Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Respiratory Tract Infections and Laboratory Diagnostic Methods: A Review with A Focus on Syndromic Panel-Based Assays

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2607/10/9/1856

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are the focus of developments in public health, given their widespread distribution and the high morbidity and mortality rates reported worldwide. […] The RTIs are defined as diseases of infectious etiology involving the respiratory system. […] The clinical spectrum ranges from asymptomatic or mild infection to severe or fatal disease, and the severity is the result of the interaction between three factors: the causative agent, the environmental conditions, and the host. […] As a matter of fact, the delay in identifying the causative agent of RTIs could lead to the emergence and spread of antimicrobial-resistant pathogens due to the misuse of broad-spectrum empirical therapy, thus resulting in poor clinical outcomes, increased mortality rates and length of hospital stay.

• #1 What causes Respiratory Tract Infections (RTIs)? – Acare Global

  https://acare.abbott.com/en/respiratory-health/understanding-the-disease-respiratory-health/causes-respiratory-tract-infections/

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are mostly caused by either viruses or bacterium. […] Most upper RTIs are caused by viruses, which cannot be treated with antibiotics (these only work on bacterial infections). […] Some lower RTIs like pneumonia are caused by bacteria. […] For the RTIs caused by bacteria, if your immune system is having difficulty fighting off the infection your doctor may prescribe a course of antibiotics. […] RTIs can be spread from person to person through the coughs and sneezes of someone with an infection or through direct or indirect contact.

• #1 Upper Respiratory Infection: Types, Symptoms, Treatment

  https://www.health.com/upper-respiratory-infection-overview-7368685

  An upper respiratory infection (URI) is an infection that affects the nose, throat, or sinuses. The common cold is the most common URI. Other common types include pharyngitis, sinusitis, and laryngitis. Both bacteria and viruses can cause URIs, though viral infections are more common. […] What Causes Upper Respiratory Infection? […] Viruses cause about 85% of upper respiratory infections, particularly rhinoviruses, coronaviruses, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). Bacteria can cause some URIs, but this is less common. […] Most URIs are viral. Therefore, antibiotics won’t be effective in helping to clear the infection. Antibiotics are prescribed only for bacterial URIs or if a secondary bacterial infection, like sinusitis, develops during or after the initial viral infection.

• #1 Upper Respiratory Tract Infection: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/302460-overview

  Most URIs are viral in origin. Typical viral agents that cause URIs include the following: Rhinoviruses, Coronaviruses, Adenoviruses, Coxsackieviruses. […] For the most part, similar agents cause URI in adults and children; however, Moraxella catarrhalis and bocavirus cause URIs more commonly in children than in adults. […] Of the more than 200 viruses known to cause the symptoms of the common cold, the principal ones are as follows: Rhinoviruses: These cause approximately 30-50% of colds in adults; they grow optimally at temperatures near 32.8C (91F), which is the temperature inside the human nares. […] Other viruses that account for many URIs include the following: Adenoviruses, Orthomyxoviruses (including influenza A and B viruses), Paramyxoviruses (eg, parainfluenza virus [PIV]), RSV, EBV, Human metapneumovirus (hMPV), Bocavirus: Commonly associated with nasopharyngeal symptoms in children.

• #1 Post-Travel Respiratory Infections | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2024/posttravel-evaluation/respiratory-infections

  Respiratory infections are a major reason for returning travelers to seek medical care. […] In general, the respiratory infections that affect travelers are like those in non-travelers, but it is important for healthcare professionals to be vigilant for travelers’ potential exposure to novel, emerging, or geographically restricted respiratory pathogens. […] Bacterial causes of respiratory illnesses include Bordetella pertussis, Burkholderia pseudomallei (the cause of melioidosis), Chlamydia pneumoniae, Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Haemophilus influenzae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, and Streptococcus pneumoniae. […] Viral pathogens are the most common causes of respiratory infection in travelers. […] Causative agents include adenoviruses, coronaviruses (e.g., severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 [SARS-CoV-2], the cause of coronavirus disease 2019 [COVID-19], and the common human coronaviruses [including types 229E, NL63, OC43, and HKU1]), human metapneumovirus, influenza virus, measles virus, mumps virus, rubella virus, parainfluenza virus, respiratory syncytial virus, rhinoviruses, and varicella virus.

• #1 Respiratory tract infections

  https://diagnostics.roche.com/us/en/article-listing/health-topics/infectious-diseases/respiratory-tract-infections.html

  Acute lower respiratory infections are one of the leading causes of death and disability in the world. […] Respiratory infections are caused by a wide variety of pathogens. Viruses like influenza A and B, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) command much attention, but similar symptoms may also be presented by other agents, including bacteria like Streptococcus and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB, TB). […] An early and accurate diagnosis is essential to identifying the cause of a respiratory infection and ensuring appropriate antimicrobial therapy. […] To address the prevalence, complexity, and variety of respiratory tract infections, Roche offers a range of tests and technologies to support the detection and aid in the management of respiratory disease from the worlds first commercial PCR test to detect SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19) and its respective antibody test, to molecular point-of-care multiplex assays that can differentiate common viral agents, such as influenza A, influenza B, and RSV, in a single test.

• #1 Respiratory tract infection – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_tract_infection

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are infectious diseases involving the lower or upper respiratory tract. An infection of this type usually is further classified as an upper respiratory tract infection (URI or URTI) or a lower respiratory tract infection (LRI or LRTI). Lower respiratory infections, such as pneumonia, tend to be far more severe than upper respiratory infections, such as the common cold. […] Lower respiratory tract infections (LRIs) are generally more severe than upper respiratory infections. LRIs are the leading cause of death among all infectious diseases. […] The two most common LRIs are bronchitis and pneumonia. […] Influenza affects both the upper and lower respiratory tracts, but more dangerous strains such as the highly pernicious H5N1 tend to bind to receptors deep in the lungs.

• #1 Patterns of viral pathogens causing upper respiratory tract infections among symptomatic children in Mwanza, Tanzania | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-74555-2

  Upper-respiratory tract infections (URTI) are the leading causes of childhood morbidities. This study investigated etiologies and patterns of URTI among children in Mwanza, Tanzania. […] Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) account for an estimated 3.9 million deaths annually among children worldwide with 42% of these deaths occurring in Africa. […] Common viral agents which have been linked to RTIs include Rhinoviruses which accounts for 30%, Respiratory syncytial virus, influenza virus, Parainfluenza viruses, Human metapneumovirus and Adenoviruses accounting for 35% of RTI with about 10% being due to Coronaviruses. […] Bacterial upper respiratory infections are mainly due to Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae and Moraxella catarrhalis accounting to 90% of bacterial causes.

• #1 Viral Etiology of Respiratory Tract Infections in Children at the Pediatric Hospital in Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso) | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0110435

  The second main finding of our study was the high rate of picornaviruses, and more than half of this population carried rhinoviruses or enteroviruses. […] The bacteriological examinations were carried out during only 3 months, which is an important limitation for data analysis. During this period more than one quarter of this young population had a bacteria/virus co-infection. […] Our findings raise the question of sparing antibiotics by introducing routine detection of viruses. Such a strategy would be supported by the weak mortality attributed to RSV, which is the most aggressive viral agent in Africa.

• #1 Etiology of viral respiratory tract infections in – ProQuest

  https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/etiology-viral-respiratory-tract-infections/docview/2615063898/se-2

  In adults, respiratory viral infections (RVI) are implicated in 30% to 50% of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), 80% or more of asthma exacerbations, and 20% to 60% of worsening of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). RVIs can also cause severe worsening or complications of non-respiratory conditions (myocardial infarction, congestive heart failure, and diabetes) that contribute heavily to the burden of RVI-associated hospitalizations and mortality. […] We identified influenza viruses A/B (63%), RSV A/B (15%), and hMPV (13%) as the most common agents among hospitalized adult patients. […] In this study, we have determined the etiology and rate of pre-hospitalization antibiotics use in a large population of adult patients hospitalized with viral respiratory tract infection during the influenza season October through May in 2015 to 2018. The most common viral agents identified were influenza virus (63%), RSV A/B (15%), and hMPV (13%). […] We found a high rate of prehospital antibiotic prescription in adults hospitalized with viral RTIs, warranting better stewardship programs to tackle the increasing antibiotic resistance problem.

• #1 Are Upper Respiratory Infections Contagious? – Healthcare Associates of Texas

  https://healthcareassociates.com/are-upper-respiratory-infections-contagious/

  Upper respiratory infections (URIs) are among the most common viral illnesses in the United States, with children experiencing around seven per year and adults around three. […] Many types of viruses and bacteria can cause an upper respiratory infection. Yet, viruses are the most common cause. […] Bacterial infections account for less than 12% of all upper respiratory illnesses. […] Upper respiratory infections can happen to anyone, but certain risk factors increase the likelihood of contracting them. […] Certain medical conditions may increase your risk: Those with asthma or allergic rhinitis are more susceptible to upper respiratory infections. […] Tobacco usage: Smoking tobacco is associated with an increased risk for upper respiratory infections and may prolong symptoms. […] Compromised immune system: Conditions like cancer, cystic fibrosis, HIV, or other conditions that lower the immune defenses may increase the odds of contracting an upper respiratory infection. […] The short answer is yes. Upper respiratory infections spread through tiny droplets when someone coughs, sneezes, or exhales. […] Viruses cause most upper respiratory infections and will resolve on their own without the need for antibiotics.

• #1 Lower respiratory tract infection – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_respiratory_tract_infection

  Lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI) is a term often used as a synonym for pneumonia but can also be applied to other types of infection including lung abscess and acute bronchitis. Symptoms include shortness of breath, weakness, fever, coughing and fatigue. […] The most common cause of pneumonia is pneumococcal bacteria, Streptococcus pneumoniae accounts for 2/3 of bacteremic pneumonias. […] Typical bacterial Infections: Haemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae. […] Atypical bacterial Infections: Legionella pneumophila, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydophila pneumoniae, Chlamydia psittaci. […] Parasitic infections: Respiratory cryptosporidiosis. […] Viral infections: Adenovirus, Influenza A virus, Influenza B virus, Human parainfluenza viruses, Human respiratory syncytial virus, Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2).

• #1 Upper Respiratory Infection: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4022-upper-respiratory-infection

  Upper respiratory infections (URIs) are viruses and bacteria that infect your respiratory tract above your vocal cords. […] Most URIs are caused by viruses and go away on their own. […] An upper respiratory infection (URI) is a viral or bacterial illness in the upper part of your respiratory system. This includes your nose, sinuses and throat. […] And its true common colds and other viruses are usually to blame for URIs. But some URIs, like strep throat or some cases of sinusitis, are bacterial infections. […] Viruses cause most upper respiratory infections. But bacteria and even fungi can cause them, too. Specific causes can include: […] Streptococcus bacteria, like group A strep and Streptococcus pneumoniae […] Haemophilus influenza bacteria […] Moraxella catarrhalis bacteria […] Treatment for upper respiratory infections depends on the cause. There arent any specific treatments for most viral URIs, like colds. Providers treat bacterial infections, like strep throat, with antibiotics.

• #1 Patterns of viral pathogens causing upper respiratory tract infections among symptomatic children in Mwanza, Tanzania | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-74555-2

  Findings from this study shows that, number of viruses are responsible for RTIs among children below 5 years of age attending outpatient clinics in the city of Mwanza. […] The commonest bacteria detected were S. aureus which was detected in 5 patients, P. aeruginosa in 2 patients. […] In the current study, only one nasopharyngeal specimens yielded bacterial isolate (Bordetella parapertussis) which is contrary to a previous observation by Ndossa et al. that detected Streptococcus pneumoniae to be colonizing the nasopharynx of children in the city of Mwanza. […] URTI are common in children below 5 years of age and are predominantly caused by viruses.

• #1 Upper Respiratory and Lower Respiratory Tract Infections | Cystic Fibrosis News TodayEnvelope icon

  https://cysticfibrosisnewstoday.com/upper-respiratory-tract-infections-vs-lower-respiratory-tract-infections/

  As cystic fibrosis (CF) causes excessive mucus production, respiratory tract infections (RTI) — such as those caused by the common cold or influenza — can be quite common and cause more severe symptoms. […] For people with CF, viral or bacterial infections can lead to lengthy respiratory illness, which is associated with a decline in lung function and a higher risk of death. […] The common cold is, in the vast majority of cases, caused by rhinovirus. Other viruses associated with the common cold include adenovirus, parainfluenza virus, and enterovirus. Rhinovirus causes up to 80% of all respiratory infections in peak seasons. […] Other causes of upper respiratory infections include the influenza virus and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). Roughly 15% of sore throats (pharyngitis) are caused by bacteria; the most common is Staphylococcus pyogenes, a Group A streptococcus, which causes strep throat.

