulated that Buergers Disease is an autoimmune reaction (one in which the bodys immune system attacks the bodys own tissues) triggered by some constituent of tobacco. […] The only way to prevent the progression of the disease is to abstain from all tobacco products.

• #12 Buerger’s disease Causes, Symptoms, and Treatments

  https://www.upmc.com/services/heart-vascular/conditions/buergers-disease

  Buerger’s disease also called thromboangiitis obliterans is a rare vascular disease associated with smoking and tobacco use. […] Tobacco use greatly increases the risk of Buerger’s disease. It is believed that the chemicals in tobacco irritate the lining of your blood vessels and cause them to swell. […] Buerger’s disease is most common among young and middle-aged men who are heavy smokers. Those who smoke more than a pack and a half a day are most at risk for Buerger’s disease.

• #13 Buergers Disease – Vasculitis UK

  https://www.vasculitis.org.uk/about-vasculitis/buergers-disease

  Use of tobacco, particularly cigarette smoking, is the overwhelming factor predisposing to a diagnosis of Buergers Disease. […] The majority of patients are heavy smokers, although some cases have been reported in moderate smokers and even in patients using chewing tobacco or other forms of tobacco that are not smoked. […] It is thought that this disease is triggered by some constituent of tobacco.

• #14 Smoking and Buerger’s Disease | Overviews of Diseases/Conditions | Tips From Former Smokers | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/campaign/tips/diseases/buergers-disease.html

  Buergers disease (also known as thromboangiitis obliterans) affects blood vessels in the body, most commonly in the arms and legs. Blood vessels swell, which can prevent blood flow, causing clots to form. This can lead to pain, tissue damage, and even gangrene (the death or decay of body tissues). The exact cause of Buergers disease is unknown, however tobacco use is strongly linked to its development. Researchers believe that chemicals in tobacco may irritate the lining of the blood vessels, causing them to swell. Almost everyone diagnosed with Buergers disease smokes cigarettes or uses other forms of tobacco, such as cigars and chewing tobacco. If you want to prevent getting Buergers disease, dont smoke cigarettes or use any other tobacco products. […] There is no cure for Buergers disease. The only way to keep Buergers disease from getting worse is to stop using all tobacco products.

• #15 Buerger’s Disease: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatments

  https://www.healthline.com/health/thromboangiitis-obliterans

  Buergers disease is a disease that can cause inflammation of blood vessels in the hands and feet. Using tobacco increases your risk of developing it and the likelihood of serious complications. […] The specific cause of Buergers disease remains unknown. But the risk of developing Buergers disease increases when you smoke heavily. […] According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), certain chemicals in tobacco may irritate the lining of the blood vessels and cause inflammation. This can prevent blood flow and lead to blood clots. […] Almost everyone with Buergers disease uses tobacco in some form. […] There may be a genetic component to Buergers disease. […] Buergers disease can cause inflammation of small- and medium-sized blood vessels, which can lead to blood clots and other complications. It typically occurs in people who use tobacco.

• #16 Buerger’s Disease (Thromboangiitis Obliterans) among Smokers: A Literature Review

  https://clinmedjournals.org/articles/ijrdd/international-journal-of-rare-diseases-and-disorders-ijrdd-6-050.php?jid=ijrdd

  Apart from exposure to cigarettes, there are other etiologies that may be related to the occurrence of this disease, such as genetic factors due to increased amount of human leukocyte antigens (HLA-54, HLA-A9, and HLA-B5), hypercoagulability, infection, and immunological mechanisms, although this is still limited. […] From several existing pathophysiology, smoking has been found to play a central role in the pathophysiology and incidence of TAO. […] Smoking can cause an inflammatory response through increased levels of neutrophil elastase (NE) and reactive oxygen intermediates (ROIs) which cause tissue damage. […] Smoking can also damage vascular walls, resulting in impaired prostacyclin production and increased interactions between blood vessel walls and platelets. […] Smoking has become a risk factor for the occurrence of TAO, several existing diagnostic criteria include smoking or smoking history as one of the points in assisting the diagnosis of TAO. […] Thromboangiitis obliterans is an inflammatory disease with no identifiable cause and is closely related to smoking and use of tobacco products.

• #17 Smoking and Buerger’s Disease | Overviews of Diseases/Conditions | Tips From Former Smokers | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/campaign/tips/diseases/buergers-disease.html

  Buergers disease (also known as thromboangiitis obliterans) affects blood vessels in the body, most commonly in the arms and legs. Blood vessels swell, which can prevent blood flow, causing clots to form. This can lead to pain, tissue damage, and even gangrene (the death or decay of body tissues). The exact cause of Buergers disease is unknown, however tobacco use is strongly linked to its development. Researchers believe that chemicals in tobacco may irritate the lining of the blood vessels, causing them to swell. Almost everyone diagnosed with Buergers disease smokes cigarettes or uses other forms of tobacco, such as cigars and chewing tobacco. If you want to prevent getting Buergers disease, dont smoke cigarettes or use any other tobacco products. […] There is no cure for Buergers disease. The only way to keep Buergers disease from getting worse is to stop using all tobacco products.

