Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Oral thrush (monoliasis, oral candidiasis, OC) | Healthengine Blog

  https://healthinfo.healthengine.com.au/oral-thrush-monoliasis-oral-candidiasis-oc

  Oral thrush (or oral candidiasis) is a type of thrush found in the oral cavity. It is a type of fungal (yeast) infection, caused most commonly by Candida albicans, but can also be caused by other non-albican species like C. krusei, C. parapsilosi, C. glabrata, C. tropicalis and C. dubliniensis. As the Candida species are a part of the normal flora that lives in the mouth, it is the change in the normal oral environment, rather than the actual exposure or infection per se, that results in the occurrence of this disease. […] Any changes in the oral environment can cause the Candida species to multiply and colonise the mouth, leading to oral thrush. […] Saliva plays a major role in the prevention of Candidal overgrowth; therefore, disturbances to normal salivary physiology and decreased salivary flow represent major risk factors for oral thrush.

• #1 Mucosal Candidiasis: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Risk Factors

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1075227-overview

  C albicans asymptomatically inhabits the mouths of almost 50% of the population. Overgrowth of Candida is protected against by local T cells and interleukin (IL)17. […] Thus, when immunity is compromised, growth proceeds unchecked and leads to opportunistic infections. Candidiasis is seen in people with altered ecology, which in oral cases can be attributed to dental appliances, xerostomia, antimicrobials, nasopharyngeal steroids, oral cancer, or inflammatory diseases of the oral mucosa (e.g. pemphigus vulgaris). […] Impaired systemic immunity is another major cause of infection, notably in patients who are on immunosuppressive therapy, infected by HIV, or have diabetes. […] C albicans is the predominant causal organism of most candidiasis. Other species, such as Candidatropicalis and Candidastellatoidea, more often appear in persons who are severely immunocompromised.

• #1 Oral candidiasis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_candidiasis

  Oral candidiasis (Acute pseudomembranous candidiasis), which is also known as oral thrush, is candidiasis that occurs in the mouth. That is, oral candidiasis is a mycosis (yeast/fungal infection) of Candida species on the mucous membranes of the mouth. […] This candidal carriage state is not considered a disease, but when Candida species become pathogenic and invade host tissues, oral candidiasis can occur. This change usually constitutes an opportunistic infection by normally harmless micro-organisms because of local (i.e., mucosal) or systemic factors altering host immunity. […] The exact process by which Candida species switch from acting as normal oral commensals (saprophytic) state in the carrier to acting as a pathogenic organism (parasitic state) is not completely understood. […] Several Candida species are polymorphogenic, that is, capable of growing in different forms depending on the environmental conditions. Candida albicans can appear as a yeast form (blastospores), which is thought to be relatively harmless; and a hyphal form associated with invasion of host tissues. […] As a general rule, candidiasis presenting with white lesions is mainly caused by Candida species in the hyphal form and red lesions by yeast forms.

• #1 Oral Candidiasis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545282/

  Oral candidiasis is an infection of the oral cavity by Candida albicans. The condition is generally obtained secondary to immune suppression, which can be local or systemic, including extremes of age (newborns and elderly), immunocompromising diseases such as HIV/AIDS, and chronic systemic steroid and antibiotic use. […] Candidal species cause oral candidiasis when a patient’s host immunity becomes disrupted. This disruption can be local, secondary to oral corticosteroid use. Overgrowth of the fungus then leads to the formation of a pseudomembrane. […] In healthy patients, the patient’s immune system and normal bacteria flora inhibit candida growth. Consequently, immunosuppression such as diabetes, dentures, steroid use, malnutrition, vitamin deficiencies, and recent antibiotic use often leads to the disease. […] Candida species are found in the oral cavity of immunocompetent individuals as a commensal population, and a shift to pathological activity is triggered by a decrease in the host’s immunity, e.g., extremes of age, immunocompromising diseases, long-term steroids, and antibiotic treatment.

• #1 Oral Candidiasis: A Disease of Opportunity

  https://www.mdpi.com/2309-608X/6/1/15

  Oral candidiasis, commonly referred to as “thrush,” is an opportunistic fungal infection that commonly affects the oral mucosa. The main causative agent, Candida albicans, is a highly versatile commensal organism that is well adapted to its human host; however, changes in the host microenvironment can promote the transition from one of commensalism to pathogen. This transition is heavily reliant on an impressive repertoire of virulence factors, most notably cell surface adhesins, proteolytic enzymes, morphologic switching, and the development of drug resistance. […] In fact, core to C. albicans pathogenesis is its ability to undergo morphologic switching between yeast and hyphal forms. Yeast-to-hypha transition is triggered in response to a variety of host environmental stimuli that activate multiple regulatory signaling pathways, eventually leading to the expression of master activators of hyphal formation. The distinct morphological states of C. albicans dictate phases of colonization, growth, and dissemination, where the yeast form is associated with both initial attachment and dissemination, while the hyphal form enables C. albicans to invade host tissue.