• #1 Upper Respiratory and Lower Respiratory Tract Infections | Cystic Fibrosis News TodayEnvelope icon

  https://cysticfibrosisnewstoday.com/upper-respiratory-tract-infections-vs-lower-respiratory-tract-infections/

  Lower RTIs can be caused by a variety of microbes, including viruses and bacteria. […] Pneumonia is when the small air sacs of the lungs (called alveoli) become inflamed and fill with fluid, potentially leading to respiratory failure and death, and is a complication of lung infections caused by viruses, certain bacteria, and fungi. […] In people with CF, bacterial infections pose a particular hazard, especially those with Pseudomonas aeruginosa. […] Persistent RTIs with bacteria such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa can lead to further inflammatory damage in the lungs. […] On its own, cystic fibrosis (CF) can cause chronic symptoms such as excess mucus production, sinus inflammation (sinusitis), shortness of breath, and cough. In these patients, viral or bacterial infections can lead to lengthy respiratory illness, which is associated with a decline in lung function and a higher risk of death.

• #1 Respiratory viral infections in pragmatically selected adults in intensive care units | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-99608-y

  Moreover, up to 10% of community-acquired pneumonia is concurrently caused by viral and bacterial pathogens. […] Respiratory viruses had been detected in respiratory specimens in 18.3% of critically ill adults requiring invasive mechanical ventilation. […] The detection rates are higher, ranging from 20.5 to 49.0%, in patients with community or hospital-acquired lower respiratory tract infections admitted to intensive care units (ICUs). […] Human rhinovirus, influenza virus, and human parainfluenza viruses (HPIVs) are the most frequently detected viruses. […] The current study aims to assess the clinical significance of respiratory viruses in pragmatically selected adults in medical ICUs and to delineate clinical variables associated with viral RTIs (VRTIs). […] The multivariable logistic regression analyses revealed the risk factors associated with VRTIs.

• #1 Diagnosing upper and lower respiratory tract infections | Medical Laboratory Observer

  https://www.mlo-online.com/continuing-education/article/21292505/diagnosing-upper-and-lower-respiratory-tract-infections

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are among the most common reasons why patients visit their physicians. […] Though the majority of respiratory tract infections are caused by viruses, some bacteria and fungi can also cause respiratory tract infections. […] RTIs can be classified as upper and lower respiratory tract infections depending on the site of the infection in the respiratory system. […] Upper respiratory tract infections (URIs) are caused by viruses in approximately 90 to 98 percent of cases. […] Lower respiratory tract infections (LRIs) can be caused by viruses, bacteria, and fungi. […] Though viruses are known to cause more cases of respiratory tract infections, some bacteria can cause upper and lower respiratory tract infections. […] Co-infection with a virus and bacteria may contribute to severe disease and increased mortality in patients.

• #1 Diagnosis and Management of Recurrent Respiratory Tract Infections in Children: A Practical Guide

  https://brieflands.com/articles/apid-20283.html

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) affect children all over the world and are associated with significant morbidity and mortality. RTIs are usually triggered by viruses, though bacterial infections are also common. […] Children are particularly susceptible to RTIs due to the relative immaturity of their immune systems, and genetic factors (such as family history of atopy) and/or environmental factors (such as exposure to pollution and pathogens) also render certain populations more vulnerable to infection. […] The main pathogens that trigger respiratory infections are viruses (such as the respiratory syncytial viruses, rhinoviruses, and influenza viruses). Although viruses are often responsible for RTIs, bacterial super-infections commonly occur. Bacterial infections are observed in up to 60% of patients whose RTI symptoms last for 10 days or more.

• #1 Diagnosis and Management of Recurrent Respiratory Tract Infections in Children: A Practical Guide

  https://brieflands.com/articles/apid-20283.html

  Several characteristics of RTIs contribute to the burden of illness. First, RTIs tend to recur in pediatric patients. The clinical sequelae of RTIs can result in long-term complications and further contribute to the disease burden, resulting in secondary infections, wheezing, and the development of asthma. […] Another important consequence of pediatric RTIs stems from the fact that they are a leading cause of antibiotic prescriptions. Frequent antibiotic use, particularly for upper RTIs of viral origin, is common practice in ambulatory care. […] Compared to healthy adults, infants and young children are at increased risk of recurrent RTIs due to the relative immaturity of their immune system. […] Recurrent infections of the respiratory tissues may result in virus-induced immune dysfunction and can lead to a vicious cycle of recurrent RTIs with bacterial super-infections, exacerbation of cough, and increased risk of asthma development.

• #1 Understanding Respiratory tract infection: From Risk Factors to Home Remedies – The Kingsley Clinic

  https://thekingsleyclinic.com/both-upper-and-lower-airway/understanding-respiratory-tract-infection-from-risk-factors-to-home-remedies/

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are among the most common health conditions affecting people worldwide, with a rich history that traces back to the earliest known records of disease. […] Respiratory Tract Infections refer to any infectious diseases of the upper and lower respiratory tract. They can range from common colds and flu, which are usually self-limiting, to life-threatening illnesses like pneumonia and tuberculosis. […] RTIs can progress from mild symptoms to severe disease, depending on the specific type of infection, the pathogen involved, and the patient’s overall health. […] Various lifestyle factors can increase the likelihood of developing RTIs. […] Several medical conditions and treatments can raise the risk of RTIs. […] Certain genetic conditions, such as cystic fibrosis or primary ciliary dyskinesia, can predispose an individual to frequent or chronic respiratory tract infections.

• #1 Respiratory Tract Infections (RTI) – Symptoms and Causes

  https://jghdelhi.net/diseases/respiratory-tract-infections-rti/

  Respiratory tract infections (RTI) refer to any infectious disease that affects the respiratory tract. […] RTI is usually caused by viruses as well as bacteria. […] Children are more prone to RTI as compared to adults because they do not have adequate immunity against certain viruses bacteria that cause these infections.

• #1 Lower respiratory tract infection: Symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/324413

  Lower respiratory tract infections are any infections in the lungs or below the voice box. These include pneumonia, bronchitis, and tuberculosis. […] Infections in the lower respiratory tract are primarily the result of: […] viruses, as with the flu or respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) […] bacteria, such as Streptococcus or Staphylococcus aureus […] fungal infections […] mycoplasma, which are neither viruses or bacteria but are small organisms with characteristics of both. […] In some cases, substances from the environment can irritate or cause inflammation in the airways or lungs, which can lead to an infection. These include: […] tobacco smoke […] dust […] chemicals […] vapors and fumes […] allergens […] air pollution. […] Risk factors that make a person more likely to develop a lower respiratory tract infection include: […] a recent cold or flu […] a weakened immune system […] being more than 65 years old […] being under 5 years old […] recent surgery.

• #1 Why Do You Keep Getting Respiratory Infections?

  https://www.webmd.com/lung/copd/keep-getting-infections

  Secondary immune deficiency. This happens when your immune system is damaged by something that affects your body, such as chemotherapy medications, bad burns, malnutrition, or HIV. A weakened immune system makes you more likely to get respiratory infections. […] Primary immunodeficiency. This is when you have genetic (inherited) defects that weaken your immune system. They include T-cell and B-cell deficiencies. Theyre much less common than secondary immune deficiencies. People with primary immunodeficiency often get pneumonia, bronchitis, and sinus infections.

• #1 Why Do You Keep Getting Respiratory Infections?

  https://www.webmd.com/lung/copd/keep-getting-infections

  Respiratory infections refer to any infections of the respiratory system. They can affect your throat, sinuses, lungs, or airways. They’re common for people of all ages and arent usually serious. But if you get them often, it could be a sign you have another health issue. […] You may get repeated infections because of various factors in your environment and lifestyle, such as: Contact with other infected people (especially those who are coughing or sneezing), Pollen and other irritants, Smoking and secondhand smoke, Cold weather, Lack of sleep, Stress. […] But sometimes, frequent respiratory infections arise from more serious problems. They include: Lung disease. People with asthma, cystic fibrosis (CF), or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are more likely to get respiratory infections. These infections can make the symptoms of these chronic conditions worse.

• #1 Predisposing factors to acquisition of acute respiratory tract infections in the community: a systematic review and meta-analysis | BMC Infectious Diseases | Full Text

  https://bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12879-021-06954-3

  Our rigorously conducted systematic review meta-analysis suggests chronic liver and renal conditions, previous hospitalisation, low BMI, male sex, and contact with children and pets all increase the likelihood of people living in OECD member countries acquiring a respiratory infection. […] We identified several risk factors associated with increased likelihood of individuals acquiring RTIs in the community, including chronic liver disease, low BMI, and contact with children and pets.

• #1 What is Respiratory tract infections| Meaning In Urdu, 2 Types, Causes & Best Treatment – smarthealer.pk

  https://smarthealer.pk/respiratory-tract-infections/

  Respiratory tract infections can be caused by various pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, and fungi. Additionally, environmental factors and individual health conditions can contribute to the risk of developing RTIs. […] Viruses are the most common cause of respiratory tract infections. Some of the main viruses responsible for RTIs include: Rhinovirus, Influenza Virus, Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV), and Coronavirus. […] Bacteria can also cause respiratory tract infections, often following a viral infection that weakens the immune system. Common bacterial pathogens include: Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Mycoplasma pneumoniae. […] Fungal infections are less common but can occur, especially in individuals with weakened immune systems. Examples include: Aspergillus and Histoplasma capsulatum. […] Environmental factors contribute significantly to the development of respiratory tract infections. These factors include: Air Pollution, Smoking, and Climate.

• #1 Patterns of respiratory tract infections in children under 5 years of age in a low–middle-income country | Journal of the Egyptian Public Health Association | Full Text

  https://jepha.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s42506-022-00118-0

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are among the most commonly encountered major public health problems, with a higher prevalence of lower RTIs among children and more generally the poor. […] Pneumonia can be caused by different bacterial, viral, or fungal agents, but only a third of children with bacterial pneumonia have access to life-saving antibiotics. […] Understanding the risk factors for lower RTI enables us to predict and potentially avoid its emergence. […] Severe acute malnutrition, in particular, has been linked to higher death rates from pneumonia, diarrheal disease, and malaria, among other unfavorable socioeconomic circumstances, such as younger age, low birth weight, under-vaccination, parental smoking, early childhood respiratory damage due to indoor air pollution, other diseases, and overcrowding, which have also increased the prevalence and severity of these diseases. […] The greatest predictor of lower RTI was revealed in children aged less than 2 years (OR 0.797, CI 0.7130.89, p 0.001). […] The younger age (under 2 years) is the main risk factor for lower RTIs and malnutrition.

• #1

  https://111.wales.nhs.uk/encyclopaedia/r/article/respiratorytractinfection

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are infections of parts of the body involved in breathing, such as the sinuses, throat, airways or lungs. Most RTIs get better without treatment, but sometimes you may need to see a GP. […] Treatment will depend on the cause of your RTI: a virus (like colds) this usually clears up by itself after a few weeks and antibiotics will not help […] bacteria (like pneumonia) your GP may prescribe antibiotics (make sure you complete the whole course as advised by your GP, even if you start to feel better). […] RTIs are often spread in the coughs and sneezes of someone with an infection. […] There are several different types. They’re usually grouped into upper and lower RTIs. […] Upper RTIs (sinuses and throat) Common cold, Sinusitis (sinus infection), Tonsillitis, Laryngitis […] Lower RTIs (airways and lungs) Bronchitis, Bronchiolitis, Chest infection, Pneumonia (lung infection). […] Lower RTIs tend to last longer and can be more serious.

• #1 An Overview of Common Respiratory Tract Infections | Ausmed

  https://www.ausmed.com/learn/articles/respiratory-tract-infections

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are various infections that affect parts of the respiratory system, such as the sinuses, throat, airway or lungs (NHS 2024a). […] Lower RTIs are generally longer-lasting and more serious (NHS 2024a). […] RTIs are generally transmitted by direct contact with a contaminated surface or an infected person expelling droplets into the air via coughing, sneezing or talking (SA Health 2022). […] The common cold is the most prevalent contagious disease in Australia. It can be caused by over 200 different viruses, most of which belong to the rhinovirus or coronavirus families. […] Influenza (the flu) is similar to the common cold but is generally more severe with a very sudden onset. In some cases, it can lead to life-threatening complications. […] Pneumonia is an infection that causes inflammation of the alveoli (air sacs) in one or both lungs. The alveoli fill with secretions and fluid, decreasing the ability for oxygen to be transported across the tissue to adequately oxygenate vital organs.

• #1 Post-Travel Respiratory Infections | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2024/posttravel-evaluation/respiratory-infections

  Transmission of respiratory pathogens during air travel can occur via several pathways, including direct droplet spread, direct physical contact, fomites, and suspended small particles (droplet nuclei). […] Despite this, COVID-19, influenza, measles, tuberculosis (TB), and other diseases have been transmitted on aircraft. […] Most respiratory infections, especially those of the upper respiratory tract, are mild. […] Lower respiratory tract infections, particularly pneumonia, can be more severe. […] Most viral respiratory infections are mild and do not require specific treatment. […] Vaccines are available to prevent or reduce severity of a number of respiratory diseases, including COVID-19, diphtheria, H. influenzae type b (in young children), influenza, measles, mumps, rubella, pertussis, pneumococcal disease, varicella, and respiratory syncytial virus.