• #18 Buerger’s disease: Overview, symptoms, and more

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/buergers-disease

  Buergers disease restricts blood flow in the small and medium arteries. The exact cause is unclear, but tobacco use has strong links to the condition. […] The main risk factor for Buergers disease is tobacco use. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), almost every person who experiences Buergers disease uses some form of tobacco product. […] This is because tobacco contains chemicals that irritate the lining of the blood vessels, causing inflammation. The inflammation directly restricts blood flow by narrowing the vessels and can cause clots to form. […] Buergers disease is a condition that is likely to result from chewing or smoking tobacco. Chemicals from tobacco cause inflammation in the lining of the small and medium arteries, causing them to restrict blood flow. This can also cause clots to develop, resulting in tissue death or damage in the limbs.

• #19 Buerger disease | UM Health-Sparrow

  https://www.uofmhealthsparrow.org/departments-conditions/conditions/buerger-disease

  The exact cause of Buerger disease is unknown. The condition is strongly linked to tobacco use. It’s thought that chemicals in tobacco may hurt the lining of the blood vessels. […] Experts think that some people have genes that make them more likely to get Buerger disease. It’s also possible that the disease occurs when the body’s immune system attacks healthy tissue by mistake.

• #20 Thromboangiitis Obliterans (Buerger Disease): Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology and Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/460027-overview

  Thromboangiitis obliterans (TAO), an inflammatory vasculopathy also known as Buerger disease, is characterized by an inflammatory endarteritis that causes a prothrombotic state and subsequent vaso-occlusive phenomena. The inflammatory process is initiated within the tunica intima. It characteristically affects small and medium-sized arteries as well as veins of the upper and lower extremities. The condition is strongly associated with heavy tobacco use, and disease progression is closely linked to continued use. […] As noted, the development of TAO is strongly associated with heavy use of tobacco, and the progression of the disease is closely linked to continued use. […] A few observations suggest the existence of an immunologic phenomenon leading to vasodysfunction and inflammatory thrombi. Patients with TAO exhibit hypersensitivity to intradermally injected tobacco extracts, increased cellular sensitivity to collagen types I and III, elevated serum antiendothelial cell antibody titers, and impaired peripheral endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation. They also show a higher prevalence of human leukocyte antigen (HLA)A9, HLA-A54, and HLA-B5, suggesting a genetic component to the disease.

• #21 Thromboangiitis obliterans – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thromboangiitis_obliterans

  Thromboangiitis obliterans, also known as Buerger disease, is a recurring progressive inflammation and thrombosis (clotting) of small and medium arteries and veins of the hands and feet. It is strongly associated with use of tobacco products, primarily from smoking, but is also associated with smokeless tobacco. […] The mechanisms underlying Buerger’s disease are still largely unknown, but smoking and tobacco consumption are major factors associated with it. It has been suggested that the tobacco may trigger an immune response in susceptible persons or it may unmask a clotting defect, either of which could incite an inflammatory reaction of the vessel wall. […] The cause of the disease is thought to be autoimmune in nature and heavily linked to tobacco use in patients with Buerger’s as primary disease.

• #22 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Buergere28099s-Disease.aspx

  Buerger’s disease, also known as thromboangiitis obliterans, is a rare condition that primarily affects young to middle-aged male smokers. […] Despite its significant link to tobacco use, little is known about the disease’s overall pathogenesis. […] The actual cause of Buerger’s disease is yet to be identified. Tobacco usage, on the other hand, has been linked to the development of the illness. Most researchers feel that using tobacco products in the past or present is a necessity for diagnosing Buerger’s illness. The precise association between tobacco products and Buerger’s illness is unknown. […] Buerger’s illness is thought to be an autoimmune disorder by some scientists. […] Because the prevalence of Buerger’s illness varies greatly between ethnic groups, genetic factors may play a role in its development or severity. […] Buerger’s disease is an unidentified medical ailment that is intrinsically associated with cigarette consumption.

• #23 Buerger Disease – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/books/NBK430858/

  There is no definitive etiology of Buerger disease, yet tobacco exposure is required for both disease initiation and progression. […] The mechanism of the disease remains a mystery, but it may involve immunologic dysfunction and tobacco hypersensitivity that is associated with enhanced cellular sensitivity to type-1 and type-3 collagen, impaired endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation, and increased anti-endothelial cell antibody titers. […] A genetic link may exist as affected subjects have an increased prevalence of human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-A9, HLA-B5, and HLA-54.