• #1 Oral Candidosis: Pathophysiology and Best Practice for Diagnosis, Classification, and Successful Management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8306613/

  Oral candidosis is the most common fungal infection that frequently occurs in patients debilitated by other diseases or conditions. […] An array of interaction between Candida and the host is dynamic and complex. Candida exhibits multifaceted strategies for growth, proliferation, evasion of host defenses, and survival within the host to induce fungal infection. […] The transition of Candida species from the innocuous commensals into disease-causing, opportunistic pathogens is associated with a complex array of interaction between the virulence attributes of the organism and host defenses. […] Candidal adhesion to oral mucosa is the essential step in the process of colonization and infection. […] The process of adhesion is complex and multifactorial. […] The hyphal cells have one principal property of directional growth (thigmotropism), allowing the fungus to actively invade intercellular junctions.

• #1 Oral Candidosis: Pathophysiology and Best Practice for Diagnosis, Classification, and Successful Management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8306613/

  C. albicans can invade the host cells by utilizing endocytosis, a passive fungal-induced but host-cell-driven process whereby lytic enzymes and invasins expressed on hyphae bind to and degrade E-cadherin and other inter-epithelial cell junctional proteins, enabling the organisms to be taken up into the epithelial cells. […] The high frequency switching modes potentiate the pathogenic mechanisms, including the capacity to (1) invade and proliferate in extremely different body environments, (2) elude the immune system by alterations in the surface antigenicity, (3) promote tissue penetration by production of hydrolytic enzymes, (4) form biofilm, and (5) escape antifungal treatment. […] An important feature of the cell surface of yeast C. albicans is the presence of receptors for the complement fragments C3. The pathogenicity of C. albicans is promoted by binding C3 because the phagocytic uptake of the yeast by human neutrophil is impaired.

• #1 Oral Candidiasis: A Disease of Opportunity

  https://www.mdpi.com/2309-608X/6/1/15

  The major biological feature of C. albicans with significant clinical implications resides in its ability to form biofilms. In fact, the majority of C. albicans infections are associated with formation of biofilms on a variety of surfaces, and the transition of C. albicans from budding yeast to a filamentous hyphal is central to its ability to form pathogenic biofilms. Biofilms are structured communities of surface-associated microbial populations embedded in an extracellular matrix which are described to have a multifaceted role. […] Importantly, in addition to Candida pathogenic factors and interactions with the host immune system, it is now acknowledged that the bacterial component of the oral microbiome plays an important role in the development and exacerbation of OC.

• #1 Mucosal Candidiasis: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Risk Factors

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1075227-overview

  Secreted aspartyl proteinases (SAPs) are hydrolytic enzymes secreted by Candida that contribute to virulence by degrading host cell membranes and molecular mediators of host immunity. […] The prevacuolar protein sorting gene, VPS4, is required for extracellular secretion of SAPs, and it is a key component of the virulence of Candida. […] Additionally, studies have shown that women with vulvovaginal candidiasis have higher levels of SAPs in their vaginal fluid. […] In those with dental devices, Candida, upon attachment, can form a small subcolony of persister cells. These cells have been shown to be highly resistant to antimicrobials, and they provide a mechanism for the recurrent formation of biofilms. […] In addition to providing drug resistance, these biofilms have been implicated as a virulence factor in candidiasis.

• #1 An Unconventional Oral Candidiasis in an Immunocompetent Patient

  https://www.mdpi.com/2309-608X/9/3/295

  Here we presented a clinical case of oral candidiasis sustained by a strain of C. lusitaniae and a strain of C. albicans that become chronic and multi-resistant following biofilms formation. […] During coinfection, the C. albicans strain exhibited a hyphal phenotype, typically associated with biofilm formation. […] Biofilm is, by definition, represented by a complex network of polymorphic cells, including hyphal, pseudohyphal, and round yeast cells wrapped in an extracellular matrix (ECM), in which multifactorial resistance occurs, thus involving the physiological state of cells, overstimulation of drug efflux pumps, and the limitation of the diffusion of the antifungal drugs through biofilms exerted by the ECM. […] It is known that the formation of polymicrobial biofilms from cross-kingdom interaction between C. albicans and oral bacteria (such as Streptococcus mutans and Staphylococcus aureus) predispose in a particular way to the onset of oral candidiasis, and that in these cases the combined administration of povidone-iodine and fluconazole is particularly effective as it is able to completely inhibit the carriage of C. albicans and the development and growth of the biofilm.

• #1 Oral Candidosis: Pathophysiology and Best Practice for Diagnosis, Classification, and Successful Management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8306613/

  The growth of Candida in saliva or carbohydrate-rich nutrient medium is often accompanied by acid production and a concomitant reduction in pH to very low levels. […] A high-carbohydrate diet or poor glycemic control in diabetic patients can promote Candida proliferation and increase the production of hydrolytic enzymes, such as secreted aspartyl proteinases (SAPs) and phospholipases (LPs), capable of degrading the basement membrane, extracellular matrix, and epithelial cell junctions that not only enhance yeast invasion of the altered oral epithelium but also offer direct cytotoxicity and induce mucosa inflammation seen in atrophic or erythematous candidosis. […] In vitro studies by Samaranayake et al. showed that using glucose-supplemented saliva mixed with added antibiotics to suppress bacterial growth resulted in a rapid decline in pH from 7.5 to 3.2 over a 48-h period, accompanied by yeast growth. […] These results suggest that sugar may promote yeast growth. […] Candida can participate not just passively but actively in the process of pathogenesis to establish oral candidosis.