• #1 Upper respiratory tract infections

  https://pacificcross.com.vn/upper-respiratory-tract-infections/

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are any infection of the sinuses, throat, airways or lungs. Theyre usually caused by viruses, but can be caused by bacteria. […] An upper respiratory tract infection is generally caused by the direct invasion of the inner lining (mucosa or mucus membrane) of the upper airway by the culprit virus or bacteria. In order for the pathogens (viruses and bacteria) to invade the mucus membrane of the upper airways, they have to fight through several physical and immunologic barriers. […] Despite these defense processes, invading viruses and bacteria adapt various mechanisms to resist destruction. They can sometimes produce toxins to impair the bodys defense system or change their shape or outer structural proteins to disguise from being recognized by the immune systems (change of antigenicity). Some bacteria may produce adhesion factors that allow them to stick to the mucus membrane and hinder their destruction.

• #1 Respiratory tract infection – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_tract_infection

  Despite some uncertainty due to small study sizes, there is some evidence that exercise may reduce severity of symptoms but had no impact on number of episodes or number of symptom days per episode. […] Viruses that cause RTI are more transmissible at very high or low relative humidity; ideal humidity for indoor spaces is between 40 and 60%. Therefore, relative humidity in this range can help lessen the risk of aerosol transmission. […] Several factors explain winter peaks in respiratory infections, including environmental conditions and changes in human behaviors. Viruses that cause respiratory infections are affected by environmental conditions like relative humidity and temperature.

• #1 Respiratory tract infections (RTIs)

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/respiratory-tract-infection/

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are infections of parts of the body involved in breathing, such as the sinuses, throat, airways or lungs. […] Treatment for a respiratory tract infection (RTI) will depend on the cause of your infection. […] If your RTI is caused by a virus (like the common cold), it will usually clear up by itself after a few weeks. Antibiotics will not help. […] If your RTI is caused by bacteria (like pneumonia), a GP may prescribe antibiotics. […] Antibiotics are only used to treat bacterial infections. They’re not used for treating viral infections because they do not work for this type of infection. […] There are several different types of respiratory tract infection (RTI). They’re usually grouped into upper RTIs and lower RTIs. […] Upper RTI affect the sinuses and throat. […] Lower RTIs affect the airways and lungs. […] Flu and COVID-19 can both be upper or lower RTIs. […] Lower RTIs tend to last longer and can be more serious.

• #1 Upper Respiratory Tract Infection: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/302460-overview

  Viral causes are similar to those of viral nasopharyngitis and include the following: Rhinovirus, Enterovirus, Coronavirus, Influenza A and B virus, PIV, RSV, Adenovirus. […] Bacterial causes are similar to those seen in otitis media. Bacterial pathogens isolated from maxillary sinus aspirates of patients with acute bacterial rhinosinusitis include the following: Streptococcus pneumoniae: 38% in adults, 21-33% in children; Haemophilus influenzae: 36% in adults, 31-32% in children; Moraxella catarrhalis: 16% in adults; 8-11% in children; Staphylococcus aureus: 13% in adults, 1% in children. […] This is a bacterial infection. In the vast majority of children, H influenzae type b (Hib) is isolated from blood or epiglottal cultures. Since the routine use of the Hib conjugate vaccine began in 1990, case rates in children younger than 5 years have declined by more than 95%. […] Other bacteria, found more commonly in adults than in children, include group A streptococci, S pneumoniae, and M catarrhalis. In adults, cultures are most likely to be negative.

• #1 Respiratory Tract Infections – Antibiotic Prescribing – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK53632/

  Respiratory tract infection (RTI) is defined as any infectious disease of the upper or lower respiratory tract. Upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs) include the common cold, laryngitis, pharyngitis/tonsillitis, acute rhinitis, acute rhinosinusitis and acute otitis media. Lower respiratory tract infections (LRTIs) include acute bronchitis, bronchiolitis, pneumonia and tracheitis. Antibiotics are commonly prescribed for RTIs in adults and children in primary care. General practice consultation rates in England and Wales show that a quarter of the population will visit their GP because of an RTI each year (Ashworth et al. 2005). RTIs are the reason for 60% of all antibiotic prescribing in general practice, and this constitutes a significant cost to the NHS. Annual prescribing costs for acute cough alone exceed 15 million (Lindbaek 2006).

• #1 An Overview of Common Respiratory Tract Infections | Ausmed

  https://www.ausmed.com/learn/articles/respiratory-tract-infections

  According to the World Health Organisation (2022), pneumonia accounts for 14% of deaths of children aged under five years of age. In 2019, it contributed to the deaths of 740,180 children in total. […] Sinusitis is an inflammation of the nasal sinuses. It generally presents as a secondary infection after a cold or untreated allergies. […] Bronchitis is an infection of the bronchi (the main airways of the lungs that branch off the trachea) that causes them to become inflamed and create more copious amounts of secretions than usual. This results in a productive cough, which is an attempt to excrete sputum. […] Bronchiolitis causes inflammation and congestion in the smallest airways (bronchioles). It is usually caused by the respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and almost exclusively affects infants under the age of two. […] Tonsillitis is an inflammation of the tonsils, most commonly affecting children (though anyone can contract it). […] Laryngitis is the inflammation and irritation of the larynx (voice box), causing swelling of the vocal cords and a consequent distortion of the voice.

• #1 Lower Respiratory Tract Infection | Riley Children’s Health

  https://www.rileychildrens.org/health-info/lower-respiratory-tract-infection

  A lower respiratory tract infection (RTI) occurs when there is an infection of the lungs, specifically in the lower airways. This infection is usually caused by a virus, but it can also be caused by bacteria or other less common organisms. […] Common lower RTIs in infants and young children include the flu, viral bronchiolitis and pneumonia. […] If the infection is caused by bacteria, antibiotics may be prescribed.

• #1 Respiratory Infections Tests and Diagnostics | Pioneering Diagnostics

  https://www.biomerieux.com/corp/en/our-offer/hospital-laboratory/patient-condition/respiratory-infections-tests-and-diagnostics.html

  In the majority of cases it is caused by respiratory viruses including Influenza, Parainfluenza, Adenoviruses, and Respiratory Syncytial Viruses. […] In community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), bacteria are mainly identified as the source. […] These bacteria are frequently associated with secondary infections following a viral respiratory infection. […] First-line antibiotics are often effective in treating patients with exacerbated chronic bronchitis or pneumonia, the underlying cause is usually bacterial. […] Despite a decrease in mortality, lower respiratory tract infections are the leading cause of death from infectious disease. […] Taken as a whole, respiratory diseases are responsible for 2.377 million deaths worldwide each year. […] Although very frequent, RTIs remain a challenge for clinicians as they have various clinical presentations / severities and are caused by numerous microbiological agents (bacteria, virus, fungus, parasite).

• #1 Respiratory Tract Infection- Symptoms, Causes and Treatment

  https://www.careinsurance.com/blog/health-insurance-articles/check-if-you-have-respiratory-tract-infection-rti

  Identifying Causes, Symptoms & Treatment of Respiratory Tract Infections […] Respiratory tract infection is the most widespread infection these days. The respiratory tract consists of all the organs involved in breathing, affecting the lungs, airways, sinuses, and throat. […] Viruses, bacteria, mycoplasma, and fungi attack the respiratory system and cause respiratory problems. It is a communicable infection as bacteria or viruses can easily enter the tract when people inhale or come into contact with infected patients. […] Various microorganisms cause lower respiratory tract infections. The common causes include- […] Bacterial infection is one of the most common causes of LRTIs. These infections result in Chlamydia pneumoniae, streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus), Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Legionella pneumophila and Haemophilus influenzae. […] Viral infection is another common cause of LRTIs after bacterial infection. Influenza viruses, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), rhinoviruses (cause of the common cold), and coronaviruses (e.g., causing COVID-19) can lead to viral pneumonia and bronchitis. […] Not as common as viral and bacterial infections, fungal infections like pneumocystis jirovecii can harm the lower respiratory tract, especially in people with weak immune systems. […] A few LRTIs can be caused by unusual pathogens, such as mycobacterium tuberculosis (causing tuberculosis) and many parasites. […] Once exposed to pollutants, toxic gases or irritants, you become more prone to LRTIs. […] However, it’s important to know that the particular cause of an LRTI may vary, and the severity and treatment of the infection may differ depending on the microorganism. Proper diagnosis and appropriate medical care are essential for managing these infections. […] Viruses and bacteria cause upper respiratory tract infection and is contagious. When someone is infected with the URTI, coughs and sneezes, the droplets of saliva may contaminate surfaces that other people touch and then touch their eyes, nose, or mouth, which may develop the infection.

• #1 Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) – nose, throat & lungs

  https://www.nps.org.au/consumers/respiratory-tract-infections-rtis-nose-throat-and-lungs

  An A-Z of common RTIs infections of your respiratory tract the parts of your body that help you breathe your nose, throat and lungs. The infection can be caused by bacteria, a virus or even fungi. […] Bronchitis is usually caused by a virus and often develops after a sore throat (pharyngitis), a cold, or 'flu’ (influenza). […] Most colds follow a clear pattern and resolve naturally within 710 days. Antibiotics do not help. Colds are caused by viruses antibiotics only work on bacterial infections. […] Antibiotics wont help treat your laryngitis. You can get laryngitis when you have a cold or flu (influenza). These infections are caused by viruses, so antibiotics won’t help. […] Pneumonia is an inflammation of your lung tissue that is caused by an infection. The infection may be in one or both of your lungs and it can be caused by bacteria or a virus.

• #1 What is the treatment of respiratory tract infection in children? | Kauvery Hospital Chennai, Trichy, Salem, Tirunelveli

  https://www.kauveryhospital.com/blog/pulmonology/respiratory-tract-infections-in-children-and-treatment-methods/

  Respiratory Tract Infections are a common condition with children in the age-group of 3 to 12 years. […] Viral or bacterial infections can affect any part of this network, and they are called Respiratory Tract Infections (RTI). […] Children in the age-group of 2 to 12 are highly prone to RTIs. There are several reasons for this. To begin with, their immune systems are not as sturdy as that of adults. […] RTIs are quite common and create hassles for the child, parents, siblings, teachers and school-staff. Frequent bouts of RTI lead to missed days from school or play, and reduced performance. […] Common Cold: There are over 200 different viruses that cause this condition, and most of them spread by phlegm, mucous or saliva. […] Community-acquired Pneumonia (CAP): Children get easily infected within their community (friends, family and neighbours), from a range of viruses. CAP can be caused by influenza viruses, parainfluenza viruses, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), human metapneumovirus and rhinovirus. […] Protracted bacterial bronchitis: This is marked by chronic or long-term wet-cough, caused by a range of bacteria such as H. influenzae, S. pneumoniae, Moraxella catarrhalis and Staphylococcus aureus.

• #1 All About LRTI: Lower Respiratory Tract Infections

  https://panraaclinics.com.au/blog/lrti-lower-respiratory-tract-infections

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are a range of infections that impact different systems of the respiratory tract, including the sinuses, throat, airway, and lungs. […] Lower respiratory tract diseases primarily stem from viral invasions, with viruses being the leading cause. Following viruses, bacteria are the next most prevalent culprits. […] The predominant cause of pneumonia varies with age but often involves viral or bacterial agents. Rhinovirus, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and human metapneumovirus frequently trigger bronchiolitis. […] The emergence of SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID-19, has also been associated with lower respiratory tract infections and occasionally progresses to pneumonia.

• #1 Respiratory Tract Infections and Laboratory Diagnostic Methods: A Review with A Focus on Syndromic Panel-Based Assays

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2607/10/9/1856

  Important technological advances have been made over the years to provide new tools for the detection of both bacterial and viral respiratory infections, resulting in the development of accurate, fast, and easy-to-use diagnostic methods. […] In this context, the introduction of syndromic panels broke new ground in the field of diagnostic microbiology, since they provide a highly powerful tool capable of detecting a broad array of pathogens that, collectively, could cause a single clinical syndrome. […] The disease burden of RTIs shows an uneven distribution at both a demographical and geographical level and differs widely by age, gender, and among countries and regions. […] The negative impact of RTIs on life quality is particularly significant for infants, children, and the elderly, among whom the highest mortality and morbidity rates are also reported, especially in low- and middle-income countries.