• #24 Buerger’s disease pathophysiology – wikidoc

  https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Buerger%27s_disease_pathophysiology

  Buerger’s disease or thromboangiitis obliterans is a segmental vascular disease that causes occlusion and inflammation of the small and medium-sized vessels. […] The development of Buerger’s disease may be the result of an immunologic phenomenon that leads to vascular dysfunction and the development of inflammatory thrombi. […] Patients with Buerger’s disease have been identified to have a hypersensitivity against tobacco extracts that are injected intradermally. […] Evidence has demonstrated that upon exposure to tobacco there is an increased cellular response against collagen type I and III with increased levels of circulating anti-endothelial cell antibody. […] This increased cellular sensitivity leads to an impaired relaxation mechanism of the peripheral vessels. […] Cytokines are also thought to be produced in large quantities and may lead to the activation of inflammatory signals.

• #25 Buerger’s disease – Humanitas.net

  https://www.humanitas.net/diseases/buergers-disease/

  Buergers disease is a severe inflammation of small arteries in the hands and legs caused by smoking. […] The cause of Buergers disease is unknown, but it is considered that people genetically prone to this diseases cause autoimmune reaction by smoking, when the immune system produces antibodies that attack their own tissues. Thus, inflammation of leg arteries occurs, sometimes affecting the hands, which leads to reduced blood supply to the corresponding tissues.

• #26 Thromboangiitis Obliterans (Buerger Disease): Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology and Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/460027-overview

  Thromboangiitis obliterans (TAO), an inflammatory vasculopathy also known as Buerger disease, is characterized by an inflammatory endarteritis that causes a prothrombotic state and subsequent vaso-occlusive phenomena. The inflammatory process is initiated within the tunica intima. It characteristically affects small and medium-sized arteries as well as veins of the upper and lower extremities. The condition is strongly associated with heavy tobacco use, and disease progression is closely linked to continued use. […] As noted, the development of TAO is strongly associated with heavy use of tobacco, and the progression of the disease is closely linked to continued use. […] A few observations suggest the existence of an immunologic phenomenon leading to vasodysfunction and inflammatory thrombi. Patients with TAO exhibit hypersensitivity to intradermally injected tobacco extracts, increased cellular sensitivity to collagen types I and III, elevated serum antiendothelial cell antibody titers, and impaired peripheral endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation. They also show a higher prevalence of human leukocyte antigen (HLA)A9, HLA-A54, and HLA-B5, suggesting a genetic component to the disease.

• #27 Buerger Disease – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/books/NBK430858/

  There is no definitive etiology of Buerger disease, yet tobacco exposure is required for both disease initiation and progression. […] The mechanism of the disease remains a mystery, but it may involve immunologic dysfunction and tobacco hypersensitivity that is associated with enhanced cellular sensitivity to type-1 and type-3 collagen, impaired endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation, and increased anti-endothelial cell antibody titers. […] A genetic link may exist as affected subjects have an increased prevalence of human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-A9, HLA-B5, and HLA-54.

• #28 Etiology and Pathogenesis of Buerger’s Disease | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/1155446

  Certain dietary factors have been associated with the occurrence of Buergers disease. […] Smoking has been recognized as a primary causative factor in Buergers disease. […] Workers, peasants, and soldiers accounted for the highest proportion of the number of patients. […] Initially, the disease was believed to predominantly affect Jews, leading to the term Jewish disease. […] Some scholars were tested for various HLA antigens. They found that the incidence of HLA-A9 and HLA-B5 was significantly greater among those with Buergers disease than healthy controls and patients with atherosclerosis.

• #29 Buerger Disease | Treatment & Management | Point of Care

  https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/18685

  There is no definitive etiology of Buerger disease, yet tobacco exposure is required for both disease initiation and progression. The mechanism of the disease remains a mystery, but it may involve immunologic dysfunction and tobacco hypersensitivity that is associated with enhanced cellular sensitivity to type-1 and type-3 collagen, impaired endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation, and increased anti-endothelial cell antibody titers. A genetic link may exist as affected subjects have an increased prevalence of human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-A9, HLA-B5, and HLA-54. […] The prevalence of Buerger disease has diminished over the past 5 years because of decreased smoking and adherence to more stringent diagnostic criteria. The highest incidence occurs in Israeli Jews of Ashkenazi descent and natives of Indian, Korean, and Japanese ancestry. It is less frequent in subjects of northern European descent. […] An evident dichotomy is seen in the prognosis of patients with Buerger disease, which depends on whether complete avoidance of tobacco is gained.

