Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Hives and angioedema – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hives-and-angioedema/symptoms-causes/syc-20354908

  Hives can be triggered by many situations and substances, including certain foods and medications. […] Angioedema can arise with hives or alone. […] For most people who experience acute hives and angioedema, the exact cause can’t be identified. The conditions are sometimes caused by: […] Many foods can trigger reactions in people with sensitivities. Shellfish, fish, peanuts, tree nuts, soy, eggs and milk are frequent offenders. […] Many medications may cause hives or angioedema, including penicillins, aspirin, ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin IB, others), naproxen sodium (Aleve) and blood pressure medications. […] Pollen and other allergens that you breathe in can trigger hives, sometimes accompanied by upper and lower respiratory tract symptoms. […] Other causes of acute hives and angioedema are insect bites and infections. […] Severe angioedema can be life-threatening if swelling of the tongue or in the throat blocks the airway.

• #2 Urticaria and angioedema | Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology | Full Text

  https://aacijournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13223-018-0288-z

  Urticaria (hives) is a common disorder that often presents with angioedema (swelling that occurs beneath the skin). […] Angioedema can occur in the absence of urticaria and can be broadly divided into histamine-mediated and non-histamine-mediated angioedema. Histamine-mediated angioedema can be allergic, pseudoallergic or idiopathic. Non-histamine mediated angioedema is largely driven by bradykinin and can be hereditary, acquired or drug-induced, such as with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. […] In CSU, an external trigger cannot usually be identified. In approximately 45% of these patients, circulating immunoglobulin G (IgG) autoantibodies recognize IgE antibodies or the alpha subunit of the high-affinity IgE receptor on dermal mast cells and basophils, leading to chronic stimulation of these cells and the release of histamine and other inflammatory mediators that cause urticaria and angioedema.

• #3 Angioedema: Causes, Symptoms, Types & Treatments

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22632-angioedema

  Angioedema is a reaction to a trigger that causes swelling in the tissue below the inner layer of your skin called the dermis or the layer below a mucous membrane. Angioedema often happens at the same time as hives (urticaria) and for similar reasons. Both angioedema and hives happen when liquid from small blood vessels escapes and fills up tissues, causing swelling. […] The causes of angioedema depend on what type of angioedema you have. Allergies are probably the main cause of the swelling of angioedema. There are many types of allergies that can cause it, including: […] Other causes of angioedema include inherited and acquired problems with the C1 inhibitor protein, drug reactions that arent standard allergy reactions (theres no itchiness and no hives) and vibrational movements.

• #4 Urticaria & Angioedema | Allergy Conditions | OneWelbeck

  https://onewelbeck.com/conditions/urticaria-and-angioedema/

  Urticaria and angioedema are caused by the release of histamine and other chemicals from cells in the skin called mast cells. […] Urticaria is often thought of as an allergy but, in fact, it usually results from histamine release from mast cells due to other reasons. […] Allergens in food or medicine may sometimes cause acute episodes of acute urticaria and such reactions will be characterised by the consistency of the triggers. […] Underlying infections can also trigger episodes of acute urticaria. […] If angioedema occurs without weals it may be caused by medication or an inherited illness called hereditary angioedema. […] Chronic spontaneous urticaria (CSU) by definition does not have a cause but may have an autoimmune element to it, where a patients own antibodies are responsible for releasing histamine from mast cells. […] Release of histamine from mast cells, allergens.

• #5 Urticaria and angioedema | Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology | Full Text

  https://aacijournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13223-018-0288-z

  The most common causes of acute urticaria (with or without angioedema) are medications, foods, viral infections, stress, parasitic infections, insect venom, and contact allergens (e.g., latex). […] In a significant number of patients, no identifiable cause is found for recurrent episodes of angioedema without urticaria; this is deemed as idiopathic once alternate identifiable causes have been excluded. […] In the case of HAE, AAE or ACE inhibitor-induced angioedema, the vasodilatory peptide, bradykinin, plays a key role in endothelial cell activation, with resultant tissue edema. […] Hereditary angioedema is a rare autosomal dominant genetic disorder resulting from an inherited deficiency or dysfunction of the C1 inhibitor (C1-INH; a plasma protease inhibitor that regulates several proinflammatory pathways).

• #6 Urticaria and angioedema

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3245442/

  Isolated angioedema also occurs in approximately 0.1% to 6% of individuals using ACE inhibitors. […] Although the exact pathogenesis of attacks of HAE and AAE remains unclear, excess production of the potent vasodilatory peptide, bradykinin (which is regulated by the C1 inhibitor), appears to play an important role. […] In the majority of cases of isolated angioedema, the cause is not identifiable (idiopathic angioedema). […] The management of HAE and AAE involves both prophylactic strategies to prevent attacks of angioedema as well as pharmacologic interventions for the treatment of acute attacks.

• #7 Hives and angioedema – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hives-and-angioedema/symptoms-causes/syc-20354908

  Hives can be triggered by many situations and substances, including certain foods and medications. […] Angioedema can arise with hives or alone. […] For most people who experience acute hives and angioedema, the exact cause can’t be identified. The conditions are sometimes caused by: […] Many foods can trigger reactions in people with sensitivities. Shellfish, fish, peanuts, tree nuts, soy, eggs and milk are frequent offenders. […] Many medications may cause hives or angioedema, including penicillins, aspirin, ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin IB, others), naproxen sodium (Aleve) and blood pressure medications. […] Pollen and other allergens that you breathe in can trigger hives, sometimes accompanied by upper and lower respiratory tract symptoms. […] Other causes of acute hives and angioedema are insect bites and infections. […] Severe angioedema can be life-threatening if swelling of the tongue or in the throat blocks the airway.

• #8 Urticaria and angioedema

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3245442/

  Urticaria (hives) is a common disorder that often presents with angioedema (swelling that occurs beneath the skin). […] Angioedema can occur in the absence of urticaria, with angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor-induced angioedema and idiopathic angioedema being the more common causes. Rarer causes are hereditary angioedema (HAE) or acquired angioedema (AAE). […] In chronic autoimmune urticaria, circulating immunoglobulin G (IgG) autoantibodies react to the alpha subunit of the high-affinity IgE receptor on dermal mast cells and basophils, leading to chronic stimulation of these cells and the release of histamine and other inflammatory mediators which cause urticaria and angioedema. […] The most common causes of acute urticaria (with or without angioedema) are medications, foods, viral infections, parasitic infections, insect venom, and contact allergens, particularly latex hypersensitivity.