• #1 Respiratory Infections in Children: An Updated Review of Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, Treatment, Biochemical Aspects, and Nursing Interventions

  https://www.jmchemsci.com/article_211142.html

  The pediatric respiratory tract is vulnerable to a wide range of pathogens, primarily viruses and, to a lesser extent, bacteria. Viral pathogens are responsible for the majority of RTIs, with common culprits including respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), rhinovirus, adenovirus, influenza virus, para-influenza virus, and human metapneumovirus. RSV is particularly notable for causing severe infections such as bronchiolitis in infants and young children. […] Bacterial pathogens, including Streptococcus pneumonia, group A beta-hemolytic streptococci (GABHS), Haemophilus influenzae, and Mycoplasma pneumonia, are significant contributors to secondary infections or primary illnesses like pneumonia and pharyngitis. Co-infections, involving simultaneous viral and bacterial pathogens, can complicate clinical presentations and treatment outcomes.

• #1 Post-Travel Respiratory Infections | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2024/posttravel-evaluation/respiratory-infections

  Other viruses of special concern to travelers include Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) coronavirus and highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses; consider these viruses in travelers with new-onset respiratory illness, including people requiring hospitalization, when no alternative cause has been identified. […] H. capsulatum, influenza virus, measles, Legionella species, and SARS-CoV-2 are some of the pathogens associated with respiratory tract outbreaks in travelers. […] Groups having a greater risk for respiratory tract infection include children, older adults, people with comorbid pulmonary conditions (e.g., asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease [COPD]), and immunosuppressed individuals. […] The air quality at many travel destinations might be poor, and exposure to carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, sulfur dioxide, and particulate matter is associated with health risks, including respiratory tract inflammation, exacerbations of asthma or COPD, impaired lung function, bronchitis, and pneumonia.

• #1 What is a Respiratory Tract Infection (RTI)? – Acare Global

  https://acare.abbott.com/en/respiratory-health/understanding-the-disease-respiratory-health/what-is-an-rti/

  A respiratory tract infection (RTI) is an infection that affects the respiratory tract, which is a general term used to describe the parts of our body involved in breathing, including the mouth, nose, sinuses, throat, larynx (voice box), trachea (windpipe), airways and lungs. […] RTIs are very common, especially during the winter months in temperate climates. […] Although RTIs are very common, it doesnt mean they shouldnt be taken seriously as they can impair our quality of life, infect others and may evolve towards more serious forms especially in high-risk population. […] Lower RTIs are generally longer lasting and more serious than upper RTIs.

• #1 Epidemiological trends of respiratory tract pathogens detected via mPCR in Australian adult patients before COVID-19 | BMC Infectious Diseases | Full Text

  https://bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12879-023-08750-7

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are a major global health burden due to their high morbidity and mortality. […] The majority of RTIs are caused by viruses, followed by bacterial infections. […] Overall, Picornavirus (predominantly Rhinovirus) was the most frequently detected pathogen. […] Influenza A was found to be the second most common RTI pathogen. […] We observed RSV to be the third most prevalent virus in our study, with peak numbers in autumn and winter. […] M. pneumoniae was a common cause of respiratory tract infections before the COVID-19 pandemic, with worldwide incidence of 8.6% from 2017 to 2020, measured by direct test methods. […] Our co-infection rate of 3.7% was higher than the results reported by Vissaeux et al. […] The high rates of non-pneumococcal aetiology of RTI positivity obtained in this real-world study highlights the significant burden of infection, dominated by Picornavirus, influenza A and RSV, and the urgent need for preventative and treatment options.

• #1 Overview of Viral Respiratory Tract Infections in Children – Children’s Health Issues – MSD Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/home/children-s-health-issues/common-viral-infections-in-infants-and-children/overview-of-viral-respiratory-tract-infections-in-children

  Viral respiratory tract infections affect the nose, throat, and airways and may be caused by any of several different viruses. […] Many different viruses infect the respiratory tract. In children, rhinoviruses, influenza viruses (during annual winter epidemics), parainfluenza viruses, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), enteroviruses, coronaviruses, and certain strains of adenovirus are the main causes of viral respiratory infections. […] Most often, viral respiratory tract infections spread when children’s hands come into contact with nasal secretions from an infected person. These secretions contain viruses. […] For various reasons, nasal or respiratory secretions from children with viral respiratory tract infections contain more viruses than those from infected adults. […] Contrary to what people may think, other factors, such as becoming chilled, wet, or tired, do not cause colds or increase a child’s susceptibility to infection.

• #1 Assessment and management of respiratory tract infections in primary care

  https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/72071

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are common causes of primary care visits and range from benign to life-threatening. […] The correlation between national RTI guidelines and physicians’ treatment choices across different countries is not fully understood. […] Despite efforts to align clinical practice with guidelines, including antimicrobial stewardship programs (ASPs), guideline compliance remains unsatisfactory. […] The meta-analysis indicates FN is associated with acute sore throat, albeit less than GAS. […] The survey revealed national variations in guidelines and physician adherence to them.

• #1 New Epidemiological and Clinical Signatures of 18 Pathogens from Respiratory Tract Infections Based on a 5-Year Study | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0138684

  The overall PDR was not significantly different between male and female patients. However, the incidences of certain pathogens such as RSV, PIV4, and HRV also did differ by gender. […] The seasonal climate is an important factor that can affect pathogen transmission. In the current study, the season affected the total PDR, which increased from winter to spring to summer and reached a peak in autumn. […] RTIs can be particularly exacerbated in immunocompromised patients, such as patients with cancer, blood diseases, or an organ transplant, which can result in patient mortality. […] In conclusion, despite the complexity of RTIs, the clinical and epidemiological signatures of the disease can provide important clues to aid clinicians in optimizing diagnostic and treatment plans and to enable the generation of reasonable public health strategies.

• #1 Rapid Identification of Respiratory Tract Infections | FP7 | CORDIS | European Commission

  https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/304865/reporting

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are caused by a variety of bacterial, viral, and fungal pathogens. RTIs are amongst the top 4 major causes of morbidity and mortality in adults and children worldwide. […] Currently all ill patients presenting with any form of RTIs (CAP, HAP, VAP or ORTIs) are treated empirically without an accurate diagnosis of the causative microorganism and their antibiotic sensitivity patterns. […] Correctly identifying the exact microorganism causing RTIs and treating RTIs with appropriate antibiotics they are susceptible to is essential, since morbidity and mortality rates are high. […] RTIs remain difficult to diagnose accurately since a broad range of pathogens and opportunistic microorganism are involved in their aetiology. […] Inappropriate antibiotic therapy contributes greatly to increased morbidity and mortality rates, and inappropriate antibiotic overuse generates antibiotic resistance, which is a major public health concern.

• #1 Respiratory Tract Infection – Symptoms, Causes & Treatment | Medtronic (UK)

  https://www.medtronic.com/covidien/en-gb/clinical-solutions/respiratory-tract-infection.html

  Respiratory tract infection (RTI) refers to a range of infections that can occur in the upper and lower respiratory tract. […] Most Upper Respiratory Tract Infection (URTIs) are viral, but they can also be bacterial, fungal or helminth in origin. […] Lower respiratory tract infections (LRTIs) is the fifth-leading cause of death, as well as the leading infectious cause of death worldwide. […] The seriousness of LRTIs necessitates rapid and accurate diagnosis of the infection in order to minimise its effects. […] Antibiotics have historically been used to treat common URTIs, but health authorities are now discouraging their use because they do not significantly reduce recovery time for these viral illnesses.

• #1 Predisposing factors to acquisition of acute respiratory tract infections in the community: a systematic review and meta-analysis | BMC Infectious Diseases | Full Text

  https://bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12879-021-06954-3

  Preventing respiratory tract infections (RTIs) could have profound effects on quality of life, primary care workload, antibiotic prescribing and stewardship. […] We identified several modifiable risk factors associated with increased likelihood of acquiring RTIs in the community, including low BMI, contact with children and pets. […] Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are the single most common infections seen in primary care, and a major contributor to the overall burden of disease worldwide. […] On average, adults will have between two and five RTIs annually, usually the common cold or upper respiratory infections. […] RTIs are also the most common indications for antibiotic prescribing, accounting for around 60% of all antibiotics prescribed in primary care, despite rarely providing patient benefit.

• #1 New Epidemiological and Clinical Signatures of 18 Pathogens from Respiratory Tract Infections Based on a 5-Year Study | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0138684

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are a heavy burden on society. However, due to the complex etiology of RTIs, the clinical diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of these infections remain challenging, especially in developing countries. […] The etiology of respiratory tract infections (RTIs) is diverse and complicated. In the past decade, many new pathogens that cause RTIs have been identified, including human coronavirus (HCoV), human metapneumovirus (HMPV), and human bocavirus (HBoV). […] Our results show that, although the number of patients with RTIs differed in each month, the PDRs were similar throughout the study period, indicating that the composition of these respiratory pathogens in the environment is stable. Among the pathogens tested, IAV, RSV, MP, and HCoV were detected with PDRs greater than 5%.

• #1 Upper Respiratory Infection: Contagious, Symptoms, Treatment, Causes

  https://www.medicinenet.com/upper_respiratory_infection/article.htm

  Upper respiratory infections are generally caused by the direct invasion of the inner lining (mucosa or mucus membrane) of the upper airway by the culprit virus or bacteria. […] A majority of upper respiratory infections are due to self-limited viral infections. Occasionally, bacterial infections may cause upper respiratory infections. […] Despite these defense processes, invading viruses and bacteria adopt various mechanisms to resist destruction. […] It is also important to note that different pathogens have varying abilities to overcome the body’s defense system and cause infections. […] Some of the common pathogens for upper respiratory infection and their respective incubation times are as follows: […] Upper respiratory infections (URIs) and lower respiratory infections (LRIs) are both caused by viruses or bacteria that enter the respiratory system.

• #1 Rapid Identification of Respiratory Tract Infections | FP7 | CORDIS | European Commission

  https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/304865/reporting

  Guidelines for diagnosis and management of CAP and HAP state that microbiological studies may support the diagnosis of pneumonia due to an infectious agent, but routine tests are frequently falsely negative and often nonspecific. […] They also state that there is a clear need for improved diagnostic testing, most likely using molecular methodology rather than culture. […] Microbiological culture remains the gold standard for the diagnosis of RTIs, the limitations of which include long analysis times and labour intensiveness. […] Using current methods, it takes 2-3 days minimum to identify the pathogen and its antibiotic susceptibility profile. […] Delays in accurate pathogen-specific diagnoses may result in the prescription of inappropriate antibiotic therapy and poor treatment outcomes. […] Thus, there is a great need for rapid, accurate molecular diagnostics tests for the detection of RTIs, capable of identifying a large panel of causative microorganism/s to enable appropriate microorganism-specific therapy to be rapidly initiated for improved management outcomes.

• #1 Respiratory Tract Infections – Antibiotic Prescribing – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK53632/

  There is evidence from randomised placebo-controlled trials (RCTs) that antibiotics have limited efficacy in treating a large proportion of RTIs in adults and children (see section 2). These include acute otitis media (AOM), acute cough/acute bronchitis, acute sore throat/acute pharyngitis/acute tonsillitis, acute rhinosinusitis and the common cold. These conditions are largely self-limiting and complications are likely to be rare if antibiotics are withheld. Therefore, these five common RTIs are the focus of this guideline. The inappropriate prescribing of antibiotics has the potential to cause drug-related adverse events, escalate the prevalence of antibiotic-resistant organisms in the community and increase primary care consultation rates for minor illness (Standing Medical Advisory Committee 1998).

• #1 Respiratory tract infection – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_tract_infection

  Antibiotics are a medicine designed to treat bacterial infections that need a more severe treatment course; antibiotic use is not recommended for common bacterial infections as the immune system will resolve such infections. […] This medicine does not effectively treat a viral infection like sore throats, influenza, bronchitis, sinusitis and common respiratory tract infections. […] The CDC has reported that antibiotic prescription is high; 47 million prescriptions in the United States in 2018 were made for infections that do not need antibiotics to be treated with. […] It is recommended to avoid antibiotic use unless bacterial infections are severe, transmissible, or have a high risk of further complications if left untreated. […] Unnecessary use of antibiotics could increase antibiotic-resistant infections, affect the digestive system, create allergic reactions, and other intense side effects.

• #1 Diagnosis and Management of Recurrent Respiratory Tract Infections in Children: A Practical Guide

  https://brieflands.com/articles/apid-20283.html

  For recurrent RTIs, preventive strategies are a cornerstone of clinical management, as these provide a means to interrupt the vicious cycle of microbial infection, repeated mucosal inflammation due to the interaction between microbes and the hosts first-line immune defense, and defective immune response. […] The use of bacterial lysates (immunomodulators) to enhance non-specific immunity is shifting to the forefront of preventive strategies for recurrent RTIs.