• #30 Thromboangiitis Obliterans (Buerger Disease) | Concise Medical Knowledge

  https://www.lecturio.com/concepts/thromboangiitis-obliterans-buergers-disease/

  Thromboangiitis obliterans (TAO) is most prevalent in regions and countries with heavy tobacco use. […] Tobacco use is seen in all patients with TAO: Heavy cigarette smokers (most common), cigar smokers, marijuana users (cannabis arteritis), smokeless tobacco users (chewing tobacco and snuff). […] Potential genetic predisposition: HLA-A9, HLA-B5, HLA-A54.

• #31 :: IC :: Infection & Chemotherapy

  https://icjournal.org/DOIx.php?id=10.3947/ic.2021.0146

  Buergers disease (BD) is a chronic inflammatory vasculitis of unknown etiology. The infectious etiology of BD was proposed by Buerger in 1914. Furthermore, there are scattered reports insisting that BD may be related to rickettsial infection, first asserted by Goodman since 1916, followed by Giroud and other French investigators from the 1940s through the 1960s, Nicolau in the 1960s, Bartolo (1980s), and Fazeli (2010s). However, their causal relationship has hardly been accepted because rickettsial infections are known to be acute febrile, vector-borne illnesses, whereas BD is a chronic afebrile illness. […] Based on these findings, we hypothesize that BD patients acquired a rickettsial infection far before the onset of BD. Over years, the infected area expands to become a segment of the infected vessel. Subsequently, thrombus develops on the luminal surface of the infected endothelial cells, which produces the vascular obstructive manifestations of BD. Collectively, it is postulated that BD is a chronic infection with a member of the family Rickettsiaceae with superimposed thrombosis.

• #32 :: IC :: Infection & Chemotherapy

  https://icjournal.org/DOIx.php?id=10.3947/ic.2021.0146

  Although several hypotheses on the cause of BD have been proposed, including tobacco smoking, hypersensitivity to tobacco ingredients, ergotism, immune mechanism, infection, familial or heredity, race, hypercoagulability, endocrine abnormality, exposure to cold, trauma, and stress, its exact etiology is still not yet established. […] As for the infectious etiology of BD, Buerger and Allen and Brown proposed that BD might be an infectious disease, mainly based on pathological findings; however, no specific organism was identified at that time. […] Allen and Lauderdale reported a case of BD possibly transmitted from human to human. […] Recently, Iwai et al. reported a relationship between periodontal infections and BD. They detected elevated IgG antibodies to periodontal bacteria and confirmed the presence of oral bacterial DNA in thrombi obtained from BD patients.

• #33 :: IC :: Infection & Chemotherapy

  https://icjournal.org/DOIx.php?id=10.3947/ic.2021.0146

  Several investigators insisted that BD was not an infectious disease because BD was rare in women and there was no infectious disease showing such male predominance; however, this hypothesis is proven faulty as the prevalence of smoking and BD in women was observed to increase. […] In this section, we briefly introduce and summarize the studies on cases affected by both BD and rickettsial infection and on therapy that may be related to rickettsial infection. […] Charles Goodman had convinced since 1916 that BD and typhus were etiologically related, based on epidemiologic findings and rickettsial serologic and skin tests. […] The intradermal test to R. prowazekii is positive in most of the patients with BD. […] Rickettsia DNA is identified in amputated limb tissues obtained from a BD patient.

• #34 :: IC :: Infection & Chemotherapy

  https://icjournal.org/DOIx.php?id=10.3947/ic.2021.0146

  Based on the above findings, we hypothesize the pathogenesis of BD as follows. BD patients acquired a rickettsial infection far before the onset of BD, and the rickettsiae infected endothelial cells of systemic vasculature in a scattered localized pattern, proliferated slowly, and were released to infect neighboring endothelial cells.

• #35 Thromboangiitis obliterans: MedlinePlus Medical EncyclopediaLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000172.htm

  Thromboangiitis obliterans (Buerger disease) causes small blood vessels to become inflamed and swollen. The blood vessels then narrow or get blocked by blood clots (thrombosis). Blood vessels of the hands and feet are mostly affected. Arteries are more affected than veins. Average age when symptoms begin is around 35. Women and older adults are affected less often. […] This condition mostly affects men ages 20 to 45 who are heavy smokers or chew tobacco. Female smokers may also be affected. The condition affects more people in the Middle East, Asia, the Mediterranean, and Eastern Europe. Many people with this problem have poor dental health, most likely due to tobacco use.

• #36 Etiology and Pathogenesis of Buerger’s Disease | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/1155446

  This chapter delves into the multifaceted etiology of Buergers disease, also known as thromboangiitis obliterans (TAO), exploring a spectrum of factors contributing to its onset and the initiation of vascular inflammation. […] The etiology of Buergers disease can be attributed to several factors. Here is a summary of the potential causes identified: […] The onset of Buergers disease commonly occurs between the ages of 20 and 40, with a majority of cases (84%) falling within this range in our 876 case statistic. […] In our analyzed cases, the majority of patients were men, accounting for 99%. […] A significant number of patients had a history of exposure to cold temperatures and humidity before the onset of Buergers disease. […] While the role of trauma in the development of Buergers disease requires further clarification, approximately 29% of the patients in the analyzed 876 cases had a history of trauma.