• #9 What Causes Hives & Angioedema? | Allergy & Asthma Network

  https://allergyasthmanetwork.org/news/allergist-hives-angioedema-triggers/

  Urticaria is more commonly called hives itchy, raised or red welts on the skin. They are usually caused by physical triggers. These include: […] Certain medications such as aspirin or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) can cause hives or angioedema to flare. […] Angioedema involves severe and painful swelling in the hands, feet, arms, legs or face, as well as the digestive system. It sometimes occurs with hives or is mistaken for hives. Triggers can include: […] Allergists and immunologists can help you identify whats causing your skin symptoms and ways to avoid your triggers. […] Medications can help treat urticaria and angioedema symptoms and improve quality of life for patients.

• #10 Hives – Symptoms, Causes, & Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-treatments/hives-urticaria-angioedema

  Urticaria, also known as hives, is an outbreak of pale red bumps or welts on the skin that appear suddenly. The swelling that often comes with hives is called angioedema. […] Allergic reactions, chemicals in certain foods, insect stings, sunlight, and medications can cause hives. It’s often impossible to find out exactly why hives have formed. […] The most common causes are foods, medications, and infections. Insect bites and diseases may also be responsible. […] The most common foods that cause hives are nuts, chocolate, fish, tomatoes, eggs, fresh berries, and milk. Fresh foods cause them more often than cooked foods. Certain food additives and preservatives may also be to blame. […] Drugs that can cause hives include aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications such as ibuprofen, high blood pressure drugs (especially angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors), or painkillers such as codeine.

• #11 Urticaria and angioedema | Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology | Full Text

  https://aacijournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13223-018-0288-z

  The most common causes of acute urticaria (with or without angioedema) are medications, foods, viral infections, stress, parasitic infections, insect venom, and contact allergens (e.g., latex). […] In a significant number of patients, no identifiable cause is found for recurrent episodes of angioedema without urticaria; this is deemed as idiopathic once alternate identifiable causes have been excluded. […] In the case of HAE, AAE or ACE inhibitor-induced angioedema, the vasodilatory peptide, bradykinin, plays a key role in endothelial cell activation, with resultant tissue edema. […] Hereditary angioedema is a rare autosomal dominant genetic disorder resulting from an inherited deficiency or dysfunction of the C1 inhibitor (C1-INH; a plasma protease inhibitor that regulates several proinflammatory pathways).

• #12 Urticaria & Angioedema | Haydel Asthma and Allergy Clinic | Houma Louisiana

  https://www.haydelasthma.com/patient-education/urticaria-angioedema

  Urticaria (hives) and angioedema (swelling) are very common conditions affecting up to 10% of the population at some point during their life. […] The most common causes of urticaria and angioedema are: […] Studies have shown that over 80% of hives and angioedema have no known demonstrable cause. This is called idiopathic urticaria and angioedema. […] Any prescription, over-the-counter, or supplement ingested may cause urticaria and/or angioedema. […] Food allergens are a common cause in sensitized patients. […] Contacts at the home or office such as detergents, cosmetics, cleaners and sun tan lotions to name only a few have been reported to produce symptoms. […] Physical factors such as scratching/rubbing the skin, pressure, heat, cold, exercise or sunlight have been known to provoke hives. […] Hives have been reported prior to or shortly after a parasitic, fungal, bacterial or viral infection. […] Hereditary may play a role in certain causes of chronic urticaria and angioedema. […] Numerous systemic diseases have been associated with chronic hives.

• #13 Hives, Urticaria, and Angioedema: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/allergies/hives-urticaria-angioedema

  Hives are swollen, pale red bumps, patches, or welts on the skin that appear suddenly. They can happen because of allergies or other reasons. Your doctor may call them urticaria. […] Allergic reactions, chemicals in foods, insect stings, sunlight, and medicines can make your body release a chemical called histamine. Histamine sometimes makes blood plasma leak out of small blood vessels in the skin, causing hives or angioedema. […] Sometimes, doctors dont know exactly why hives have formed. […] The most common causes are foods, medicines, latex, and infections. Insect bites or a disease may also be responsible. […] The cause is usually harder to find than in acute cases. The causes can be similar to those of acute urticaria but can also include your immune system, chronic infections, hormonal disorders, and tumors. […] Hives caused by direct physical stimulation of the skin for example, cold, heat, sunlight, vibration, pressure, sweating, and exercise. […] Painful swelling under the skin. It runs in families.

• #14 Hives (Urticaria) Causes, Fast Treatment, Symptoms, Pictures

  https://www.medicinenet.com/hives/article.htm

  Physical urticaria (for example, heat hives) is a type of chronic urticaria produced by physical stimuli. Common environmental provocations such as sunlight (solar urticaria), water, cold, heat, exercise, and pressure occasionally induce hives. […] Another common form of physically induced hives is called cholinergic urticaria. This produces hundreds of small, itchy bumps. These occur within 15 minutes of exercise or physical exertion and are usually gone before a doctor can examine them. […] As noted above, many cases of ordinary hives are „idiopathic,” meaning the cause is unknown. Others may be triggered by allergic reactions or viral infections. […] Some medications, like morphine, codeine, aspirin, and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs, such as ibuprofen [Advil]), cause the body to release histamine and produce urticaria through nonallergic mechanisms.

• #15 Causes and Risk Factors of Urticaria (Hives)

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/causes-of-urticaria-82866

  Stress is commonly associated with the development or worsening of chronic hives. There’s a significant number of people with chronic urticaria (35% to 60%) who have a co-occurring mental health condition, including anxiety and depression. […] Facial hives may be due to contact urticaria, in which you have an allergic reaction to something that has either touched or been applied to your face. Facial hives may coexist with angioedema, in which there is swelling of the lips, cheeks, and eyes. Like urticaria, angioedema has both allergic and non-allergic triggers. […] There are certain infections and diseases for which urticaria is common. This is especially true for young children in whom 80% of hives are caused by a viral infection. The activation of the immune response may be triggered by something as simple as a cold.