• #1 Respiratory tract infections | Healthify

  https://healthify.nz/health-a-z/r/respiratory-tract-infections/

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) can affect both the upper and lower parts of your respiratory (breathing) system. […] Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are divided into 2 categories upper and lower. […] Lower RTIs, such as pneumonia, tend to be more serious than upper RTIs, such as colds or a sinus infection. […] Most upper RTIs are caused by a virus. […] However, severe or persistent sinus infections may need treatment with antibiotics. […] Some lower RTIs (eg, pneumonia or severe bronchitis) are usually caused by bacteria. […] The most common cause of a sore throat is a viral infection, but some people with a sore throat may have strep throat. […] Strep throat is a bacterial infection that can lead to rheumatic fever and permanent heart damage in certain people if it isn’t treated. […] If you keep getting RTIs or you’re at a high risk of getting one (eg, because you’re over 65 years of age or have a serious long-term health condition, such as diabetes, heart disease, asthma, or COPD) also ask your healthcare provider about the pneumococcal vaccine.

• #1 Upper Respiratory Tract Infections | University Health Services

  https://uhs.princeton.edu/health-resources/upper-respiratory-tract-infections

  Upper respiratory tract infections are caused by viruses. Common respiratory tract infection include common cold or flu, and common symptoms are fever, cough, runny nose, sore throat. These may occur year round or seasonally (fall and winter). […] Antibiotics do not cure viral infections. If given when not needed, antibiotics can be harmful. […] It is very common to receive antibiotic treatment for a viral infection when you go to an Urgent Care center. […] Research shows, however, that this sensation of feeling better often occurs because a persons immune system has gotten to work and started to clear the infecting virus on its own, irrespective of antibiotic use. […] To lower your risk of contracting an illness, try these general tips: […] Avoid smoking tobacco or cannabis, which can increase lung inflammation and susceptibility to illnesses, as well as exacerbate respiratory illness symptoms.

• #1 Foods To Eat And Foods To Avoid For Preventing Respiratory Infections | MrMed

  https://www.mrmed.in/health-library/respiratory-disorder/prevent-respiratory-infections-foods-to-eat-and-avoid

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) affect the areas we use to breathe, including our sinuses, throat, lungs, and airways. […] Common causes include viruses, like the common cold and flu, and bacteria, such as Streptococcus pneumonia. […] A study conducted in 2020 during the pandemic stated that poor nutritional status impairs the ability of your immune system to fight back infections, particularly viruses. […] Foods that help prevent respiratory diseases and support lung health include apples and leafy greens. Omega-3-rich foods like salmon reduce inflammation, while citrus fruits boost vitamin C to enhance respiratory function. […] Foods to avoid for lung health include processed sugars and trans fats, such as sugary snacks and fried foods, which can harm lung function. Excessive dairy may also cause mucus buildup. […] Turmeric is excellent for lung health due to its anti-inflammatory properties. Additionally, lentils and spinach provide essential nutrients that support respiratory function.

• #1

  https://turkjpediatr.org/article/view/918

  The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence and seasonal distribution of respiratory viruses in pediatric patients. A total of 1240 pediatric outpatients and inpatients who had been admitted to the hospital with symptoms of upper and lower respiratory tract infections (RTIs) were enrolled. Viruses were identified in 339 (27.3%) of cases, with the leading three viruses being respiratory syncytial virus (RSV, 74/339; 21.8%), human rhinovirus (62/339; 18.3%), and multiple viruses (56/339; 16.5%). […] With an overall viral agent detection rate of 27.3%, the findings of the present study suggest that other respiratory pathogens, whether viral or bacterial, may also lead to hospital visits due to respiratory tract symptoms in children.

• #1 A Respiratory Tract Bacterial Infection was Distributed to the Co

  https://www.interesjournals.org/articles/a-respiratory-tract-bacterial-infection-was-distributed-to-the-community-testing-for-susceptibility-to-etiological-agents-90725.html

  One of the main reasons people visits their GP or pharmacy is thought to be respiratory tract infections. Infections of the respiratory tract (RTIs) are the main cause of death in the USA. The severity of lower respiratory infections (LRIs) tends to be higher than that of upper respiratory infections. All infectious diseases included, LRIs are the most common cause of death. Bronchitis and pneumonia are the two LRIs that are most prevalent. […] Upper respiratory tract infections are most frequently caused by Group A beta-hemolytic streptococci. But the most typical reason for lower respiratory tract infections is K. pneumonia. The explanation for this absence of screening for all harmful viruses and search for bacterial infection exclusively is because the incidence of bacteria is relatively low even in patients who suffer from respiratory tract illness. The therapist can use the susceptibility data from our study to inform their choice of therapy choices. The bacterium isolates tested less resistant to antibiotics, and the usage of antibiotics without restraint is to blame for that.

• #1 Respiratory Tract Infections and Laboratory Diagnostic Methods: A Review with A Focus on Syndromic Panel-Based Assays

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2607/10/9/1856

  The implementation of syndromic panels in the respiratory infection diagnostic algorithm has the potential to be a powerful decision-making tool for patient management, especially in emergency departments, despite requiring the appropriate use of the test in different patient populations. […] In conclusion, the use of syndromic panels for the detection of respiratory pathogens is associated with a radically reduced time-to-results and, in parallel, to increased detection of clinically relevant pathogens compared to the standard methods.

• #1

  https://consensus.app/questions/respiratory-tract-infections/

  Respiratory tract infections remain a significant public health challenge due to their high prevalence, diverse causative agents, and the complications associated with antimicrobial resistance. […] Bacterial colonization in the upper airway is crucial for respiratory tract infections, and understanding this process reveals evolutionary pressures that contribute to virulence and pathogenesis. […] Rhinoviruses cause the majority of acute respiratory tract infections, and advances in diagnostic techniques have improved the ability to target specific therapeutic agents at causative pathogens. […] Upper respiratory tract infections in adults cause significant morbidity and mortality, with Mycoplasma pneumoniae being the most common causative agent, and a diverse array of pathogens causing pneumonia.

• #1 Patient perceptions of vulnerability to recurrent respiratory tract infections and prevention strategies: a qualitative study | BMJ Open

  https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/12/4/e055565

  Participants understandings of their susceptibility to RTIs were multifactorial and included both transmission via others and personal vulnerabilities. […] Participants had complex, multidimensional understandings about why RTIs occur and how and why they are more susceptible than others. […] Many participants referred to environmental influences as responsible for their RTIs. […] In addition to the causal factors mentioned above, most participants perceived that deficiencies within their bodies had created vulnerabilities to RTIs. […] Despite trying various strategies to prevent infections, RTIs persisted and they often described feeling powerless to influence infections.

• #2

  https://publish.kne-publishing.com/index.php/JMB/article/view/14373

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are considered as one of the most important causes of morbidity and mortality, worldwide. A wide variety of bacteria and viruses are responsible for the development of RTIs. […] Considering the importance and economic burden of respiratory tract infections as well as their diversity and widespread prevalence in different communities, it is necessary to implement preventive measures at the national level to control and deal with respiratory diseases with high prevalence in all age groups, in addition to observing the principles of health and hygiene.

• #2 Respiratory tract infections (RTIs)

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/respiratory-tract-infection/

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are infections of parts of the body involved in breathing, such as the sinuses, throat, airways or lungs. […] Treatment for a respiratory tract infection (RTI) will depend on the cause of your infection. […] If your RTI is caused by a virus (like the common cold), it will usually clear up by itself after a few weeks. Antibiotics will not help. […] If your RTI is caused by bacteria (like pneumonia), a GP may prescribe antibiotics. […] Antibiotics are only used to treat bacterial infections. They’re not used for treating viral infections because they do not work for this type of infection. […] There are several different types of respiratory tract infection (RTI). They’re usually grouped into upper RTIs and lower RTIs. […] Upper RTI affect the sinuses and throat. […] Lower RTIs affect the airways and lungs. […] Flu and COVID-19 can both be upper or lower RTIs. […] Lower RTIs tend to last longer and can be more serious.

• #2 Upper Respiratory Infection: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4022-upper-respiratory-infection

  Upper respiratory infections (URIs) are viruses and bacteria that infect your respiratory tract above your vocal cords. […] Most URIs are caused by viruses and go away on their own. […] An upper respiratory infection (URI) is a viral or bacterial illness in the upper part of your respiratory system. This includes your nose, sinuses and throat. […] And its true common colds and other viruses are usually to blame for URIs. But some URIs, like strep throat or some cases of sinusitis, are bacterial infections. […] Viruses cause most upper respiratory infections. But bacteria and even fungi can cause them, too. Specific causes can include: […] Streptococcus bacteria, like group A strep and Streptococcus pneumoniae […] Haemophilus influenza bacteria […] Moraxella catarrhalis bacteria […] Treatment for upper respiratory infections depends on the cause. There arent any specific treatments for most viral URIs, like colds. Providers treat bacterial infections, like strep throat, with antibiotics.

• #2 An Overview of Common Respiratory Tract Infections | Ausmed

  https://www.ausmed.com/learn/articles/respiratory-tract-infections

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are various infections that affect parts of the respiratory system, such as the sinuses, throat, airway or lungs (NHS 2024a). […] Lower RTIs are generally longer-lasting and more serious (NHS 2024a). […] RTIs are generally transmitted by direct contact with a contaminated surface or an infected person expelling droplets into the air via coughing, sneezing or talking (SA Health 2022). […] The common cold is the most prevalent contagious disease in Australia. It can be caused by over 200 different viruses, most of which belong to the rhinovirus or coronavirus families. […] Influenza (the flu) is similar to the common cold but is generally more severe with a very sudden onset. In some cases, it can lead to life-threatening complications. […] Pneumonia is an infection that causes inflammation of the alveoli (air sacs) in one or both lungs. The alveoli fill with secretions and fluid, decreasing the ability for oxygen to be transported across the tissue to adequately oxygenate vital organs.

• #2 Respiratory tract infection – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_tract_infection

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are infectious diseases involving the lower or upper respiratory tract. An infection of this type usually is further classified as an upper respiratory tract infection (URI or URTI) or a lower respiratory tract infection (LRI or LRTI). Lower respiratory infections, such as pneumonia, tend to be far more severe than upper respiratory infections, such as the common cold. […] Lower respiratory tract infections (LRIs) are generally more severe than upper respiratory infections. LRIs are the leading cause of death among all infectious diseases. […] The two most common LRIs are bronchitis and pneumonia. […] Influenza affects both the upper and lower respiratory tracts, but more dangerous strains such as the highly pernicious H5N1 tend to bind to receptors deep in the lungs.

• #2 Epidemiological trends of respiratory tract pathogens detected via mPCR in Australian adult patients before COVID-19 | BMC Infectious Diseases | Full Text

  https://bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12879-023-08750-7

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are a major global health burden due to their high morbidity and mortality. […] The majority of RTIs are caused by viruses, followed by bacterial infections. […] Overall, Picornavirus (predominantly Rhinovirus) was the most frequently detected pathogen. […] Influenza A was found to be the second most common RTI pathogen. […] We observed RSV to be the third most prevalent virus in our study, with peak numbers in autumn and winter. […] M. pneumoniae was a common cause of respiratory tract infections before the COVID-19 pandemic, with worldwide incidence of 8.6% from 2017 to 2020, measured by direct test methods. […] Our co-infection rate of 3.7% was higher than the results reported by Vissaeux et al. […] The high rates of non-pneumococcal aetiology of RTI positivity obtained in this real-world study highlights the significant burden of infection, dominated by Picornavirus, influenza A and RSV, and the urgent need for preventative and treatment options.

• #2 Post-Travel Respiratory Infections | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2024/posttravel-evaluation/respiratory-infections

  Respiratory infections are a major reason for returning travelers to seek medical care. […] In general, the respiratory infections that affect travelers are like those in non-travelers, but it is important for healthcare professionals to be vigilant for travelers’ potential exposure to novel, emerging, or geographically restricted respiratory pathogens. […] Bacterial causes of respiratory illnesses include Bordetella pertussis, Burkholderia pseudomallei (the cause of melioidosis), Chlamydia pneumoniae, Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Haemophilus influenzae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, and Streptococcus pneumoniae. […] Viral pathogens are the most common causes of respiratory infection in travelers. […] Causative agents include adenoviruses, coronaviruses (e.g., severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 [SARS-CoV-2], the cause of coronavirus disease 2019 [COVID-19], and the common human coronaviruses [including types 229E, NL63, OC43, and HKU1]), human metapneumovirus, influenza virus, measles virus, mumps virus, rubella virus, parainfluenza virus, respiratory syncytial virus, rhinoviruses, and varicella virus.

• #2 Respiratory Infections in Children: An Updated Review of Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, Treatment, Biochemical Aspects, and Nursing Interventions

  https://www.jmchemsci.com/article_211142.html

  The pediatric respiratory tract is vulnerable to a wide range of pathogens, primarily viruses and, to a lesser extent, bacteria. Viral pathogens are responsible for the majority of RTIs, with common culprits including respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), rhinovirus, adenovirus, influenza virus, para-influenza virus, and human metapneumovirus. RSV is particularly notable for causing severe infections such as bronchiolitis in infants and young children. […] Bacterial pathogens, including Streptococcus pneumonia, group A beta-hemolytic streptococci (GABHS), Haemophilus influenzae, and Mycoplasma pneumonia, are significant contributors to secondary infections or primary illnesses like pneumonia and pharyngitis. Co-infections, involving simultaneous viral and bacterial pathogens, can complicate clinical presentations and treatment outcomes.