• #1 DT News – UK – Mechanism behind oral candidiasis discovered

  https://uk.dental-tribune.com/news/mechanism-behind-oral-candidiasis-discovered/

  LONDON, UK/PITTSBURGH, US: A recently discovered peptide toxin has been identified by a team of UK and US researchers as the cause of the development of oral candidiasis, also known as oral thrush. The substance, called Candidalysin, which is produced by the Candida albicans fungus, was found to punch a hole into cells lining the mouth, thus triggering the immune response. […] Understanding its role in the infection mechanism in the mouth could eventually lead to better treatments for the condition and other fungal infections, the scientists said. […] Our research provides vital clues to understand the immune defence network at barrier sites of the body. This knowledge may ultimately be harnessed to design antifungal vaccines, said Naglik.

• #1 Thrush: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/969147-overview

  C albicans causes thrush when normal host immunity or normal host flora is disrupted. Overgrowth of yeast on the oral mucosa leads to desquamation of epithelial cells and accumulation of bacteria, keratin, and necrotic tissue. This debris combines to form a pseudomembrane, which may closely adhere to the mucosa. This membrane is usually not large but may rarely involve extensive areas of edema, ulceration, and necrosis of the underlying mucosa. […] Affected neonates are typically colonized by C albicans during passage through the birth canal. Hence, the risk for thrush is increased when the mother has an active vaginal yeast infection. Other sources of transmission to neonates include colonized breasts (for breastfed infants), hands, and/or improperly cleaned bottle nipples. Kissing has also been implicated. […] C albicans frequently and asymptomatically inhabits the GI tract of many children and adults, and the GI tract has been implicated as a reservoir for yeast contamination of the perineum. Thus, candidal diaper rash frequently occurs in conjunction with thrush.

• #1 Oral Thrush

  https://www.prescribingcompanion.com/nigeria/infections-and-infectious-diseases-prescribing/dental-and-oral-disorders/oral-thrush/

  Immunosuppression results in the Candida albicans (a normal oral commensal) becoming virulent. […] It invades and proliferates in superficial epithelium. […] Results in a thick plaque which is oedematous and not easily rubbed off.

• #1 Thrush: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/10956-thrush

  Thrush is a fungal (yeast) infection that can grow in your mouth, throat and other parts of your body. With oral thrush (oral candidiasis), you may develop white, raised, cottage cheese-like lesions (spots) on your tongue and cheeks. Thrush can quickly become irritated and cause mouth pain and redness. […] Thrush happens when theres an overgrowth of Candida, a type of fungus. Another name for thrush in your mouth or throat is oropharyngeal candidiasis. […] Most people have small amounts of the Candida fungus in their mouth, digestive tract and skin. When illnesses, stress or medications disturb this balance, the fungus grows out of control and causes thrush. […] Healthcare providers usually prescribe antifungals (like nystatin) to treat thrush. These medicines are available in tablets, lozenges or liquids that are swished around in your mouth before swallowing. Usually, you need to take these medications for 10 to 14 days. Your healthcare provider will recommend specific treatment based on your age and the cause of the infection.

• #1 Oral Thrush: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Contagiousness

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/oral_thrush/article_em.htm

  Perhaps the most common association for developing thrush is an improper technique during the use of inhalers containing corticosteroids for the control of asthma or COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease). […] The time between birth through a Candida-infected vaginal canal and the development of oral thrush is approximately seven to 10 days. This is the only case of transmission from an infected host to a non-colonized individual. Past the neonatal period, the development of candidal disease reflects an overgrowth of already present Candida yeast colonies. […] Older children, teenagers, and adults without an obvious cause to develop oral thrush (for example, improper technique using inhaled corticosteroids) should have a thorough evaluation by a healthcare professional since there are several serious conditions that may predispose to the development of oral thrush (for example, weakened immune system).

• #1 Oral Thrush Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, Prevention – Dr. Axe

  https://draxe.com/health/oral-thrush/

  A 2005 study published in the Journal of Infection found that invasive candidiasis is a common and serious complication of cancer and cancer treatments. […] People with untreated or uncontrolled diabetes have large amounts of sugar in their saliva, encouraging the growth of candida. […] Because caprylic acid acts as a natural yeast-fighting agent, its believed that it can penetrate the cell membranes of candida yeast cells and cause them to die off, detoxifying the digestive tract and speeding up the healing process. […] A study published in the Journal of Reproductive Medicine found that eliminating excessive use of sugary foods brought about a dramatic reduction in the incidence and severity of candida overgrowth.