• #16 Urticaria and Angioedema – Clinical Methods – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK209/

  Urticaria and angioedema occur together in 49% of patients, urticaria is seen alone in 40%, and angioedema occurs alone in 11% of cases. […] A complete history and a physical examination are often necessary to identify the major etiologic categories of urticaria and angioedema. These are allergy, reactions to physical agents, familial disorders, and urticaria secondary to underlying disease. […] A large number of diseases have been reported in association with urticaria and angioedema including infections, connective tissue disorders, hyperthyroidism, and neoplastic disease. […] The cause of chronic urticaria and angioedema will elude detection in most patients. […] For most cases of chronic urticaria and angioedema, the etiology and pathogenic mechanisms remain unknown. […] In contrast to acute lesions, however, the etiology of chronic urticaria and angioedema usually remains unknown.

• #17 Hives & Angioedema: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment for Itchy Skin Welts

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/hives_and_angioedema/article_em.htm

  Hives and angioedema are reactions of the skin to histamine and other chemicals such as bradykinin, leukotriene C4, and prostaglandin D2. These chemicals act on blood vessels and other tissues to produce the clinical signs of hives and angioedema. This process is often, although not always, due to an allergic reaction. […] There are many causes of hives and angioedema. At least half the time, the specific cause cannot be determined. When the cause of a medical condition is not known, it is termed idiopathic. Idiopathic hives and angioedema are very common. […] Some of the more common triggers of hives and angioedema include the following: Infections such as viral illnesses, especially in children; Allergies to food, medications, cosmetics, soaps, and detergents; Insect bites and stings; Transfusions of blood or blood products; Emotional and physical stress; Physical agents such as sunlight, heat, cold, water, or pressure; Exercise; Allergies to animals, such as pet dander. […] Risk factors for hives and angioedema include the following: A previous case of hives or angioedema; A previous allergic reaction; Family members who have hives or angioedema.

• #18 Urticaria and angioedema | Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology | Full Text

  https://aacijournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13223-018-0288-z

  Urticaria (hives) is a common disorder that often presents with angioedema (swelling that occurs beneath the skin). […] Angioedema can occur in the absence of urticaria and can be broadly divided into histamine-mediated and non-histamine-mediated angioedema. Histamine-mediated angioedema can be allergic, pseudoallergic or idiopathic. Non-histamine mediated angioedema is largely driven by bradykinin and can be hereditary, acquired or drug-induced, such as with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. […] In CSU, an external trigger cannot usually be identified. In approximately 45% of these patients, circulating immunoglobulin G (IgG) autoantibodies recognize IgE antibodies or the alpha subunit of the high-affinity IgE receptor on dermal mast cells and basophils, leading to chronic stimulation of these cells and the release of histamine and other inflammatory mediators that cause urticaria and angioedema.

• #19 Chronic Spontaneous Urticaria (CSU) | Allergy UK | National Charity

  https://www.allergyuk.org/resources/csu/

  Chronic Spontaneous Urticaria (CSU) is a common and distressing skin condition that causes red, raised, itchy and sometimes painful wheals (often referred to as hives, bumps or nettle rash) on the skin with no known obvious trigger. […] Urticaria, the rash that occurs on the skin, is caused by an immune response when a mast cell is activated in the in the immune system. […] Research has shown that around 50% of cases are linked to autoimmune disease, especially those who do not respond to antihistamine therapy. […] CSU is not caused by an allergic reaction to a trigger allergen, although it is an immune response that causes the symptoms. […] Allergy testing, or elimination diets are not usually helpful in the management of CSU. […] Common medications which can trigger urticaria include NSAIDs (non steroidal anti inflammatory drugs) and if angioedema (deep swelling) is present, it is advisable to avoid ACE (Angiotensin-converting enzyme) inhibitors where possible. […] CSU differs from other urticarial reactions in that there is often no known cause. […] CSU is linked with autoimmune disorders in 50% of individuals with the condition, so tests for thyroid function and autoimmune disorders may be performed.

• #20 Hives (Urticaria) and Angioedema Overview

  https://www.aaaai.org/tools-for-the-public/conditions-library/allergies/hives-(urticaria)-and-angioedema-overview

  Hives or welts, also known as urticaria, are itchy, raised, reddish areas on the skin. […] Angioedema usually occurs in the face, throat, hands, and feet. […] Understanding the underlying mechanism of swelling or the specific disease is critical in determining the best treatment. […] Sometimes chronic hives may be autoimmune in nature, or related to an autoimmune condition including autoimmune thyroid disease, rheumatoid arthritis or systemic lupus erythematousus. […] This may suggest a special situation requiring additional evaluation. […] Swelling without hives may be due to: Aspirin or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen ACE inhibitors (a class of blood pressure medications) […] Hereditary angioedema (HAE) is a rare genetic disorder in which patients have a defect in the gene that controls a regulatory blood protein called C1 Inhibitor. […] Acquired angioedema (swelling) is an acquired form of C1 inhibitor deficiency that can occur in certain diseases.

• #21 Chronic Hives (Chronic Idiopathic Urticaria): Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22900-chronic-hives-chronic-idiopathic-urticaria

  Chronic hives are itchy, raised, red bumps or welts that appear on your skin at least twice per week. These welts, also called wheals, are chronic when they last more than six weeks. […] For most people with chronic hives, there’s no known cause. Rarely, medication allergies or food allergies cause chronic hives. The most common allergic cause is something you consume on a regular basis. Other types of allergies may also bring on chronic hives. […] About 1 in 5 people who develop chronic hives also have an autoimmune disease, such as: Celiac disease, Dermatomyositis, Diabetes, Lupus, Polymyositis, Rheumatoid arthritis, Thyroid disease, Vitiligo. […] Other conditions that may cause chronic hives include: Asthma, Infections like H. pylori bacterial infections and sinus infections (sinusitis), Liver disease, Lymphomas, including Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkins lymphoma, Vasculitis. […] Chronic hives are visible at least twice per week for more than six weeks. Some chronic hives last for months or years. The cause is often unknown.