• #2 Upper Respiratory Tract Infection: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/302460-overview

  Most URIs are viral in origin. Typical viral agents that cause URIs include the following: Rhinoviruses, Coronaviruses, Adenoviruses, Coxsackieviruses. […] For the most part, similar agents cause URI in adults and children; however, Moraxella catarrhalis and bocavirus cause URIs more commonly in children than in adults. […] Of the more than 200 viruses known to cause the symptoms of the common cold, the principal ones are as follows: Rhinoviruses: These cause approximately 30-50% of colds in adults; they grow optimally at temperatures near 32.8C (91F), which is the temperature inside the human nares. […] Other viruses that account for many URIs include the following: Adenoviruses, Orthomyxoviruses (including influenza A and B viruses), Paramyxoviruses (eg, parainfluenza virus [PIV]), RSV, EBV, Human metapneumovirus (hMPV), Bocavirus: Commonly associated with nasopharyngeal symptoms in children.

• #2 Respiratory Infections Tests and Diagnostics | Pioneering Diagnostics

  https://www.biomerieux.com/corp/en/our-offer/hospital-laboratory/patient-condition/respiratory-infections-tests-and-diagnostics.html

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) could be classified into two categories, based on the location of the infection: upper respiratory tract and lower respiratory tract. […] The main viruses identified in these infections are Rhinoviruses, Coronaviruses, Respiratory Syncytial Viruses, Influenza Viruses, Parainfluenza Viruses, Adenoviruses, Cytomegaloviruses, Epstein Barr Viruses, and Herpes Simplex Viruses, Human Metapneumovirus, and Enteroviruses. […] URTIs are very common and are usually caused by viruses that heal without antibiotic treatment. […] However, it is recommended to prescribe an appropriate antibiotic in certain clinical situations suggesting a bacterial infection. […] Potentially more severe than URTIs, lower respiratory tract infections (LRTIs) include acute bronchitis, pneumonia, exacerbation of chronic bronchitis, and bronchiolitis (in young children in general.)

• #2 Upper Respiratory Tract Infection: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/302460-overview

  Viral causes are similar to those of viral nasopharyngitis and include the following: Rhinovirus, Enterovirus, Coronavirus, Influenza A and B virus, PIV, RSV, Adenovirus. […] Bacterial causes are similar to those seen in otitis media. Bacterial pathogens isolated from maxillary sinus aspirates of patients with acute bacterial rhinosinusitis include the following: Streptococcus pneumoniae: 38% in adults, 21-33% in children; Haemophilus influenzae: 36% in adults, 31-32% in children; Moraxella catarrhalis: 16% in adults; 8-11% in children; Staphylococcus aureus: 13% in adults, 1% in children. […] This is a bacterial infection. In the vast majority of children, H influenzae type b (Hib) is isolated from blood or epiglottal cultures. Since the routine use of the Hib conjugate vaccine began in 1990, case rates in children younger than 5 years have declined by more than 95%. […] Other bacteria, found more commonly in adults than in children, include group A streptococci, S pneumoniae, and M catarrhalis. In adults, cultures are most likely to be negative.

• #2 Lower respiratory tract infection – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_respiratory_tract_infection

  Lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI) is a term often used as a synonym for pneumonia but can also be applied to other types of infection including lung abscess and acute bronchitis. Symptoms include shortness of breath, weakness, fever, coughing and fatigue. […] The most common cause of pneumonia is pneumococcal bacteria, Streptococcus pneumoniae accounts for 2/3 of bacteremic pneumonias. […] Typical bacterial Infections: Haemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae. […] Atypical bacterial Infections: Legionella pneumophila, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydophila pneumoniae, Chlamydia psittaci. […] Parasitic infections: Respiratory cryptosporidiosis. […] Viral infections: Adenovirus, Influenza A virus, Influenza B virus, Human parainfluenza viruses, Human respiratory syncytial virus, Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2).

• #2 A Respiratory Tract Bacterial Infection was Distributed to the Co

  https://www.interesjournals.org/articles/a-respiratory-tract-bacterial-infection-was-distributed-to-the-community-testing-for-susceptibility-to-etiological-agents-90725.html

  One of the main reasons people visits their GP or pharmacy is thought to be respiratory tract infections. Infections of the respiratory tract (RTIs) are the main cause of death in the USA. The severity of lower respiratory infections (LRIs) tends to be higher than that of upper respiratory infections. All infectious diseases included, LRIs are the most common cause of death. Bronchitis and pneumonia are the two LRIs that are most prevalent. […] Upper respiratory tract infections are most frequently caused by Group A beta-hemolytic streptococci. But the most typical reason for lower respiratory tract infections is K. pneumonia. The explanation for this absence of screening for all harmful viruses and search for bacterial infection exclusively is because the incidence of bacteria is relatively low even in patients who suffer from respiratory tract illness. The therapist can use the susceptibility data from our study to inform their choice of therapy choices. The bacterium isolates tested less resistant to antibiotics, and the usage of antibiotics without restraint is to blame for that.

• #2

  https://consensus.app/questions/respiratory-tract-infections/

  Respiratory tract infections remain a significant public health challenge due to their high prevalence, diverse causative agents, and the complications associated with antimicrobial resistance. […] Bacterial colonization in the upper airway is crucial for respiratory tract infections, and understanding this process reveals evolutionary pressures that contribute to virulence and pathogenesis. […] Rhinoviruses cause the majority of acute respiratory tract infections, and advances in diagnostic techniques have improved the ability to target specific therapeutic agents at causative pathogens. […] Upper respiratory tract infections in adults cause significant morbidity and mortality, with Mycoplasma pneumoniae being the most common causative agent, and a diverse array of pathogens causing pneumonia.

• #2 Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) – nose, throat & lungs

  https://www.nps.org.au/consumers/respiratory-tract-infections-rtis-nose-throat-and-lungs

  Most sinus infections are caused by a virus, so antibiotics wont help. Antibiotics do not kill viruses. […] Most throat infections are caused by viruses. […] Whooping cough is usually a much less serious infection in older children, and adults who will have developed some immunity to the infection if they have been vaccinated with the whooping cough vaccines.

• #2 Post-Travel Respiratory Infections | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2024/posttravel-evaluation/respiratory-infections

  Other viruses of special concern to travelers include Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) coronavirus and highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses; consider these viruses in travelers with new-onset respiratory illness, including people requiring hospitalization, when no alternative cause has been identified. […] H. capsulatum, influenza virus, measles, Legionella species, and SARS-CoV-2 are some of the pathogens associated with respiratory tract outbreaks in travelers. […] Groups having a greater risk for respiratory tract infection include children, older adults, people with comorbid pulmonary conditions (e.g., asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease [COPD]), and immunosuppressed individuals. […] The air quality at many travel destinations might be poor, and exposure to carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, sulfur dioxide, and particulate matter is associated with health risks, including respiratory tract inflammation, exacerbations of asthma or COPD, impaired lung function, bronchitis, and pneumonia.

• #2 Respiratory Infections Tests and Diagnostics | Pioneering Diagnostics

  https://www.biomerieux.com/corp/en/our-offer/hospital-laboratory/patient-condition/respiratory-infections-tests-and-diagnostics.html

  In the majority of cases it is caused by respiratory viruses including Influenza, Parainfluenza, Adenoviruses, and Respiratory Syncytial Viruses. […] In community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), bacteria are mainly identified as the source. […] These bacteria are frequently associated with secondary infections following a viral respiratory infection. […] First-line antibiotics are often effective in treating patients with exacerbated chronic bronchitis or pneumonia, the underlying cause is usually bacterial. […] Despite a decrease in mortality, lower respiratory tract infections are the leading cause of death from infectious disease. […] Taken as a whole, respiratory diseases are responsible for 2.377 million deaths worldwide each year. […] Although very frequent, RTIs remain a challenge for clinicians as they have various clinical presentations / severities and are caused by numerous microbiological agents (bacteria, virus, fungus, parasite).

• #2 Predisposing factors to acquisition of acute respiratory tract infections in the community: a systematic review and meta-analysis | BMC Infectious Diseases | Full Text

  https://bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12879-021-06954-3

  Preventing respiratory tract infections (RTIs) could have profound effects on quality of life, primary care workload, antibiotic prescribing and stewardship. […] We identified several modifiable risk factors associated with increased likelihood of acquiring RTIs in the community, including low BMI, contact with children and pets. […] Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are the single most common infections seen in primary care, and a major contributor to the overall burden of disease worldwide. […] On average, adults will have between two and five RTIs annually, usually the common cold or upper respiratory infections. […] RTIs are also the most common indications for antibiotic prescribing, accounting for around 60% of all antibiotics prescribed in primary care, despite rarely providing patient benefit.

• #2 Diagnosis and Management of Recurrent Respiratory Tract Infections in Children: A Practical Guide

  https://brieflands.com/articles/apid-20283.html

  Several characteristics of RTIs contribute to the burden of illness. First, RTIs tend to recur in pediatric patients. The clinical sequelae of RTIs can result in long-term complications and further contribute to the disease burden, resulting in secondary infections, wheezing, and the development of asthma. […] Another important consequence of pediatric RTIs stems from the fact that they are a leading cause of antibiotic prescriptions. Frequent antibiotic use, particularly for upper RTIs of viral origin, is common practice in ambulatory care. […] Compared to healthy adults, infants and young children are at increased risk of recurrent RTIs due to the relative immaturity of their immune system. […] Recurrent infections of the respiratory tissues may result in virus-induced immune dysfunction and can lead to a vicious cycle of recurrent RTIs with bacterial super-infections, exacerbation of cough, and increased risk of asthma development.

• #2 Lower respiratory tract infection: Symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/324413

  Lower respiratory tract infections are any infections in the lungs or below the voice box. These include pneumonia, bronchitis, and tuberculosis. […] Infections in the lower respiratory tract are primarily the result of: […] viruses, as with the flu or respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) […] bacteria, such as Streptococcus or Staphylococcus aureus […] fungal infections […] mycoplasma, which are neither viruses or bacteria but are small organisms with characteristics of both. […] In some cases, substances from the environment can irritate or cause inflammation in the airways or lungs, which can lead to an infection. These include: […] tobacco smoke […] dust […] chemicals […] vapors and fumes […] allergens […] air pollution. […] Risk factors that make a person more likely to develop a lower respiratory tract infection include: […] a recent cold or flu […] a weakened immune system […] being more than 65 years old […] being under 5 years old […] recent surgery.

• #2 Recurrent Respiratory Infections in Adults

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/recurrent-respiratory-infections-in-adults-4777146

  Recurrent respiratory infections are common in adults. However, frequently recurring infections can also be a sign of an underlying medical condition. […] Respiratory infections involve the upper respiratory tract, lower respiratory tract, or both. They can be caused by viruses, bacteria, and fungi and include the common cold, sinusitis, pneumonia, or bronchitis. […] More frequent respiratory infections may be caused by increased levels of exposure, underlying lung disease, anatomical or structural problems in the airways, and immune system disorders. […] Recurrent respiratory infections in adults occur when exposure to infectious organisms exceeds the immune system’s ability to fight them. They can be caused by an anatomical problem or a weak immune system (immunodeficiency). […] Anatomic or structural problems in the airways are the most common cause of otherwise unexplained recurrent respiratory infections in adults.

• #2 Foods To Eat And Foods To Avoid For Preventing Respiratory Infections | MrMed

  https://www.mrmed.in/health-library/respiratory-disorder/prevent-respiratory-infections-foods-to-eat-and-avoid

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) affect the areas we use to breathe, including our sinuses, throat, lungs, and airways. […] Common causes include viruses, like the common cold and flu, and bacteria, such as Streptococcus pneumonia. […] A study conducted in 2020 during the pandemic stated that poor nutritional status impairs the ability of your immune system to fight back infections, particularly viruses. […] Foods that help prevent respiratory diseases and support lung health include apples and leafy greens. Omega-3-rich foods like salmon reduce inflammation, while citrus fruits boost vitamin C to enhance respiratory function. […] Foods to avoid for lung health include processed sugars and trans fats, such as sugary snacks and fried foods, which can harm lung function. Excessive dairy may also cause mucus buildup. […] Turmeric is excellent for lung health due to its anti-inflammatory properties. Additionally, lentils and spinach provide essential nutrients that support respiratory function.

• #2 Recurrent Respiratory Infections in Adults

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/recurrent-respiratory-infections-in-adults-4777146

  Less commonly, recurrent respiratory infections are caused by an immune system disorder. This can be from a primary immunodeficiency, like Selective IgA deficiency, CVID, and SPAD, or a secondary immunodeficiency from an underlying viral infection, a side effect of medication, cancer, or malabsorption.