• #1 Oral thrush – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/oral-thrush/symptoms-causes/syc-20353533

  Oral thrush, also called oral candidiasis (kan-dih-DIE-uh-sis), is a condition in which the fungus Candida albicans builds up in the mouth. […] A healthy immune system works to get rid of harmful invading organisms, such as viruses, bacteria and fungi. This maintains a balance between „good” and „bad” microbes in your body. But sometimes these protective measures fail. Then candida fungus grows and allows an oral thrush infection to take hold. […] The most common type of candida fungus is Candida albicans. Several factors, such as a weakened immune system, can raise your risk of oral thrush. […] Oral thrush usually isn’t a big concern for healthy children and adults. But for people with lowered immunity, such as from cancer treatment or HIV/AIDS, thrush can be more serious. Oral thrush that isn’t treated can lead to more-serious systemic candida infections. If you have a weakened immune system, thrush may spread to your esophagus or other parts of your body.

• #1 Oral Thrush: Symptoms, Causes, Treatments, and Prevention

  https://www.healthline.com/health/thrush

  Oral thrush happens when this type of yeast infection develops inside your mouth. Its also known as oral candidiasis, oropharyngeal candidiasis, or simply thrush. […] Oral thrush and other yeast infections are caused by an overgrowth of C. albicans. It exists naturally in the microbiomes of 50% of the population. […] But if your immune system is compromised or the balance of microorganisms in your body is disrupted, the fungus can grow out of control. […] If your immune system is weakened, youre more likely to develop complications from thrush. […] Without proper treatment, the fungus that causes thrush may enter your bloodstream and spread to your heart, brain, eyes, or other body parts. This is known as invasive or systemic candidiasis. […] Systemic candidiasis can cause problems in the organs it affects. It can also cause a potentially life threatening condition known as septic shock.

• #1

  https://consensus.app/questions/thrush-candida/

  Oral candidiasis, commonly known as thrush, is an opportunistic fungal infection primarily caused by the yeast Candida albicans. This condition affects the oral mucosa and can lead to creamy white lesions, typically on the tongue or inner cheeks, and sometimes extending to the roof of the mouth, gums, tonsils, or the back of the throat. […] Candida albicans is a versatile commensal organism that can transition to a pathogenic state under certain conditions. This transition is facilitated by several virulence factors, including cell surface adhesins, proteolytic enzymes, morphologic switching, and the development of drug resistance. The co-adhesion of C. albicans with bacteria in the oral cavity enhances its colonization and persistence. The host immune response, particularly the T helper 17 (Th17)-type adaptive immune response, plays a crucial role in controlling the initial growth of Candida and preventing tissue invasion. […] Novel therapeutic strategies are being explored to target pathogenic mechanisms and prevent the transition of C. albicans from a commensal to a pathogen.

• #1 Researchers Identify Mechanics Behind Oral Thrush Infections – Dentistry Today

  https://www.dentistrytoday.com/researchers-identify-mechanics-behind-oral-thrush-infections/

  An international team co-led by researchers at Kings College London and the University of Pittsburgh has identified the mechanism by which the immune system first learns that Candida albicans, which causes oral thrush, has invaded the body. The culprit is a fungal peptide toxin called Candidalysin that punches holes in cells lining the mouth and is sensed by the immune system, which then begins to mount a defense. […] Gaffens lab previously showed than an immune hormone called interleukin-17 (IL-17) and the specific cells that make it, a subclass of immune cells called helper T cells, are essential to immunity against oral thrush. […] In the new study, the researchers used a combination of human oral epithelial cells cultured in laboratory dishes and mice infected orally with Candida to show the central importance of Candidalysin, a peptide secreted by Candida that allows the fungus to create holes in epithelial cells and invade the tissue. Further testing showed that IL-17 and Candidalysin act in a synergistically to amplify antifungal signals in cultured epithelial cells.

• #1 Fluconazole: Uses, Dosage, Side Effects, Warnings – Drugs.com

  https://www.drugs.com/fluconazole.html

  Fluconazole works by targeting a key enzyme (lanosterol 14-alpha-demethylase) responsible for building a crucial cell wall component (ergosterol) in fungi. By blocking this enzyme, Fluconazole prevents the fungus from forming a normal cell wall, leading to the buildup of abnormal sterols. […] These abnormal sterols weaken the fungal cell wall, hindering its growth. Fluconazole’s mechanism of action means it has a much greater effect on this enzyme in fungi compared to the same enzyme in human cells. This selectivity helps minimize side effects.

• #1 An Unconventional Oral Candidiasis in an Immunocompetent Patient

  https://www.mdpi.com/2309-608X/9/3/295

  Furthermore, we could assume that the fluconazole therapy also played a role in the reversal switch of C. albicans from a multi-resistant hyphal phenotype to yeast cells. In fact, it has recently been reported that fluconazole exhibits anti-biofilm activity even against resistant strains of C. albicans through a dual mechanism: it reduces the production of branched α-1,2 and α-1,6 mannans (WSPs), which together with β-1,6 glucans (ASPs) constitute a mannan-glucan complex (MGCx), a fundamental component of the ECM, and also interferes with the ergosterol pathway, necessary for the formation of hyphae, inhibiting the phenotypic switch from yeast to hypha. […] In conclusion, all these events may have contributed to reducing the fungal biofilm formation, which is the main reason for antifungal resistances, thus allowing nystatin to work efficiently, topically—during the rinsing—and at the intestinal level—after swallowing.