• #37 Thromboangiitis obliterans (Buerger disease) – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/thromboangiitis-obliterans-buerger-disease

  Thromboangiitis obliterans (TAO), also called Buerger disease, is a nonatherosclerotic, segmental, inflammatory disease that most commonly affects the small to medium-sized arteries and veins of the extremities (upper and lower). […] The disease is strongly associated with the use of tobacco products, and smoking cessation is important to decrease the risk for amputation. […] TAO is observed worldwide but is more common in countries where tobacco is heavily used, especially among people who make homemade cigarettes from raw tobacco (sometimes mixed with cannabis). […] Males are more commonly affected than females. Of patients diagnosed with TAO, 70 to 91 percent are male and 11 to 30 percent are female. […] However, there are reports of increasing prevalence of disease in females, possibly due to the increasing use of cigarettes among females.

• #38 Buerger’s Disease | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/care/surgery/services/vascular-surgery/conditions/arterial-conditions/buergers-disease

  Buerger’s disease, also called throboangitis obliterans, happens when your small blood vessels become swollen, especially the vessels in your hands and feet. […] Most people who are diagnosed with Buerger’s disease use tobacco in some form – cigarettes, cigars, or even chewing tobacco. If you use hand-rolled cigarettes, you may be at greatest risk. Experts suspect that there may also be a genetic and/or immune system component. […] Buerger’s disease can affect people of any age or race, though it mostly happens to Asian and Middle Eastern men who are between the ages of 40 and 45 and who have been heavy tobacco users. It is rare among African Americans. Other risk factors are chronic gum disease, clogged arteries (atherosclerosis), and Raynaud’s phenomenon.

• #39 Buerger Disease | Treatment & Management | Point of Care

  https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/18685

  There is no definitive etiology of Buerger disease, yet tobacco exposure is required for both disease initiation and progression. The mechanism of the disease remains a mystery, but it may involve immunologic dysfunction and tobacco hypersensitivity that is associated with enhanced cellular sensitivity to type-1 and type-3 collagen, impaired endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation, and increased anti-endothelial cell antibody titers. A genetic link may exist as affected subjects have an increased prevalence of human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-A9, HLA-B5, and HLA-54. […] The prevalence of Buerger disease has diminished over the past 5 years because of decreased smoking and adherence to more stringent diagnostic criteria. The highest incidence occurs in Israeli Jews of Ashkenazi descent and natives of Indian, Korean, and Japanese ancestry. It is less frequent in subjects of northern European descent. […] An evident dichotomy is seen in the prognosis of patients with Buerger disease, which depends on whether complete avoidance of tobacco is gained.

• #40 Thromboangiitis obliterans (Buerger disease) – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/thromboangiitis-obliterans-buerger-disease

  Thromboangiitis obliterans (TAO), also called Buerger disease, is a nonatherosclerotic, segmental, inflammatory disease that most commonly affects the small to medium-sized arteries and veins of the extremities (upper and lower). […] The disease is strongly associated with the use of tobacco products, and smoking cessation is important to decrease the risk for amputation. […] TAO is observed worldwide but is more common in countries where tobacco is heavily used, especially among people who make homemade cigarettes from raw tobacco (sometimes mixed with cannabis). […] Males are more commonly affected than females. Of patients diagnosed with TAO, 70 to 91 percent are male and 11 to 30 percent are female. […] However, there are reports of increasing prevalence of disease in females, possibly due to the increasing use of cigarettes among females.

• #41 Buerger’s Disease – Causes Symptoms Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://www.medindia.net/health/conditions/buergers-disease.htm

  Buerger’s disease or thromboangiitis obliterans is a condition characterized by inflammation and clot formation in the small and medium-sized blood vessels including arteries and veins. […] Though several mechanisms have been suggested, the exact cause of Buergers disease is not known. Smoking is considered as the most important risk factor of Buergers disease. Buergers disease particularly affects those who smoke more than one and a half packs a day. Other forms of tobacco like chewing tobacco have also been associated with Buerger’s disease. […] Other risk factors for Buergers disease include: It is more common in males. However, the increased incidence of Buergers disease in women in the recent years may be reflective of more women taking up smoking. Younger age group between 20 and 40 years. Asians and people of East European descent.