• #2 Respiratory viral infections in pragmatically selected adults in intensive care units | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-99608-y

  Age less than 65 years old, household contact with someone having upper RTI, the presence of fever, productive cough, or sore throat, were significantly associated with VRTIs. […] Without the use of multiplex respiratory virus testing, the prevalence of non-influenza VRTIs would be frankly underestimated.

• #2 Are Upper Respiratory Infections Contagious? – Healthcare Associates of Texas

  https://healthcareassociates.com/are-upper-respiratory-infections-contagious/

  Upper respiratory infections (URIs) are among the most common viral illnesses in the United States, with children experiencing around seven per year and adults around three. […] Many types of viruses and bacteria can cause an upper respiratory infection. Yet, viruses are the most common cause. […] Bacterial infections account for less than 12% of all upper respiratory illnesses. […] Upper respiratory infections can happen to anyone, but certain risk factors increase the likelihood of contracting them. […] Certain medical conditions may increase your risk: Those with asthma or allergic rhinitis are more susceptible to upper respiratory infections. […] Tobacco usage: Smoking tobacco is associated with an increased risk for upper respiratory infections and may prolong symptoms. […] Compromised immune system: Conditions like cancer, cystic fibrosis, HIV, or other conditions that lower the immune defenses may increase the odds of contracting an upper respiratory infection. […] The short answer is yes. Upper respiratory infections spread through tiny droplets when someone coughs, sneezes, or exhales. […] Viruses cause most upper respiratory infections and will resolve on their own without the need for antibiotics.

• #2 Respiratory tract infection – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_tract_infection

  Despite some uncertainty due to small study sizes, there is some evidence that exercise may reduce severity of symptoms but had no impact on number of episodes or number of symptom days per episode. […] Viruses that cause RTI are more transmissible at very high or low relative humidity; ideal humidity for indoor spaces is between 40 and 60%. Therefore, relative humidity in this range can help lessen the risk of aerosol transmission. […] Several factors explain winter peaks in respiratory infections, including environmental conditions and changes in human behaviors. Viruses that cause respiratory infections are affected by environmental conditions like relative humidity and temperature.

• #2 Respiratory infections – FastMed

  https://www.fastmed.com/services/urgent-care-services/illnesses-and-injuries-treated/respiratory-infections/

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) include any infection of the sinuses, throat, airways, or lungs. […] What causes respiratory infections? […] Respiratory infections quickly spread from one person to another. […] Respiratory tract infections can also be spread through indirect contact, such as touching a surface or object that has been touched by someone else with a virus.

• #2 Post-Travel Respiratory Infections | Yellow Book | CDC

  https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2024/posttravel-evaluation/respiratory-infections

  Transmission of respiratory pathogens during air travel can occur via several pathways, including direct droplet spread, direct physical contact, fomites, and suspended small particles (droplet nuclei). […] Despite this, COVID-19, influenza, measles, tuberculosis (TB), and other diseases have been transmitted on aircraft. […] Most respiratory infections, especially those of the upper respiratory tract, are mild. […] Lower respiratory tract infections, particularly pneumonia, can be more severe. […] Most viral respiratory infections are mild and do not require specific treatment. […] Vaccines are available to prevent or reduce severity of a number of respiratory diseases, including COVID-19, diphtheria, H. influenzae type b (in young children), influenza, measles, mumps, rubella, pertussis, pneumococcal disease, varicella, and respiratory syncytial virus.

• #2 Respiratory Tract Infections – Antibiotic Prescribing – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK53632/

  Respiratory tract infection (RTI) is defined as any infectious disease of the upper or lower respiratory tract. Upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs) include the common cold, laryngitis, pharyngitis/tonsillitis, acute rhinitis, acute rhinosinusitis and acute otitis media. Lower respiratory tract infections (LRTIs) include acute bronchitis, bronchiolitis, pneumonia and tracheitis. Antibiotics are commonly prescribed for RTIs in adults and children in primary care. General practice consultation rates in England and Wales show that a quarter of the population will visit their GP because of an RTI each year (Ashworth et al. 2005). RTIs are the reason for 60% of all antibiotic prescribing in general practice, and this constitutes a significant cost to the NHS. Annual prescribing costs for acute cough alone exceed 15 million (Lindbaek 2006).

• #2 Upper Respiratory and Lower Respiratory Tract Infections | Cystic Fibrosis News TodayEnvelope icon

  https://cysticfibrosisnewstoday.com/upper-respiratory-tract-infections-vs-lower-respiratory-tract-infections/

  As cystic fibrosis (CF) causes excessive mucus production, respiratory tract infections (RTI) — such as those caused by the common cold or influenza — can be quite common and cause more severe symptoms. […] For people with CF, viral or bacterial infections can lead to lengthy respiratory illness, which is associated with a decline in lung function and a higher risk of death. […] The common cold is, in the vast majority of cases, caused by rhinovirus. Other viruses associated with the common cold include adenovirus, parainfluenza virus, and enterovirus. Rhinovirus causes up to 80% of all respiratory infections in peak seasons. […] Other causes of upper respiratory infections include the influenza virus and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). Roughly 15% of sore throats (pharyngitis) are caused by bacteria; the most common is Staphylococcus pyogenes, a Group A streptococcus, which causes strep throat.

• #2 Respiratory tract infections | Healthify

  https://healthify.nz/health-a-z/r/respiratory-tract-infections/

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) can affect both the upper and lower parts of your respiratory (breathing) system. […] Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are divided into 2 categories upper and lower. […] Lower RTIs, such as pneumonia, tend to be more serious than upper RTIs, such as colds or a sinus infection. […] Most upper RTIs are caused by a virus. […] However, severe or persistent sinus infections may need treatment with antibiotics. […] Some lower RTIs (eg, pneumonia or severe bronchitis) are usually caused by bacteria. […] The most common cause of a sore throat is a viral infection, but some people with a sore throat may have strep throat. […] Strep throat is a bacterial infection that can lead to rheumatic fever and permanent heart damage in certain people if it isn’t treated. […] If you keep getting RTIs or you’re at a high risk of getting one (eg, because you’re over 65 years of age or have a serious long-term health condition, such as diabetes, heart disease, asthma, or COPD) also ask your healthcare provider about the pneumococcal vaccine.

• #2

  https://111.wales.nhs.uk/encyclopaedia/r/article/respiratorytractinfection

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are infections of parts of the body involved in breathing, such as the sinuses, throat, airways or lungs. Most RTIs get better without treatment, but sometimes you may need to see a GP. […] Treatment will depend on the cause of your RTI: a virus (like colds) this usually clears up by itself after a few weeks and antibiotics will not help […] bacteria (like pneumonia) your GP may prescribe antibiotics (make sure you complete the whole course as advised by your GP, even if you start to feel better). […] RTIs are often spread in the coughs and sneezes of someone with an infection. […] There are several different types. They’re usually grouped into upper and lower RTIs. […] Upper RTIs (sinuses and throat) Common cold, Sinusitis (sinus infection), Tonsillitis, Laryngitis […] Lower RTIs (airways and lungs) Bronchitis, Bronchiolitis, Chest infection, Pneumonia (lung infection). […] Lower RTIs tend to last longer and can be more serious.

• #2 Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) – nose, throat & lungs

  https://www.nps.org.au/consumers/respiratory-tract-infections-rtis-nose-throat-and-lungs

  An A-Z of common RTIs infections of your respiratory tract the parts of your body that help you breathe your nose, throat and lungs. The infection can be caused by bacteria, a virus or even fungi. […] Bronchitis is usually caused by a virus and often develops after a sore throat (pharyngitis), a cold, or 'flu’ (influenza). […] Most colds follow a clear pattern and resolve naturally within 710 days. Antibiotics do not help. Colds are caused by viruses antibiotics only work on bacterial infections. […] Antibiotics wont help treat your laryngitis. You can get laryngitis when you have a cold or flu (influenza). These infections are caused by viruses, so antibiotics won’t help. […] Pneumonia is an inflammation of your lung tissue that is caused by an infection. The infection may be in one or both of your lungs and it can be caused by bacteria or a virus.

• #2 Respiratory Infections In Children: Signs And Symptoms – Applied BioCode

  https://www.apbiocode.com/respiratory-infections-in-children-signs-and-symptoms/

  A respiratory tract infection (RTI) is an infectious disease affecting the respiratory system. This network of organs and tissues includes the nose, throat, sinuses, airways and lungs. RTIs can be caused by viral or bacterial pathogens. […] The etiology of the flu is an influenza virus, whereas viral pathogens are the agents responsible for a cold. […] The primary etiology of viral sinusitis is the common cold. […] Viral infections that cause URIs are the most frequent cause of acute laryngitis. […] Other pharyngitis etiologies include allergens, bacteria group A strep, varicella (chickenpox) and croup. […] Tonsillitis is an inflammation caused by an infection of the tonsils, the two lymph nodes located at the back of the throat. Its caused by viral pathogens like the common cold or flu. […] Croup causes the airway to constrict and becomes more difficult to breathe. Its characterized by inflammation of the larynx, trachea and bronchi.

• #2 Lower Respiratory Tract Infection | Riley Children’s Health

  https://www.rileychildrens.org/health-info/lower-respiratory-tract-infection

  A lower respiratory tract infection (RTI) occurs when there is an infection of the lungs, specifically in the lower airways. This infection is usually caused by a virus, but it can also be caused by bacteria or other less common organisms. […] Common lower RTIs in infants and young children include the flu, viral bronchiolitis and pneumonia. […] If the infection is caused by bacteria, antibiotics may be prescribed.

• #2 Diagnosing upper and lower respiratory tract infections | Medical Laboratory Observer

  https://www.mlo-online.com/continuing-education/article/21292505/diagnosing-upper-and-lower-respiratory-tract-infections

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are among the most common reasons why patients visit their physicians. […] Though the majority of respiratory tract infections are caused by viruses, some bacteria and fungi can also cause respiratory tract infections. […] RTIs can be classified as upper and lower respiratory tract infections depending on the site of the infection in the respiratory system. […] Upper respiratory tract infections (URIs) are caused by viruses in approximately 90 to 98 percent of cases. […] Lower respiratory tract infections (LRIs) can be caused by viruses, bacteria, and fungi. […] Though viruses are known to cause more cases of respiratory tract infections, some bacteria can cause upper and lower respiratory tract infections. […] Co-infection with a virus and bacteria may contribute to severe disease and increased mortality in patients.

• #2 Respiratory tract infections

  https://diagnostics.roche.com/us/en/article-listing/health-topics/infectious-diseases/respiratory-tract-infections.html

  Acute lower respiratory infections are one of the leading causes of death and disability in the world. […] Respiratory infections are caused by a wide variety of pathogens. Viruses like influenza A and B, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) command much attention, but similar symptoms may also be presented by other agents, including bacteria like Streptococcus and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB, TB). […] An early and accurate diagnosis is essential to identifying the cause of a respiratory infection and ensuring appropriate antimicrobial therapy. […] To address the prevalence, complexity, and variety of respiratory tract infections, Roche offers a range of tests and technologies to support the detection and aid in the management of respiratory disease from the worlds first commercial PCR test to detect SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19) and its respective antibody test, to molecular point-of-care multiplex assays that can differentiate common viral agents, such as influenza A, influenza B, and RSV, in a single test.

• #2 What is Respiratory tract infections| Meaning In Urdu, 2 Types, Causes & Best Treatment – smarthealer.pk

  https://smarthealer.pk/respiratory-tract-infections/

  Respiratory tract infections can be caused by various pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, and fungi. Additionally, environmental factors and individual health conditions can contribute to the risk of developing RTIs. […] Viruses are the most common cause of respiratory tract infections. Some of the main viruses responsible for RTIs include: Rhinovirus, Influenza Virus, Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV), and Coronavirus. […] Bacteria can also cause respiratory tract infections, often following a viral infection that weakens the immune system. Common bacterial pathogens include: Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Mycoplasma pneumoniae. […] Fungal infections are less common but can occur, especially in individuals with weakened immune systems. Examples include: Aspergillus and Histoplasma capsulatum. […] Environmental factors contribute significantly to the development of respiratory tract infections. These factors include: Air Pollution, Smoking, and Climate.

• #2 Acute Respiratory Infection: Causes, Symptoms, and Diagnosis

  https://www.healthline.com/health/acute-respiratory-disease

  What causes acute respiratory infection? […] There are several different causes of acute respiratory infection. […] Causes of upper respiratory infection: acute pharyngitis, acute ear infection, common cold. […] Causes of lower respiratory infection: bronchitis, pneumonia, bronchiolitis.