• #2 Oral thrush: Symptoms, treatments, and more

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/178864

  Oral thrush, also known as oral candidiasis, is a fungal infection that can affect the mouth. […] Oral thrush most commonly occurs due to the fungus Candida albicans. However, Candida glabrata, Candida tropicalis, and Candida krusei can also cause the infection. […] However, people on certain medications, with reduced immune systems, or with certain medical conditions are susceptible to oral thrush when C. albicans grows out of control. […] Medical professionals sometimes divide oral thrush into three groups based on appearance, although the condition can sometimes sit between categories. The three groups are: […] A doctor may prescribe fluconazole for severe infections or thrush affecting the esophagus. […] Chemoradiation therapy for head and neck cancer can lead to mucositis, which is when the mouth becomes sore and inflamed. A 2020 study notes that Candidainfection is both a result of chemo-radiation mucositis and a risk factor.

• #2 Oral Thrush: Symptoms, Causes, Treatments, and Prevention

  https://www.healthline.com/health/thrush

  Oral thrush happens when this type of yeast infection develops inside your mouth. Its also known as oral candidiasis, oropharyngeal candidiasis, or simply thrush. […] Oral thrush and other yeast infections are caused by an overgrowth of C. albicans. It exists naturally in the microbiomes of 50% of the population. […] But if your immune system is compromised or the balance of microorganisms in your body is disrupted, the fungus can grow out of control. […] If your immune system is weakened, youre more likely to develop complications from thrush. […] Without proper treatment, the fungus that causes thrush may enter your bloodstream and spread to your heart, brain, eyes, or other body parts. This is known as invasive or systemic candidiasis. […] Systemic candidiasis can cause problems in the organs it affects. It can also cause a potentially life threatening condition known as septic shock.

• #2 Thrush: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/10956-thrush

  Thrush is a fungal (yeast) infection that can grow in your mouth, throat and other parts of your body. With oral thrush (oral candidiasis), you may develop white, raised, cottage cheese-like lesions (spots) on your tongue and cheeks. Thrush can quickly become irritated and cause mouth pain and redness. […] Thrush happens when theres an overgrowth of Candida, a type of fungus. Another name for thrush in your mouth or throat is oropharyngeal candidiasis. […] Most people have small amounts of the Candida fungus in their mouth, digestive tract and skin. When illnesses, stress or medications disturb this balance, the fungus grows out of control and causes thrush. […] Healthcare providers usually prescribe antifungals (like nystatin) to treat thrush. These medicines are available in tablets, lozenges or liquids that are swished around in your mouth before swallowing. Usually, you need to take these medications for 10 to 14 days. Your healthcare provider will recommend specific treatment based on your age and the cause of the infection.

• #2 Oral candidiasis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_candidiasis

  Oral candidiasis (Acute pseudomembranous candidiasis), which is also known as oral thrush, is candidiasis that occurs in the mouth. That is, oral candidiasis is a mycosis (yeast/fungal infection) of Candida species on the mucous membranes of the mouth. […] This candidal carriage state is not considered a disease, but when Candida species become pathogenic and invade host tissues, oral candidiasis can occur. This change usually constitutes an opportunistic infection by normally harmless micro-organisms because of local (i.e., mucosal) or systemic factors altering host immunity. […] The exact process by which Candida species switch from acting as normal oral commensals (saprophytic) state in the carrier to acting as a pathogenic organism (parasitic state) is not completely understood. […] Several Candida species are polymorphogenic, that is, capable of growing in different forms depending on the environmental conditions. Candida albicans can appear as a yeast form (blastospores), which is thought to be relatively harmless; and a hyphal form associated with invasion of host tissues. […] As a general rule, candidiasis presenting with white lesions is mainly caused by Candida species in the hyphal form and red lesions by yeast forms.

• #2 Oral Candidiasis: A Disease of Opportunity

  https://www.mdpi.com/2309-608X/6/1/15

  Oral candidiasis, commonly referred to as “thrush,” is an opportunistic fungal infection that commonly affects the oral mucosa. The main causative agent, Candida albicans, is a highly versatile commensal organism that is well adapted to its human host; however, changes in the host microenvironment can promote the transition from one of commensalism to pathogen. This transition is heavily reliant on an impressive repertoire of virulence factors, most notably cell surface adhesins, proteolytic enzymes, morphologic switching, and the development of drug resistance. […] In fact, core to C. albicans pathogenesis is its ability to undergo morphologic switching between yeast and hyphal forms. Yeast-to-hypha transition is triggered in response to a variety of host environmental stimuli that activate multiple regulatory signaling pathways, eventually leading to the expression of master activators of hyphal formation. The distinct morphological states of C. albicans dictate phases of colonization, growth, and dissemination, where the yeast form is associated with both initial attachment and dissemination, while the hyphal form enables C. albicans to invade host tissue.