• #42 Etiology and Pathogenesis of Buerger’s Disease | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/1155446

  This chapter delves into the multifaceted etiology of Buergers disease, also known as thromboangiitis obliterans (TAO), exploring a spectrum of factors contributing to its onset and the initiation of vascular inflammation. […] The etiology of Buergers disease can be attributed to several factors. Here is a summary of the potential causes identified: […] The onset of Buergers disease commonly occurs between the ages of 20 and 40, with a majority of cases (84%) falling within this range in our 876 case statistic. […] In our analyzed cases, the majority of patients were men, accounting for 99%. […] A significant number of patients had a history of exposure to cold temperatures and humidity before the onset of Buergers disease. […] While the role of trauma in the development of Buergers disease requires further clarification, approximately 29% of the patients in the analyzed 876 cases had a history of trauma.

• #43 Etiology and Pathogenesis of Buerger’s Disease | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/1155446

  Certain dietary factors have been associated with the occurrence of Buergers disease. […] Smoking has been recognized as a primary causative factor in Buergers disease. […] Workers, peasants, and soldiers accounted for the highest proportion of the number of patients. […] Initially, the disease was believed to predominantly affect Jews, leading to the term Jewish disease. […] Some scholars were tested for various HLA antigens. They found that the incidence of HLA-A9 and HLA-B5 was significantly greater among those with Buergers disease than healthy controls and patients with atherosclerosis.

• #44 Thromboangiitis obliterans (Buerger Disease)

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/thromboangiitis-obliterans

  Thromboangiitis obliterans is a smoking-related condition that results in blood clot formation (thrombosis) in small and medium-sized arteries, and less commonly veins. […] Thromboangiitis obliterans occurs almost exclusively in smokers. […] The cause of thromboangiitis obliterans is not fully understood but it is probable that the smoking triggers thrombosis in the blood vessels, leading to a lack of oxygen and nutrients to the affected tissue. […] In some cases, thromboangiitis obliterans has been associated with chronic arsenic poisoning.

• #45 What is Buerger’s Disease? Symptoms, Causes & Diagnosis

  https://www.bajajallianz.com/blog/wellness/buergers-disease-symptoms-and-treatment.html

  Buerger’s disease, also known as thromboangiitis obliterans, is a rare condition affecting the blood vessels in the arms and legs. […] The exact causes of Buergers disease remain unknown, but research highlights several contributing factors: […] Tobacco use: Cigarette smoking or chewing tobacco is the most significant risk factor. Chemicals in tobacco trigger inflammation and clot formation. […] Genetic predisposition: A family history of vascular diseases may increase susceptibility. […] Immune system response: Abnormal immune responses may also contribute to inflammation in blood vessels. […] Environmental factors: Exposure to cold weather or stress may exacerbate symptoms. […] Smoking triggers inflammation and clot formation in blood vessels, significantly worsening Buerger’s disease symptoms and progression.

• #46 Thromboangiitis obliterans (Buerger’s disease) | Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases | Full Text

  https://ojrd.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1750-1172-1-14

  Thromboangiitis obliterans or Buerger’s disease is a segmental occlusive inflammatory condition of arteries and veins, characterized by thrombosis and recanalization of the affected vessels. […] The etiology of thromboangiitis obliterans is unknown, but use or exposure to tobacco is central to the initiation and progression of the disease. […] Although the cause of Buerger’s disease remains unknown, a strong association with tobacco use has been established. […] Use or exposure to tobacco plays central role in the initiation and progression of the disease. […] Most investigators feel that Buerger’s disease is an immune-mediated endarteritis. […] The role of hyperhomocysteinemia in the pathogenesis of Buerger’s disease is controversial. […] An association between thrombophilic conditions such as antiphospholipid syndrome and Buerger’s disease has also been suggested.

• #47 Buerger’s Disease | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/care/surgery/services/vascular-surgery/conditions/arterial-conditions/buergers-disease

  Buerger’s disease, also called throboangitis obliterans, happens when your small blood vessels become swollen, especially the vessels in your hands and feet. […] Most people who are diagnosed with Buerger’s disease use tobacco in some form – cigarettes, cigars, or even chewing tobacco. If you use hand-rolled cigarettes, you may be at greatest risk. Experts suspect that there may also be a genetic and/or immune system component. […] Buerger’s disease can affect people of any age or race, though it mostly happens to Asian and Middle Eastern men who are between the ages of 40 and 45 and who have been heavy tobacco users. It is rare among African Americans. Other risk factors are chronic gum disease, clogged arteries (atherosclerosis), and Raynaud’s phenomenon.

• #48 Buerger’s Disease: Symptoms and Treatment | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/buergers-disease-pro

  Buerger’s disease is a chronic disease characterised by segmental inflammation and thrombosis of the small- and medium-sized arteries and veins of the peripheral upper and lower limbs. […] The aetiology is unknown but the use of tobacco is the key factor in the development and progression of the disease. […] In addition to smoking, male gender, genetic factors, infectious agents and deprivation have all been suggested as possible trigger factors. […] The association of Buerger’s disease with tobacco use, particularly cigarette smoking, cannot be overemphasised. Most patients with Buerger’s disease are heavy smokers but some cases occur in patients who smoke 'moderately’. […] The disease is progressive in patients who do not stop smoking. The only way to prevent the progression of the disease is to abstain from all tobacco products.