• #2 New Epidemiological and Clinical Signatures of 18 Pathogens from Respiratory Tract Infections Based on a 5-Year Study | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0138684

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are a heavy burden on society. However, due to the complex etiology of RTIs, the clinical diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of these infections remain challenging, especially in developing countries. […] The etiology of respiratory tract infections (RTIs) is diverse and complicated. In the past decade, many new pathogens that cause RTIs have been identified, including human coronavirus (HCoV), human metapneumovirus (HMPV), and human bocavirus (HBoV). […] Our results show that, although the number of patients with RTIs differed in each month, the PDRs were similar throughout the study period, indicating that the composition of these respiratory pathogens in the environment is stable. Among the pathogens tested, IAV, RSV, MP, and HCoV were detected with PDRs greater than 5%.

• #2 New Epidemiological and Clinical Signatures of 18 Pathogens from Respiratory Tract Infections Based on a 5-Year Study | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0138684

  The overall PDR was not significantly different between male and female patients. However, the incidences of certain pathogens such as RSV, PIV4, and HRV also did differ by gender. […] The seasonal climate is an important factor that can affect pathogen transmission. In the current study, the season affected the total PDR, which increased from winter to spring to summer and reached a peak in autumn. […] RTIs can be particularly exacerbated in immunocompromised patients, such as patients with cancer, blood diseases, or an organ transplant, which can result in patient mortality. […] In conclusion, despite the complexity of RTIs, the clinical and epidemiological signatures of the disease can provide important clues to aid clinicians in optimizing diagnostic and treatment plans and to enable the generation of reasonable public health strategies.

• #2 Respiratory Infections in Children: An Updated Review of Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, Treatment, Biochemical Aspects, and Nursing Interventions

  https://www.jmchemsci.com/article_211142.html

  The clinical presentation of RTIs in children varies widely, ranging from mild symptoms such as cough and nasal congestion to severe complications like respiratory distress and sepsis. Viral pathogens, including respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), influenza viruses, and coronaviruses, are the most frequent causative agents of RTIs in children. However, bacterial infections, such as those caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae, also contribute significantly to the disease burden. […] Acute respiratory tract infections (RTIs) represent a significant proportion of illnesses in children, accounting for a major burden on healthcare systems worldwide. Understanding the etiology and characteristics of these infections is crucial for accurate diagnosis, timely treatment, and effective preventive measures. Multiple factors, including the causative agents, age, anatomical features, immune system functionality, and environmental conditions, influence the occurrence and progression of these infections.

• #2 An Overview of Common Respiratory Tract Infections | Ausmed

  https://www.ausmed.co.uk/cpd/articles/respiratory-tract-infections

  According to the World Health Organisation (2022), pneumonia accounts for 14% of deaths of children aged under five years of age. […] Sinusitis is an inflammation of the nasal sinuses. It generally presents as a secondary infection after a cold or untreated allergies. […] Bronchitis is an infection of the bronchi (the main airways of the lungs that branch off the trachea) that causes them to become inflamed and create more copious amounts of secretions than usual. […] Bronchiolitis causes inflammation and congestion in the smallest airways (bronchioles). It is usually caused by the respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and almost exclusively affects infants under the age of two. […] Tonsillitis is an inflammation of the tonsils, most commonly affecting children (though anyone can contract it). […] Laryngitis is the inflammation and irritation of the larynx (voice box), causing swelling of the vocal cords and a consequent distortion of the voice.

• #2 Rapid Identification of Respiratory Tract Infections | FP7 | CORDIS | European Commission

  https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/304865/reporting

  Guidelines for diagnosis and management of CAP and HAP state that microbiological studies may support the diagnosis of pneumonia due to an infectious agent, but routine tests are frequently falsely negative and often nonspecific. […] They also state that there is a clear need for improved diagnostic testing, most likely using molecular methodology rather than culture. […] Microbiological culture remains the gold standard for the diagnosis of RTIs, the limitations of which include long analysis times and labour intensiveness. […] Using current methods, it takes 2-3 days minimum to identify the pathogen and its antibiotic susceptibility profile. […] Delays in accurate pathogen-specific diagnoses may result in the prescription of inappropriate antibiotic therapy and poor treatment outcomes. […] Thus, there is a great need for rapid, accurate molecular diagnostics tests for the detection of RTIs, capable of identifying a large panel of causative microorganism/s to enable appropriate microorganism-specific therapy to be rapidly initiated for improved management outcomes.

• #2 Respiratory Tract Infections and Laboratory Diagnostic Methods: A Review with A Focus on Syndromic Panel-Based Assays

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2607/10/9/1856

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are the focus of developments in public health, given their widespread distribution and the high morbidity and mortality rates reported worldwide. […] The RTIs are defined as diseases of infectious etiology involving the respiratory system. […] The clinical spectrum ranges from asymptomatic or mild infection to severe or fatal disease, and the severity is the result of the interaction between three factors: the causative agent, the environmental conditions, and the host. […] As a matter of fact, the delay in identifying the causative agent of RTIs could lead to the emergence and spread of antimicrobial-resistant pathogens due to the misuse of broad-spectrum empirical therapy, thus resulting in poor clinical outcomes, increased mortality rates and length of hospital stay.

• #2 Respiratory Infections Tests and Diagnostics | Pioneering Diagnostics

  https://www.biomerieux.com/corp/en/our-offer/hospital-laboratory/patient-condition/respiratory-infections-tests-and-diagnostics.html

  The clinical assessment is frequently not sufficient to predict the etiological agent, for LRTI. Timely and accurate diagnosis is critical to select the appropriate therapy. […] Upper and lower RTI can be caused by different pathogens. […] Identification of the pathogen(s) and accuracy of the diagnosis is critical. […] Many of the pathogens responsible for RTIs are fastidious and require specific conditions for growth.

• #2 Respiratory Tract Infections and Laboratory Diagnostic Methods: A Review with A Focus on Syndromic Panel-Based Assays

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2607/10/9/1856

  The implementation of syndromic panels in the respiratory infection diagnostic algorithm has the potential to be a powerful decision-making tool for patient management, especially in emergency departments, despite requiring the appropriate use of the test in different patient populations. […] In conclusion, the use of syndromic panels for the detection of respiratory pathogens is associated with a radically reduced time-to-results and, in parallel, to increased detection of clinically relevant pathogens compared to the standard methods.

• #2 Respiratory tract infection – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_tract_infection

  Antibiotics are a medicine designed to treat bacterial infections that need a more severe treatment course; antibiotic use is not recommended for common bacterial infections as the immune system will resolve such infections. […] This medicine does not effectively treat a viral infection like sore throats, influenza, bronchitis, sinusitis and common respiratory tract infections. […] The CDC has reported that antibiotic prescription is high; 47 million prescriptions in the United States in 2018 were made for infections that do not need antibiotics to be treated with. […] It is recommended to avoid antibiotic use unless bacterial infections are severe, transmissible, or have a high risk of further complications if left untreated. […] Unnecessary use of antibiotics could increase antibiotic-resistant infections, affect the digestive system, create allergic reactions, and other intense side effects.

• #2 Respiratory tract infections

  https://www2.hse.ie/conditions/respiratory-tract-infections/

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) can affect the sinuses, throat, airways or lungs. […] Treatment will depend on the cause of your RTI. […] Your RTI may be caused by: a virus (like colds) this usually clears up by itself after a few weeks and antibiotics will not help […] bacteria (like pneumonia) your GP may prescribe antibiotics – make sure you complete the whole course as advised by your GP, even if you start to feel better. […] Antibiotics are only used to treat bacterial infections. They’re not used for treating viral infections because they do not work for this type of infection.

• #2 Patient perceptions of vulnerability to recurrent respiratory tract infections and prevention strategies: a qualitative study | BMJ Open

  https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/12/4/e055565

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are infectious diseases of the upper or lower respiratory tract that are usually caused by viruses. RTIs include the common cold, influenza, pharyngitis, tonsillitis, sinusitis and bronchitis along with pandemic infections such as COVID-19. RTIs are common with most adults experiencing at least one cold per year. RTIs typically produce mild to moderate symptoms and are usually self-limiting. Nonetheless they are a leading cause of work sickness absence and reduce health-related quality of life, affecting physical, mental and social functioning. They are also responsible for substantial healthcare costs, mostly in primary care. Certain subgroups of patients have worse health outcomes and incur higher healthcare costs from RTIs. This includes patients who experience frequent or recurrent infections and those whose older age and/or comorbid conditions put them at higher risk of disease exacerbations, hospitalisation and death. RTI prevention interventions, particularly those focused on these recurrent and at-risk patients, would benefit individuals and healthcare systems alike.

• #2 Rapid Identification of Respiratory Tract Infections | FP7 | CORDIS | European Commission

  https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/304865/reporting

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are caused by a variety of bacterial, viral, and fungal pathogens. RTIs are amongst the top 4 major causes of morbidity and mortality in adults and children worldwide. […] Currently all ill patients presenting with any form of RTIs (CAP, HAP, VAP or ORTIs) are treated empirically without an accurate diagnosis of the causative microorganism and their antibiotic sensitivity patterns. […] Correctly identifying the exact microorganism causing RTIs and treating RTIs with appropriate antibiotics they are susceptible to is essential, since morbidity and mortality rates are high. […] RTIs remain difficult to diagnose accurately since a broad range of pathogens and opportunistic microorganism are involved in their aetiology. […] Inappropriate antibiotic therapy contributes greatly to increased morbidity and mortality rates, and inappropriate antibiotic overuse generates antibiotic resistance, which is a major public health concern.

• #3 Rapid Identification of Respiratory Tract Infections | FP7 | CORDIS | European Commission

  https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/304865/reporting

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are caused by a variety of bacterial, viral, and fungal pathogens. RTIs are amongst the top 4 major causes of morbidity and mortality in adults and children worldwide. […] Currently all ill patients presenting with any form of RTIs (CAP, HAP, VAP or ORTIs) are treated empirically without an accurate diagnosis of the causative microorganism and their antibiotic sensitivity patterns. […] Correctly identifying the exact microorganism causing RTIs and treating RTIs with appropriate antibiotics they are susceptible to is essential, since morbidity and mortality rates are high. […] RTIs remain difficult to diagnose accurately since a broad range of pathogens and opportunistic microorganism are involved in their aetiology. […] Inappropriate antibiotic therapy contributes greatly to increased morbidity and mortality rates, and inappropriate antibiotic overuse generates antibiotic resistance, which is a major public health concern.

• #3 Diagnosing upper and lower respiratory tract infections | Medical Laboratory Observer

  https://www.mlo-online.com/continuing-education/article/21292505/diagnosing-upper-and-lower-respiratory-tract-infections

  Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are among the most common reasons why patients visit their physicians. […] Though the majority of respiratory tract infections are caused by viruses, some bacteria and fungi can also cause respiratory tract infections. […] RTIs can be classified as upper and lower respiratory tract infections depending on the site of the infection in the respiratory system. […] Upper respiratory tract infections (URIs) are caused by viruses in approximately 90 to 98 percent of cases. […] Lower respiratory tract infections (LRIs) can be caused by viruses, bacteria, and fungi. […] Though viruses are known to cause more cases of respiratory tract infections, some bacteria can cause upper and lower respiratory tract infections. […] Co-infection with a virus and bacteria may contribute to severe disease and increased mortality in patients.

• #3 Upper Respiratory and Lower Respiratory Tract Infections | Cystic Fibrosis News TodayEnvelope icon

  https://cysticfibrosisnewstoday.com/upper-respiratory-tract-infections-vs-lower-respiratory-tract-infections/

  Lower RTIs can be caused by a variety of microbes, including viruses and bacteria. […] Pneumonia is when the small air sacs of the lungs (called alveoli) become inflamed and fill with fluid, potentially leading to respiratory failure and death, and is a complication of lung infections caused by viruses, certain bacteria, and fungi. […] In people with CF, bacterial infections pose a particular hazard, especially those with Pseudomonas aeruginosa. […] Persistent RTIs with bacteria such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa can lead to further inflammatory damage in the lungs. […] On its own, cystic fibrosis (CF) can cause chronic symptoms such as excess mucus production, sinus inflammation (sinusitis), shortness of breath, and cough. In these patients, viral or bacterial infections can lead to lengthy respiratory illness, which is associated with a decline in lung function and a higher risk of death.

• #3 Upper Respiratory Tract Infections | University Health Services

  https://uhs.princeton.edu/health-resources/upper-respiratory-tract-infections

  Upper respiratory tract infections are caused by viruses. Common respiratory tract infection include common cold or flu, and common symptoms are fever, cough, runny nose, sore throat. These may occur year round or seasonally (fall and winter). […] Antibiotics do not cure viral infections. If given when not needed, antibiotics can be harmful. […] It is very common to receive antibiotic treatment for a viral infection when you go to an Urgent Care center. […] Research shows, however, that this sensation of feeling better often occurs because a persons immune system has gotten to work and started to clear the infecting virus on its own, irrespective of antibiotic use. […] To lower your risk of contracting an illness, try these general tips: […] Avoid smoking tobacco or cannabis, which can increase lung inflammation and susceptibility to illnesses, as well as exacerbate respiratory illness symptoms.

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