• #22 Chronic Hives (Chronic Idiopathic Urticaria): Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22900-chronic-hives-chronic-idiopathic-urticaria

  Chronic hives are itchy, raised, red bumps or welts that appear on your skin at least twice per week. These welts, also called wheals, are chronic when they last more than six weeks. […] For most people with chronic hives, there’s no known cause. Rarely, medication allergies or food allergies cause chronic hives. The most common allergic cause is something you consume on a regular basis. Other types of allergies may also bring on chronic hives. […] About 1 in 5 people who develop chronic hives also have an autoimmune disease, such as: Celiac disease, Dermatomyositis, Diabetes, Lupus, Polymyositis, Rheumatoid arthritis, Thyroid disease, Vitiligo. […] Other conditions that may cause chronic hives include: Asthma, Infections like H. pylori bacterial infections and sinus infections (sinusitis), Liver disease, Lymphomas, including Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkins lymphoma, Vasculitis. […] Chronic hives are visible at least twice per week for more than six weeks. Some chronic hives last for months or years. The cause is often unknown.

• #23 Urticaria and angioedema in children and adolescents: diagnostic challenge

  https://www.all-imm.com/index.php/aei/article/download/538/875/6665

  Acute urticaria and angioedema are often related to mast cell and basophil activation from multiple triggers, which could be IgE- or non-IgE-mediated. The most common cause of acute urticaria is viral infections, especially of the upper respiratory tract. More rare culprits of acute urticaria include foods, insect stings, medications and therapeutic agents, contrast media, vaccination, latex, and underlying medical diseases. About 30-40% of acute urticaria patients are idiopathic and called acute spontaneous urticaria. Up to 36% of these patients can progress to chronic spontaneous urticaria (CSU). […] Chronic spontaneous urticaria has been associated with infectious diseases in adults, especially H. pylori and nasopharynx bacteria. However, results of conducted studies are conflicting, with methodological issues not allowing definitive conclusions regarding a direct cause-effect relationship. Pediatric data regarding infections and CSU are scarce. A systematic review on etiological factors associated with CSU in children demonstrated that infections could be associated with 1% of cases, and with parasites in 3.5% patients.

• #24 Angioedema: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/885100-overview

  The causes of IAE are, by definition, not identifiable. […] The link between infection and angioedema is vague at best. […] C1-INH functions normally in estrogen-dependent angioedema. […] Patients with Gleich syndrome exhibit elevated eosinophil levels with angioedema. […] Thyroid autoantibodies are found in 14-28% of patients with chronic urticaria or angioedema, and IgG autoantibodies to either the high-affinity receptor for IgE (FceRI) or to IgE are found in 30-50% of these patients.

• #25 Angioedema – Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy (ASCIA)

  https://www.allergy.org.au/patients/skin-allergy/angioedema

  In even rarer cases, low levels of C1-inhibitor occur with some cases of lymphoma, malignancies and in autoimmune diseases such as Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE). […] Thyroid gland disease and some types of inflammatory arthritis are more common in people with hives (urticaria) and angioedema. […] In some people whose swellings persist for years without an obvious cause, an autoimmune process may be responsible. […] Allergic disease is almost never the cause of swellings that last for days or recur for weeks at a time.

• #26 Urticaria & Angioedema | AMBOSS Rotation Prep

  https://resident360.amboss.com/adult-medicine/allergy-immunology/urticaria-angioedema/urticaria-angioedema.html

  Nonimmunologic causes of urticaria include physical urticarias (e.g., cold-induced, pressure-induced, exercise-induced, vibration-induced, and cholinergic urticarial). […] Angioedema involves a similar process as urticaria but affects the deep dermis and subcutaneous tissue and leads to nonpitting swelling. Angioedema can be mast-cell-mediated or bradykinin-mediated. […] Hereditary angioedema (HAE) is an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by a deficiency or dysfunction of functional C1 esterase inhibitor (C1-INH) that leads to excessive production of the vasoactive mediator bradykinin. This causes episodic increases in vascular permeability and angioedema. […] Acquired C1-INH deficiency or acquired angioedema can be due to consumption of complement in B-cell lymphoproliferative disorders or immune-complex disorders and generally presents during the fourth decade of life or later. The majority of patients diagnosed with acquired angioedema have an underlying disorder (e.g., lymphoproliferative disorders and B-cell malignancies, monoclonal gammopathy of uncertain significance, or other autoimmune conditions). Most (but not all) patients with acquired angioedema have identifiable autoantibodies against the C1 esterase inhibitor (C1-INH) protein.

• #27 Urticaria and Angioedema – Clinical Methods – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK209/

  Urticaria and angioedema occur together in 49% of patients, urticaria is seen alone in 40%, and angioedema occurs alone in 11% of cases. […] A complete history and a physical examination are often necessary to identify the major etiologic categories of urticaria and angioedema. These are allergy, reactions to physical agents, familial disorders, and urticaria secondary to underlying disease. […] A large number of diseases have been reported in association with urticaria and angioedema including infections, connective tissue disorders, hyperthyroidism, and neoplastic disease. […] The cause of chronic urticaria and angioedema will elude detection in most patients. […] For most cases of chronic urticaria and angioedema, the etiology and pathogenic mechanisms remain unknown. […] In contrast to acute lesions, however, the etiology of chronic urticaria and angioedema usually remains unknown.

• #28 Angioedema: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/885100-overview

  The causes of IAE are, by definition, not identifiable. […] The link between infection and angioedema is vague at best. […] C1-INH functions normally in estrogen-dependent angioedema. […] Patients with Gleich syndrome exhibit elevated eosinophil levels with angioedema. […] Thyroid autoantibodies are found in 14-28% of patients with chronic urticaria or angioedema, and IgG autoantibodies to either the high-affinity receptor for IgE (FceRI) or to IgE are found in 30-50% of these patients.

• #29 Angioedema: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/angioedema

  There are several types and causes of angioedema. […] Allergic angioedema is the most common form of angioedema. It may occur due to reactions to food, medication, or other allergies. […] Drug-induced angioedema occurs when a person has a nonallergic reaction to medication. […] Hereditary angioedema (HAE) is less common than either allergic or drug-induced angioedema. It occurs when you inherit a deficiency or defect in an enzyme in the complement pathway, which makes up part of the immune system. […] Idiopathic angioedema occurs when a doctor cannot find a cause for the angioedema. […] Acquired angioedema may develop after an infection or illness, such as lupus (SLE). In rare cases, it may be the result of leukemia or lymphoma. Autoimmune diseases can also cause this type of angioedema.