• #2 Oral Candidosis: Pathophysiology and Best Practice for Diagnosis, Classification, and Successful Management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8306613/

  Oral candidosis is the most common fungal infection that frequently occurs in patients debilitated by other diseases or conditions. […] An array of interaction between Candida and the host is dynamic and complex. Candida exhibits multifaceted strategies for growth, proliferation, evasion of host defenses, and survival within the host to induce fungal infection. […] The transition of Candida species from the innocuous commensals into disease-causing, opportunistic pathogens is associated with a complex array of interaction between the virulence attributes of the organism and host defenses. […] Candidal adhesion to oral mucosa is the essential step in the process of colonization and infection. […] The process of adhesion is complex and multifactorial. […] The hyphal cells have one principal property of directional growth (thigmotropism), allowing the fungus to actively invade intercellular junctions.

• #2 Oral Candidiasis: A Disease of Opportunity

  https://www.mdpi.com/2309-608X/6/1/15

  The major biological feature of C. albicans with significant clinical implications resides in its ability to form biofilms. In fact, the majority of C. albicans infections are associated with formation of biofilms on a variety of surfaces, and the transition of C. albicans from budding yeast to a filamentous hyphal is central to its ability to form pathogenic biofilms. Biofilms are structured communities of surface-associated microbial populations embedded in an extracellular matrix which are described to have a multifaceted role. […] Importantly, in addition to Candida pathogenic factors and interactions with the host immune system, it is now acknowledged that the bacterial component of the oral microbiome plays an important role in the development and exacerbation of OC.

• #2 Mucosal Candidiasis: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Risk Factors

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1075227-overview

  Secreted aspartyl proteinases (SAPs) are hydrolytic enzymes secreted by Candida that contribute to virulence by degrading host cell membranes and molecular mediators of host immunity. […] The prevacuolar protein sorting gene, VPS4, is required for extracellular secretion of SAPs, and it is a key component of the virulence of Candida. […] Additionally, studies have shown that women with vulvovaginal candidiasis have higher levels of SAPs in their vaginal fluid. […] In those with dental devices, Candida, upon attachment, can form a small subcolony of persister cells. These cells have been shown to be highly resistant to antimicrobials, and they provide a mechanism for the recurrent formation of biofilms. […] In addition to providing drug resistance, these biofilms have been implicated as a virulence factor in candidiasis.

• #2 An Unconventional Oral Candidiasis in an Immunocompetent Patient

  https://www.mdpi.com/2309-608X/9/3/295

  Here we presented a clinical case of oral candidiasis sustained by a strain of C. lusitaniae and a strain of C. albicans that become chronic and multi-resistant following biofilms formation. […] During coinfection, the C. albicans strain exhibited a hyphal phenotype, typically associated with biofilm formation. […] Biofilm is, by definition, represented by a complex network of polymorphic cells, including hyphal, pseudohyphal, and round yeast cells wrapped in an extracellular matrix (ECM), in which multifactorial resistance occurs, thus involving the physiological state of cells, overstimulation of drug efflux pumps, and the limitation of the diffusion of the antifungal drugs through biofilms exerted by the ECM. […] It is known that the formation of polymicrobial biofilms from cross-kingdom interaction between C. albicans and oral bacteria (such as Streptococcus mutans and Staphylococcus aureus) predispose in a particular way to the onset of oral candidiasis, and that in these cases the combined administration of povidone-iodine and fluconazole is particularly effective as it is able to completely inhibit the carriage of C. albicans and the development and growth of the biofilm.

• #2 Oral Candidosis: Pathophysiology and Best Practice for Diagnosis, Classification, and Successful Management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8306613/

  C. albicans can invade the host cells by utilizing endocytosis, a passive fungal-induced but host-cell-driven process whereby lytic enzymes and invasins expressed on hyphae bind to and degrade E-cadherin and other inter-epithelial cell junctional proteins, enabling the organisms to be taken up into the epithelial cells. […] The high frequency switching modes potentiate the pathogenic mechanisms, including the capacity to (1) invade and proliferate in extremely different body environments, (2) elude the immune system by alterations in the surface antigenicity, (3) promote tissue penetration by production of hydrolytic enzymes, (4) form biofilm, and (5) escape antifungal treatment. […] An important feature of the cell surface of yeast C. albicans is the presence of receptors for the complement fragments C3. The pathogenicity of C. albicans is promoted by binding C3 because the phagocytic uptake of the yeast by human neutrophil is impaired.

• #2 DT News – UK – Mechanism behind oral candidiasis discovered

  https://uk.dental-tribune.com/news/mechanism-behind-oral-candidiasis-discovered/

  LONDON, UK/PITTSBURGH, US: A recently discovered peptide toxin has been identified by a team of UK and US researchers as the cause of the development of oral candidiasis, also known as oral thrush. The substance, called Candidalysin, which is produced by the Candida albicans fungus, was found to punch a hole into cells lining the mouth, thus triggering the immune response. […] Understanding its role in the infection mechanism in the mouth could eventually lead to better treatments for the condition and other fungal infections, the scientists said. […] Our research provides vital clues to understand the immune defence network at barrier sites of the body. This knowledge may ultimately be harnessed to design antifungal vaccines, said Naglik.