• #49 Thromboangiitis Obliterans (Buerger Disease): Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology and Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/460027-overview

  Thromboangiitis obliterans (TAO), an inflammatory vasculopathy also known as Buerger disease, is characterized by an inflammatory endarteritis that causes a prothrombotic state and subsequent vaso-occlusive phenomena. The inflammatory process is initiated within the tunica intima. It characteristically affects small and medium-sized arteries as well as veins of the upper and lower extremities. The condition is strongly associated with heavy tobacco use, and disease progression is closely linked to continued use. […] As noted, the development of TAO is strongly associated with heavy use of tobacco, and the progression of the disease is closely linked to continued use. […] A few observations suggest the existence of an immunologic phenomenon leading to vasodysfunction and inflammatory thrombi. Patients with TAO exhibit hypersensitivity to intradermally injected tobacco extracts, increased cellular sensitivity to collagen types I and III, elevated serum antiendothelial cell antibody titers, and impaired peripheral endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation. They also show a higher prevalence of human leukocyte antigen (HLA)A9, HLA-A54, and HLA-B5, suggesting a genetic component to the disease.

• #50 Buerger’s Disease | The Foundation to Advance Vascular Cures

  https://www.vascularcures.org/buergers-disease

  Buergers Disease, also known as Thromboangiitis obliterans (TAO), is a rare disorder characterized by inflammation of the small and medium arteries and veins. […] Instead, TAO is caused by inflammation of the artery wall, along with the development of clots in the small and medium-sized arteries of the arms or legs causing the arteries to become blocked. […] The risk of amputation in TAO patients who stop smoking is much lower.

• #51 Buerger disease | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/buerger-disease?lang=us

  Buerger disease, also known as thromboangiitis obliterans, is a chronic, non-atherosclerotic, inflammatory, thrombotic arteritis found predominantly in young male smokers. […] A biopsy is often necessary to make the diagnosis because the imaging appearance and symptoms overlap with those of atherosclerosis and other connective tissue diseases. […] Although it more commonly affects medium and small vessels of the lower extremities, upper extremity involvement may also be seen. Venous involvement can be seen in 25% of cases. […] Corkscrew collateral vessels are not, however, pathognomonic for Buerger disease as they may be seen in patients with connective tissue disease.

• #52 Thromboangiitis obliterans (Buerger´s disease) | STROKE MANUAL

  https://www.stroke-manual.com/thromboangiitis-obliterans-buerger-disease/

  the exact cause and pathogenesis remain unclear […] there is strong evidence indicating that smoking is a major contributor […] an inflammatory process with granulomas occurs in peripheral small and medium-sized arteries and veins […] elevated pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and various kinds of autoantibodies have been identified in patients with TAO (Kaiser, 2021) […] this extensive stenotic process and thrombosis lead to limb ischemia.

• #53 Thromboangiitis obliterans – Knowledge @ AMBOSS

  https://www.amboss.com/us/knowledge/thromboangiitis-obliterans/

  The exact etiology of TAO is unknown. Tobacco consumption is the single most important risk factor for TAO. […] Tobacco exposure causes inflammation of the tunica intima, with the formation of a highly cellular thrombus that occludes the affected vessel.

• #54 Buerger disease – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/buergers-disease/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20350664

  There’s no cure for Buerger disease. The only proven treatment for Buerger disease is to quit using all tobacco products. Even one cigarette a day can make the disease worse. This includes using electronic cigarettes, vaping and using marijuana. […] Buerger disease causes a severe lack of blood flow, which can damage skin tissue or cause it to die. Surgery may be needed to remove an arm or leg that’s infected or has dead tissue. This surgery is called amputation.

• #55

  https://www.orthobullets.com/hand/6099/thromboangiitis-obliterans-buergers-disease

  A nonatherosclerotic, segmental, inflammatory disease in the small and medium-sized vessels of the hands and feet occurs predominantly in smokers. […] Inflammation and clotting of the small vessels of hands and feet. […] Smoking cessation is the only treatment known to decrease the risk of future amputation. […] 94% who quit smoking avoid amputation. […] 43% chance of amputation within 8 years if smoking is continued.

• #56 Buerger disease – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/buergers-disease/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20350664

  There’s no cure for Buerger disease. The only proven treatment for Buerger disease is to quit using all tobacco products. Even one cigarette a day can make the disease worse. This includes using electronic cigarettes, vaping and using marijuana. […] Buerger disease causes a severe lack of blood flow, which can damage skin tissue or cause it to die. Surgery may be needed to remove an arm or leg that’s infected or has dead tissue. This surgery is called amputation.