• #30 Hives, Urticaria and Angioedema – Northeast Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology

  https://neaai.com/allergy/conditions/hives-urticaria-and-angioedema/

  Hives occur when the body reacts to an allergen, releasing histamine. […] Some known triggers include: Medications, Foods, such as nuts, shellfish, eggs, and wheat products, Infections, Pollen, dust mites, or pet dander, Insect bites and stings, Sunlight exposure. […] There are two main types of angioedema: Allergic and drug-induced. […] Allergic angioedema is the most common type of angioedema and usually affects those with an allergy, such as food, medications, venom, pollen or animal dander. […] Certain medications can cause angioedema, such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (ibuprofen or aspirin) or angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors (a treatment for hypertension or high blood pressure).

• #31 Urticaria and angioedema | Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology | Full Text

  https://aacijournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13223-018-0288-z

  Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor-induced angioedema is one of the most common causes for emergency treatment of angioedema. It occurs in approximately 0.16% of individuals using ACE inhibitors, and tends to occur more commonly in ACE inhibitor users who are female, smokers, or of African-American descent. […] Although the exact pathogenesis of attacks of HAE and AAE remains unclear, excess production of the potent vasodilatory peptide, bradykinin (which is regulated by the C1-INH), appears to play an important role.

• #32 Angioedema – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angioedema

  Angioedema can be due to antibody formation against C1INH; this is an autoimmune disorder. This acquired angioedema is associated with the development of lymphoma. […] ACE inhibitors can induce angioedema. ACE inhibitors block the enzyme ACE so it can no longer degrade bradykinin; thus, bradykinin accumulates and can cause angioedema.

• #33 Hives (Urticaria) and Angioedema Overview

  https://www.aaaai.org/tools-for-the-public/conditions-library/allergies/hives-(urticaria)-and-angioedema-overview

  Hives or welts, also known as urticaria, are itchy, raised, reddish areas on the skin. […] Angioedema usually occurs in the face, throat, hands, and feet. […] Understanding the underlying mechanism of swelling or the specific disease is critical in determining the best treatment. […] Sometimes chronic hives may be autoimmune in nature, or related to an autoimmune condition including autoimmune thyroid disease, rheumatoid arthritis or systemic lupus erythematousus. […] This may suggest a special situation requiring additional evaluation. […] Swelling without hives may be due to: Aspirin or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen ACE inhibitors (a class of blood pressure medications) […] Hereditary angioedema (HAE) is a rare genetic disorder in which patients have a defect in the gene that controls a regulatory blood protein called C1 Inhibitor. […] Acquired angioedema (swelling) is an acquired form of C1 inhibitor deficiency that can occur in certain diseases.

• #34 Angioedema: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/885100-overview

  Pseudoallergic angioedema (PAE) is not mediated by IgE; that is, the angioedema is caused by a nonallergic or nonimmunologic reaction. […] Nonallergic angioedema does not involve IgE or histamine and is generally not associated with urticaria. […] HAE, a rare autosomal dominant disorder, is perhaps the prototype of nonallergic angioedema. […] Acquired angioedema, now known as C1-INH-AAE is a rare disorder caused by accelerated consumption of C1-INH or the production of autoantibodies to C1-INH. […] ACE inhibitors can precipitate attacks of angioedema by directly interfering with the degradation of bradykinin, thereby potentiating its vasoactive effect. […] Physically induced angioedema is caused by physical agents, such as cold, heat pressure, vibration, and ultraviolet radiation.

• #35 Angioedema – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angioedema

  Angioedema is an area of swelling (edema) of the lower layer of skin and tissue just under the skin or mucous membranes. The underlying mechanism typically involves histamine or bradykinin. The version related to histamine is due to an allergic reaction to agents such as insect bites, foods, or medications. The version related to bradykinin may occur due to an inherited problem known as C1 esterase inhibitor deficiency, medications known as angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, or a lymphoproliferative disorder. […] In hereditary angioedema (HAE), often no direct cause is identifiable, although mild trauma, including dental work and other stimuli, can cause attacks. There is usually no associated itch or urticaria, as it is not an allergic response. […] The three types of hereditary angioedema are: Type I – decreased levels of C1INH (85%); Type II – normal levels, but decreased function of C1INH (15%); Type III – no detectable abnormality in C1INH, occurs in an X-linked dominant fashion and therefore mainly affects women; it can be exacerbated by pregnancy and use of hormonal contraception.

• #36 Angioedema causes: Allergies, medications, and more | Angioedema NewsEnvelope icon

  https://angioedemanews.com/causes-of-angioedema/

  The most common forms of HAE — types 1 and 2 — are caused by mutations in the SERPING1 gene, which provides instructions for making a protein called C1-inhibitor (C1-INH). […] Acquired angioedema is a very rare condition marked by abnormally low C1-INH levels, leading to the excessive production of bradykinin and swelling, much like HAE type 1. […] Type 1 acquired angioedema affects some people with lymphoproliferative disorders — diseases where immune cells grow out of control — including some autoimmune conditions and cancers. […] Type 2 acquired angioedema develops as a result of an autoimmune condition in which the body’s immune system mistakenly identifies the C1-INH protein as a potential threat. […] There also are some cases in which the underlying cause of angioedema cannot be determined. This specific form of angioedema, known as idiopathic angioedema, is diagnosed only when all other potential explanations for swelling have been ruled out.

• #37 Angioedema – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angioedema

  Angioedema is an area of swelling (edema) of the lower layer of skin and tissue just under the skin or mucous membranes. The underlying mechanism typically involves histamine or bradykinin. The version related to histamine is due to an allergic reaction to agents such as insect bites, foods, or medications. The version related to bradykinin may occur due to an inherited problem known as C1 esterase inhibitor deficiency, medications known as angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, or a lymphoproliferative disorder. […] In hereditary angioedema (HAE), often no direct cause is identifiable, although mild trauma, including dental work and other stimuli, can cause attacks. There is usually no associated itch or urticaria, as it is not an allergic response. […] The three types of hereditary angioedema are: Type I – decreased levels of C1INH (85%); Type II – normal levels, but decreased function of C1INH (15%); Type III – no detectable abnormality in C1INH, occurs in an X-linked dominant fashion and therefore mainly affects women; it can be exacerbated by pregnancy and use of hormonal contraception.