• #2 Oral Candidosis: Pathophysiology and Best Practice for Diagnosis, Classification, and Successful Management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8306613/

  The growth of Candida in saliva or carbohydrate-rich nutrient medium is often accompanied by acid production and a concomitant reduction in pH to very low levels. […] A high-carbohydrate diet or poor glycemic control in diabetic patients can promote Candida proliferation and increase the production of hydrolytic enzymes, such as secreted aspartyl proteinases (SAPs) and phospholipases (LPs), capable of degrading the basement membrane, extracellular matrix, and epithelial cell junctions that not only enhance yeast invasion of the altered oral epithelium but also offer direct cytotoxicity and induce mucosa inflammation seen in atrophic or erythematous candidosis. […] In vitro studies by Samaranayake et al. showed that using glucose-supplemented saliva mixed with added antibiotics to suppress bacterial growth resulted in a rapid decline in pH from 7.5 to 3.2 over a 48-h period, accompanied by yeast growth. […] These results suggest that sugar may promote yeast growth. […] Candida can participate not just passively but actively in the process of pathogenesis to establish oral candidosis.

• #2 Thrush: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/969147-overview

  C albicans causes thrush when normal host immunity or normal host flora is disrupted. Overgrowth of yeast on the oral mucosa leads to desquamation of epithelial cells and accumulation of bacteria, keratin, and necrotic tissue. This debris combines to form a pseudomembrane, which may closely adhere to the mucosa. This membrane is usually not large but may rarely involve extensive areas of edema, ulceration, and necrosis of the underlying mucosa. […] Affected neonates are typically colonized by C albicans during passage through the birth canal. Hence, the risk for thrush is increased when the mother has an active vaginal yeast infection. Other sources of transmission to neonates include colonized breasts (for breastfed infants), hands, and/or improperly cleaned bottle nipples. Kissing has also been implicated. […] C albicans frequently and asymptomatically inhabits the GI tract of many children and adults, and the GI tract has been implicated as a reservoir for yeast contamination of the perineum. Thus, candidal diaper rash frequently occurs in conjunction with thrush.

• #2 Oral Thrush

  https://www.prescribingcompanion.com/nigeria/infections-and-infectious-diseases-prescribing/dental-and-oral-disorders/oral-thrush/

  Immunosuppression results in the Candida albicans (a normal oral commensal) becoming virulent. […] It invades and proliferates in superficial epithelium. […] Results in a thick plaque which is oedematous and not easily rubbed off.

• #2 Oral Candidiasis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545282/

  Oral candidiasis is an infection of the oral cavity by Candida albicans. The condition is generally obtained secondary to immune suppression, which can be local or systemic, including extremes of age (newborns and elderly), immunocompromising diseases such as HIV/AIDS, and chronic systemic steroid and antibiotic use. […] Candidal species cause oral candidiasis when a patient’s host immunity becomes disrupted. This disruption can be local, secondary to oral corticosteroid use. Overgrowth of the fungus then leads to the formation of a pseudomembrane. […] In healthy patients, the patient’s immune system and normal bacteria flora inhibit candida growth. Consequently, immunosuppression such as diabetes, dentures, steroid use, malnutrition, vitamin deficiencies, and recent antibiotic use often leads to the disease. […] Candida species are found in the oral cavity of immunocompetent individuals as a commensal population, and a shift to pathological activity is triggered by a decrease in the host’s immunity, e.g., extremes of age, immunocompromising diseases, long-term steroids, and antibiotic treatment.

• #2 Oral thrush in adults | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/infections-and-poisoning/oral-thrush-in-adults/

  Low numbers of the fungus Candida are naturally found in the mouth and digestive system of most people. They dont usually cause any problems, but can lead to oral thrush if they multiply. […] There are a number of reasons why this may happen, including: taking a course of antibiotics, particularly over a long period or at a high dose, taking inhaled corticosteroid medication for asthma, wearing dentures (false teeth), particularly if they dont fit properly, having poor oral hygiene, having a dry mouth, either because of a medical condition or a medication you are taking, smoking, having chemotherapy or radiotherapy to treat cancer. […] Babies, young children and elderly people are at a particularly high risk of developing oral thrush, as are people with certain underlying conditions, including diabetes, an iron deficiency or vitamin B12 deficiency, an underactive thyroid (hypothyroidism) and HIV.

• #2 Mucosal Candidiasis: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Risk Factors

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1075227-overview

  C albicans asymptomatically inhabits the mouths of almost 50% of the population. Overgrowth of Candida is protected against by local T cells and interleukin (IL)17. […] Thus, when immunity is compromised, growth proceeds unchecked and leads to opportunistic infections. Candidiasis is seen in people with altered ecology, which in oral cases can be attributed to dental appliances, xerostomia, antimicrobials, nasopharyngeal steroids, oral cancer, or inflammatory diseases of the oral mucosa (e.g. pemphigus vulgaris). […] Impaired systemic immunity is another major cause of infection, notably in patients who are on immunosuppressive therapy, infected by HIV, or have diabetes. […] C albicans is the predominant causal organism of most candidiasis. Other species, such as Candidatropicalis and Candidastellatoidea, more often appear in persons who are severely immunocompromised.