• #57 Buerger’s Disease : Johns Hopkins Vasculitis Center

  https://www.hopkinsvasculitis.org/types-vasculitis/buergers-disease/

  The association of Buergers Disease with tobacco use, particularly cigarette smoking, cannot be overemphasized. Most patients with Buergers are heavy smokers, but some cases occur in patients who smoke moderately; others have been reported in users of smokeless tobacco. It has been postulated that Buergers Disease is an autoimmune reaction (one in which the bodys immune system attacks the bodys own tissues) triggered by some constituent of tobacco. […] The only way to prevent the progression of the disease is to abstain from all tobacco products.

• #58 Smoking and Buerger’s Disease | Overviews of Diseases/Conditions | Tips From Former Smokers | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/campaign/tips/diseases/buergers-disease.html

  Buergers disease (also known as thromboangiitis obliterans) affects blood vessels in the body, most commonly in the arms and legs. Blood vessels swell, which can prevent blood flow, causing clots to form. This can lead to pain, tissue damage, and even gangrene (the death or decay of body tissues). The exact cause of Buergers disease is unknown, however tobacco use is strongly linked to its development. Researchers believe that chemicals in tobacco may irritate the lining of the blood vessels, causing them to swell. Almost everyone diagnosed with Buergers disease smokes cigarettes or uses other forms of tobacco, such as cigars and chewing tobacco. If you want to prevent getting Buergers disease, dont smoke cigarettes or use any other tobacco products. […] There is no cure for Buergers disease. The only way to keep Buergers disease from getting worse is to stop using all tobacco products.

• #59

  https://www.orthobullets.com/hand/6099/thromboangiitis-obliterans-buergers-disease

  A nonatherosclerotic, segmental, inflammatory disease in the small and medium-sized vessels of the hands and feet occurs predominantly in smokers. […] Inflammation and clotting of the small vessels of hands and feet. […] Smoking cessation is the only treatment known to decrease the risk of future amputation. […] 94% who quit smoking avoid amputation. […] 43% chance of amputation within 8 years if smoking is continued.

• #60 Buerger’s Disease | Vascular Center | UC Davis Health

  https://health.ucdavis.edu/vascular/diseases/buergers_disease.html

  Buerger’s disease, which occurs almost exclusively in heavy smokers, is different from peripheral arterial disease (PAD) in that it is not caused by atherosclerosis (plaque buildup in the arteries). […] Buerger’s disease occurs almost exclusively in heavy tobacco users, including those who smoke cigarettes or chew tobacco. […] There is only one treatment for Buerger’s disease immediate and complete cessation of smoking and other tobacco use.

• #61 Buerger’s Disease (Thromboangiitis Obliterans) among Smokers: A Literature Review

  https://clinmedjournals.org/articles/ijrdd/international-journal-of-rare-diseases-and-disorders-ijrdd-6-050.php?jid=ijrdd

  Buerger’s disease or thromboangiitis obliterans [TAO] is a progressive inflammatory disease that is non atherosclerotic and segmental. […] Despite the etiology and pathophysiology of TAO being still unclear, smoking plays a vital role in the emergence and development of the disease. […] Although etiology of TAO is still unclear, TAO, which attacks the peripheral blood vessels, has a strong relationship with smoking. […] Thromboangiitis obliterans which is an autoimmune vasculitic disease that affects medium and large sized vessels has an unclear etiology, but smoking exposure is considered as the initiation of disease emergence and disease progression. […] Smoking exposure is thought to cause immunological dysfunction and hypersensitivity correlated with increased type-1 and type-3 collagen, impaired vasorelaxation in the endothelium, and increased anti-endothelial cell antibody titers.

• #62 Buerger Disease | Treatment & Management | Point of Care

  https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/18685

  There is no definitive etiology of Buerger disease, yet tobacco exposure is required for both disease initiation and progression. The mechanism of the disease remains a mystery, but it may involve immunologic dysfunction and tobacco hypersensitivity that is associated with enhanced cellular sensitivity to type-1 and type-3 collagen, impaired endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation, and increased anti-endothelial cell antibody titers. A genetic link may exist as affected subjects have an increased prevalence of human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-A9, HLA-B5, and HLA-54. […] The prevalence of Buerger disease has diminished over the past 5 years because of decreased smoking and adherence to more stringent diagnostic criteria. The highest incidence occurs in Israeli Jews of Ashkenazi descent and natives of Indian, Korean, and Japanese ancestry. It is less frequent in subjects of northern European descent. […] An evident dichotomy is seen in the prognosis of patients with Buerger disease, which depends on whether complete avoidance of tobacco is gained.

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