• #38 Angioedema causes: Allergies, medications, and more | Angioedema NewsEnvelope icon

  https://angioedemanews.com/causes-of-angioedema/

  The most common forms of HAE — types 1 and 2 — are caused by mutations in the SERPING1 gene, which provides instructions for making a protein called C1-inhibitor (C1-INH). […] Acquired angioedema is a very rare condition marked by abnormally low C1-INH levels, leading to the excessive production of bradykinin and swelling, much like HAE type 1. […] Type 1 acquired angioedema affects some people with lymphoproliferative disorders — diseases where immune cells grow out of control — including some autoimmune conditions and cancers. […] Type 2 acquired angioedema develops as a result of an autoimmune condition in which the body’s immune system mistakenly identifies the C1-INH protein as a potential threat. […] There also are some cases in which the underlying cause of angioedema cannot be determined. This specific form of angioedema, known as idiopathic angioedema, is diagnosed only when all other potential explanations for swelling have been ruled out.

• #39 Angioedema causes: Allergies, medications, and more | Angioedema NewsEnvelope icon

  https://angioedemanews.com/causes-of-angioedema/

  The most common forms of HAE — types 1 and 2 — are caused by mutations in the SERPING1 gene, which provides instructions for making a protein called C1-inhibitor (C1-INH). […] Acquired angioedema is a very rare condition marked by abnormally low C1-INH levels, leading to the excessive production of bradykinin and swelling, much like HAE type 1. […] Type 1 acquired angioedema affects some people with lymphoproliferative disorders — diseases where immune cells grow out of control — including some autoimmune conditions and cancers. […] Type 2 acquired angioedema develops as a result of an autoimmune condition in which the body’s immune system mistakenly identifies the C1-INH protein as a potential threat. […] There also are some cases in which the underlying cause of angioedema cannot be determined. This specific form of angioedema, known as idiopathic angioedema, is diagnosed only when all other potential explanations for swelling have been ruled out.

• #40 Angioedema – Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy (ASCIA)

  https://www.allergy.org.au/patients/skin-allergy/angioedema

  In even rarer cases, low levels of C1-inhibitor occur with some cases of lymphoma, malignancies and in autoimmune diseases such as Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE). […] Thyroid gland disease and some types of inflammatory arthritis are more common in people with hives (urticaria) and angioedema. […] In some people whose swellings persist for years without an obvious cause, an autoimmune process may be responsible. […] Allergic disease is almost never the cause of swellings that last for days or recur for weeks at a time.

• #41 Angioedema: Causes, Appearance and Treatment — DermNet

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/angioedema

  Angioedema is caused by an increase in local capillary permeability and plasma extravasation, usually mediated by mast cells, histamine, or bradykinin release. […] Angioedema is most commonly histamine-mediated; mast cell and basophil stimulation results in histamine release. […] The exact cause depends on the type of angioedema a patient has. […] In most cases, the cause of angioedema is unknown. […] Recent research indicates that 30-50% of this type of angioedema may be associated with some types of autoimmune disorders including systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). […] Inherited abnormal gene that causes a deficiency of a normal blood protein. […] Acquired during life rather than inherited. […] May be due to B-cell lymphoma or antibodies against C1 inhibitor. […] Associated with lymphoproliferative and autoimmune disease e.g. SLE.

• #42 Urticaria and angioedema | Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology | Full Text

  https://aacijournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13223-018-0288-z

  The most common causes of acute urticaria (with or without angioedema) are medications, foods, viral infections, stress, parasitic infections, insect venom, and contact allergens (e.g., latex). […] In a significant number of patients, no identifiable cause is found for recurrent episodes of angioedema without urticaria; this is deemed as idiopathic once alternate identifiable causes have been excluded. […] In the case of HAE, AAE or ACE inhibitor-induced angioedema, the vasodilatory peptide, bradykinin, plays a key role in endothelial cell activation, with resultant tissue edema. […] Hereditary angioedema is a rare autosomal dominant genetic disorder resulting from an inherited deficiency or dysfunction of the C1 inhibitor (C1-INH; a plasma protease inhibitor that regulates several proinflammatory pathways).

• #43 Angioedema: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/angioedema

  There are several types and causes of angioedema. […] Allergic angioedema is the most common form of angioedema. It may occur due to reactions to food, medication, or other allergies. […] Drug-induced angioedema occurs when a person has a nonallergic reaction to medication. […] Hereditary angioedema (HAE) is less common than either allergic or drug-induced angioedema. It occurs when you inherit a deficiency or defect in an enzyme in the complement pathway, which makes up part of the immune system. […] Idiopathic angioedema occurs when a doctor cannot find a cause for the angioedema. […] Acquired angioedema may develop after an infection or illness, such as lupus (SLE). In rare cases, it may be the result of leukemia or lymphoma. Autoimmune diseases can also cause this type of angioedema.

• #44 Angioedema Information | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/diseases-conditions/angioedema

  Angioedema may be caused by an allergic reaction. Angioedema typically is not itchy while hives are very itchy. During the reaction, histamine and other chemicals are released into the bloodstream. The body releases histamine when the immune system detects a foreign substance called an allergen. […] However, in most cases, the cause of angioedema is never found. […] The following may cause angioedema: Allergies due to animal dander (scales of shed skin), foods, insect bites or pollen, Exposure to water, sunlight, cold or heat, Medicines (drug allergy) such as antibiotics (penicillin and sulfa drugs), nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and certain blood pressure medicines (ACE inhibitors), Autoimmune diseases such as lupus. […] Hives and angioedema may also occur after infections. Angioedema may occur alone or with other illnesses (including autoimmune disorders such as lupus, leukemia, and lymphoma). […] A rare form of angioedema runs in families and has different triggers, complications, and treatments. This is called hereditary angioedema.

• #45 What Causes Hives in Adults? Symptoms & Treatment

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/what_causes_hives_in_adults/article_em.htm

  Hives are most commonly caused by allergies and allergic reaction. […] Acute hives are usually caused by allergies and last less than six weeks. Chronic hives are those that last more than 6 weeks. […] Hives in adults and children are commonly caused by an allergic reaction. […] Other common causes of hives in adults include: Infections, including colds and infections caused by some bacteria or fungi, Some illnesses such as Lupus, Thyroid disease, Vasculitis, Contact with chemicals, Exercise, Pressure on the skin, such as from sitting too long, a tight waistband, or a heavy bag carried on the shoulder, Stress, Exposure to sunlight (solar urticaria), Heat (cholinergic urticaria, also known as heat rash), Exposure to cold, Water (aquagenic urticaria), Alcohol, Vibration, such as clapping or mowing the lawn (vibratory urticaria). […] May be accompanied by angioedema, which is swelling deeper under the skin that can cause eyelid and lip swelling. Angioedema is a medical emergency; see a doctor if this occurs. […] Severe cases of hives or angioedema may require an injection of epinephrine (EpiPen or shot of adrenaline).

• #46 Hives, Urticaria, and Angioedema: Symptoms and Causes – Consensus: AI Search Engine for Research

  https://consensus.app/home/blog/hives-urticaria-and-angioedema-symptoms-and-causes/

  Additionally, certain food additives and medications, such as acetylsalicylic acid, can exacerbate symptoms in individuals with chronic urticaria, suggesting that mediators other than histamine, like leukotrienes, may play a role in the pathogenesis of the condition. […] Interestingly, despite anecdotal reports, studies have shown that aspartame is no more likely than a placebo to cause urticaria or angioedema, indicating that not all suspected dietary triggers are valid.

• #47 Angioedema: Causes, Symptoms, Types & Treatment – Allergyfree

  https://www.allergyfree.co.in/en-gb/know-your-allergy/skin-allergies/angioedema

  There are several types of Angioedema and each type is caused by different triggers. […] Allergic Angioedema can be caused by insect bites, certain medications such as aspirin and penicillin, latex and food allergies, especially to nuts, shellfish, milk and eggs. […] Drug-induced Angioedema can be caused by angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors. […] Hereditary Angioedema can be caused by the presence of a gene that leads to low levels of proteins in the body. […] In many cases, the cause of Angioedema is not clear, and this situation is called as idiopathic Angioedema. […] Other triggers like pregnancy, pollen, animal dander, contraceptive pills, trauma or infection can also cause Angioedema in some people. […] Depending on its type, Angioedema can be caused through any of the following triggers insect bites, pollen, pet dander, certain medications like aspirin, penicillin and ACE inhibitors containing medicines, latex and certain types of foods.

• #48 Chronic Urticaria and Angioedema with Concomitant Eosinophilic Vasculitis due to Trichinella Infection | HTML | Acta Dermato-Venereologica

  https://www.medicaljournals.se/acta/content/html/10.2340/00015555-0331

  Acute and chronic urticaria are very common. Underlying causes can be highly heterogeneous. Various drugs, physical factors, auto-immunological factors, allergic and pseudoallergic reactions or infections can result in the clinical manifestation of urticaria, which is a symptom rather than a distinct disease. The most common infections are Helicobacter pylori, streptococcal or viral infections. Rare causes are protozoa, helminths or other parasitic infections. […] The differential diagnosis of urticaria with eosinophilic dermatitis and eosinophilic vasculitis includes hypersensitivity reactions as well as Churg-Strauss syndrome, other hyper-eosinophilic syndromes and parasitic infections. Vasculitis associated with parasitosis is an isolated event and has very rarely been described. […] The simultaneous occurrence of vasculitis and parasitosis may result from: (i) direct effects of parasites on the vasculature, as seen by histologically altered vascular walls; or (ii) immunopathological phenomena occurring during the anti-parasite immune response.

• #49 Angioedema – Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy (ASCIA)

  https://www.allergy.org.au/patients/skin-allergy/angioedema

  Angioedema is a condition where small blood vessels leak fluid into the tissues under the skin, causing swelling in different parts of the body. It can develop because of an allergic reaction and is usually accompanied by hives (urticaria). […] A viral infection is usually the most common cause of hives (urticaria) and angioedema in children, especially if they last for more than 24 hours. […] Swellings due to allergic reactions to foods or drugs are sometimes severe and dramatic, but usually resolve within 24 hours. […] Around 1 in 200 people who take these medications for heart and blood pressure, develop angioedema, usually appearing within the first few months of treatment. […] HAE is a rare genetic condition occurring in approximately 1 in 50,000 people, who have low levels (deficiency) or reduced effectiveness of C1-inhibitor enzyme.

• #50 Causes and Risk Factors of Urticaria (Hives)

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/causes-of-urticaria-82866

  Hives associated with these diseases can be chronic (long-lasting) or acute (sudden and for a limited time). […] Hives are a common allergy response to foods, medication, or environmental exposure. The itchy rash and red welts also can occur with chronic autoimmune conditions, infections, and other medical causes.

• #51 Hives & Angioedema in Children | UH Rainbow Babies & Children’s Hospital | University Hospitals

  https://www.uhhospitals.org/rainbow/services/pediatric-allergy-and-immunology/conditions-and-treatments/hives-and-angioedema-in-children

  Hives occur when blood plasma leaks from small blood vessels in the skin. This happens when the body releases histamine, a chemical that defends against harmful substances. […] Triggers for hives include: […] Foods: Many foods are known to trigger hives, among them peanuts, tree nuts, soy, eggs, milk, shellfish and fish. […] Medications: A number of medications can cause hives, most frequently aspirin, in addition to NSAIDS such as ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin IB, others), naproxen sodium (Aleve). A variety of other prescription and non-prescription medications can also cause hives. […] Angioedema: The cause of your child’s angioedema depends on the type of angioedema they experience. The four main types of angioedema are: […] Allergic angioedema: An allergic reaction, such as a reaction to peanuts, causes the swelling. This sometimes occurs in combination with anaphylaxis.

• #52 Urticaria and angioedema in children and adolescents: diagnostic challenge

  https://www.all-imm.com/index.php/aei/article/download/538/875/6665

  Urticaria diagnosis may be challenging in children since it can be triggered or related to numerous conditions. Acute urticaria is often due to viral infections. However, other culprits, including foods, insect stings, drugs, contrast media, vaccination, latex, and medical diseases, may account for acute patterns. Chronic urticaria (CU) is defined when hives and/or angioedema last for more than 6 weeks. The most common type of chronic urticaria in children is chronic spontaneous urticaria (CSU). Chronic inducible urticaria (CindU) is less common but is important to diagnose in order to manage appropriately and reduce the risk of severe reactions. Given that chronic urticaria could rarely be a presentation of vasculitis, systemic-onset juvenile idiopathic arthritis, or auto-inflammatory syndromes, it is important to rule out these conditions. It is crucial to differentiate cases of chronic urticaria from mastocytosis and Bradykinin-mediated angioedema, given that treatment may differ.

• #53 Urticaria and Angioedema – Clinical Methods – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK209/

  Urticaria and angioedema occur together in 49% of patients, urticaria is seen alone in 40%, and angioedema occurs alone in 11% of cases. […] A complete history and a physical examination are often necessary to identify the major etiologic categories of urticaria and angioedema. These are allergy, reactions to physical agents, familial disorders, and urticaria secondary to underlying disease. […] A large number of diseases have been reported in association with urticaria and angioedema including infections, connective tissue disorders, hyperthyroidism, and neoplastic disease. […] The cause of chronic urticaria and angioedema will elude detection in most patients. […] For most cases of chronic urticaria and angioedema, the etiology and pathogenic mechanisms remain unknown. […] In contrast to acute lesions, however, the etiology of chronic urticaria and angioedema usually remains unknown.

• #54 Chronic Spontaneous Urticaria (CSU) | Allergy UK | National Charity

  https://www.allergyuk.org/resources/csu/

  Chronic Spontaneous Urticaria (CSU) is a common and distressing skin condition that causes red, raised, itchy and sometimes painful wheals (often referred to as hives, bumps or nettle rash) on the skin with no known obvious trigger. […] Urticaria, the rash that occurs on the skin, is caused by an immune response when a mast cell is activated in the in the immune system. […] Research has shown that around 50% of cases are linked to autoimmune disease, especially those who do not respond to antihistamine therapy. […] CSU is not caused by an allergic reaction to a trigger allergen, although it is an immune response that causes the symptoms. […] Allergy testing, or elimination diets are not usually helpful in the management of CSU. […] Common medications which can trigger urticaria include NSAIDs (non steroidal anti inflammatory drugs) and if angioedema (deep swelling) is present, it is advisable to avoid ACE (Angiotensin-converting enzyme) inhibitors where possible. […] CSU differs from other urticarial reactions in that there is often no known cause. […] CSU is linked with autoimmune disorders in 50% of individuals with the condition, so tests for thyroid function and autoimmune disorders may be performed.

• #55 Urticaria and angioedema in children and adolescents: diagnostic challenge

  https://www.all-imm.com/index.php/aei/article/download/538/875/6665

  Chronic urticaria is not considered an allergic assumption, and extensive blood work or skin tests are not indicated as routine examinations. A complete blood count and sedimentation rate/CRP, total IgE levels, and anti-thyroid peroxidase antibodies are often the only indicated tests. […] Bradykinin-mediated recurrent angioedema occurs in rare diseases, including hereditary angioedema (HAE) and acquired angioedema (AAE), including angiotensin-converting enzyme-induced angioedema; the latter two are primarily seen in adults and rarely in children. Hereditary angioedema is an autosomal dominant disease, with symptoms commencing during childhood in most of the patients. It is most often caused by quantitative and/or functional deficiency in C1-esterase inhibitor (C1-INH) protein, activating the complement, contact, and fibrinolysis systems, with increased production of bradykinin.

• #56 Urticaria and angioedema in children and adolescents: diagnostic challenge

  https://www.all-imm.com/index.php/aei/article/download/538/875/6665

  Chronic urticaria is not considered an allergic assumption, and extensive blood work or skin tests are not indicated as routine examinations. A complete blood count and sedimentation rate/CRP, total IgE levels, and anti-thyroid peroxidase antibodies are often the only indicated tests. […] Bradykinin-mediated recurrent angioedema occurs in rare diseases, including hereditary angioedema (HAE) and acquired angioedema (AAE), including angiotensin-converting enzyme-induced angioedema; the latter two are primarily seen in adults and rarely in children. Hereditary angioedema is an autosomal dominant disease, with symptoms commencing during childhood in most of the patients. It is most often caused by quantitative and/or functional deficiency in C1-esterase inhibitor (C1-INH) protein, activating the complement, contact, and fibrinolysis systems, with increased production of bradykinin.

• #57 Urticaria and angioedema | Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology | Full Text

  https://aacijournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13223-018-0288-z

  Urticaria (hives) is a common disorder that often presents with angioedema (swelling that occurs beneath the skin). […] Angioedema can occur in the absence of urticaria and can be broadly divided into histamine-mediated and non-histamine-mediated angioedema. Histamine-mediated angioedema can be allergic, pseudoallergic or idiopathic. Non-histamine mediated angioedema is largely driven by bradykinin and can be hereditary, acquired or drug-induced, such as with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. […] In CSU, an external trigger cannot usually be identified. In approximately 45% of these patients, circulating immunoglobulin G (IgG) autoantibodies recognize IgE antibodies or the alpha subunit of the high-affinity IgE receptor on dermal mast cells and basophils, leading to chronic stimulation of these cells and the release of histamine and other inflammatory mediators that cause urticaria and angioedema.

• #58 Urticaria and angioedema

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3245442/

  Urticaria (hives) is a common disorder that often presents with angioedema (swelling that occurs beneath the skin). […] Angioedema can occur in the absence of urticaria, with angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor-induced angioedema and idiopathic angioedema being the more common causes. Rarer causes are hereditary angioedema (HAE) or acquired angioedema (AAE). […] In chronic autoimmune urticaria, circulating immunoglobulin G (IgG) autoantibodies react to the alpha subunit of the high-affinity IgE receptor on dermal mast cells and basophils, leading to chronic stimulation of these cells and the release of histamine and other inflammatory mediators which cause urticaria and angioedema. […] The most common causes of acute urticaria (with or without angioedema) are medications, foods, viral infections, parasitic infections, insect venom, and contact allergens, particularly latex hypersensitivity.

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