• #2 Oral thrush – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/oral-thrush/symptoms-causes/syc-20353533

  Oral thrush, also called oral candidiasis (kan-dih-DIE-uh-sis), is a condition in which the fungus Candida albicans builds up in the mouth. […] A healthy immune system works to get rid of harmful invading organisms, such as viruses, bacteria and fungi. This maintains a balance between „good” and „bad” microbes in your body. But sometimes these protective measures fail. Then candida fungus grows and allows an oral thrush infection to take hold. […] The most common type of candida fungus is Candida albicans. Several factors, such as a weakened immune system, can raise your risk of oral thrush. […] Oral thrush usually isn’t a big concern for healthy children and adults. But for people with lowered immunity, such as from cancer treatment or HIV/AIDS, thrush can be more serious. Oral thrush that isn’t treated can lead to more-serious systemic candida infections. If you have a weakened immune system, thrush may spread to your esophagus or other parts of your body.

• #2 Researchers Identify Mechanics Behind Oral Thrush Infections – Dentistry Today

  https://www.dentistrytoday.com/researchers-identify-mechanics-behind-oral-thrush-infections/

  An international team co-led by researchers at Kings College London and the University of Pittsburgh has identified the mechanism by which the immune system first learns that Candida albicans, which causes oral thrush, has invaded the body. The culprit is a fungal peptide toxin called Candidalysin that punches holes in cells lining the mouth and is sensed by the immune system, which then begins to mount a defense. […] Gaffens lab previously showed than an immune hormone called interleukin-17 (IL-17) and the specific cells that make it, a subclass of immune cells called helper T cells, are essential to immunity against oral thrush. […] In the new study, the researchers used a combination of human oral epithelial cells cultured in laboratory dishes and mice infected orally with Candida to show the central importance of Candidalysin, a peptide secreted by Candida that allows the fungus to create holes in epithelial cells and invade the tissue. Further testing showed that IL-17 and Candidalysin act in a synergistically to amplify antifungal signals in cultured epithelial cells.

• #2 Fluconazole: Uses, Dosage, Side Effects, Warnings – Drugs.com

  https://www.drugs.com/fluconazole.html

  Fluconazole works by targeting a key enzyme (lanosterol 14-alpha-demethylase) responsible for building a crucial cell wall component (ergosterol) in fungi. By blocking this enzyme, Fluconazole prevents the fungus from forming a normal cell wall, leading to the buildup of abnormal sterols. […] These abnormal sterols weaken the fungal cell wall, hindering its growth. Fluconazole’s mechanism of action means it has a much greater effect on this enzyme in fungi compared to the same enzyme in human cells. This selectivity helps minimize side effects.

• #3 Oral thrush – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/oral-thrush/symptoms-causes/syc-20353533

  Oral thrush, also called oral candidiasis (kan-dih-DIE-uh-sis), is a condition in which the fungus Candida albicans builds up in the mouth. […] A healthy immune system works to get rid of harmful invading organisms, such as viruses, bacteria and fungi. This maintains a balance between „good” and „bad” microbes in your body. But sometimes these protective measures fail. Then candida fungus grows and allows an oral thrush infection to take hold. […] The most common type of candida fungus is Candida albicans. Several factors, such as a weakened immune system, can raise your risk of oral thrush. […] Oral thrush usually isn’t a big concern for healthy children and adults. But for people with lowered immunity, such as from cancer treatment or HIV/AIDS, thrush can be more serious. Oral thrush that isn’t treated can lead to more-serious systemic candida infections. If you have a weakened immune system, thrush may spread to your esophagus or other parts of your body.

• #3 Oral Candidiasis: A Disease of Opportunity

  https://www.mdpi.com/2309-608X/6/1/15

  Oral candidiasis, commonly referred to as “thrush,” is an opportunistic fungal infection that commonly affects the oral mucosa. The main causative agent, Candida albicans, is a highly versatile commensal organism that is well adapted to its human host; however, changes in the host microenvironment can promote the transition from one of commensalism to pathogen. This transition is heavily reliant on an impressive repertoire of virulence factors, most notably cell surface adhesins, proteolytic enzymes, morphologic switching, and the development of drug resistance. […] In fact, core to C. albicans pathogenesis is its ability to undergo morphologic switching between yeast and hyphal forms. Yeast-to-hypha transition is triggered in response to a variety of host environmental stimuli that activate multiple regulatory signaling pathways, eventually leading to the expression of master activators of hyphal formation. The distinct morphological states of C. albicans dictate phases of colonization, growth, and dissemination, where the yeast form is associated with both initial attachment and dissemination, while the hyphal form enables C. albicans to invade host tissue.

• #3 Oral candidiasis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_candidiasis

  Oral candidiasis (Acute pseudomembranous candidiasis), which is also known as oral thrush, is candidiasis that occurs in the mouth. That is, oral candidiasis is a mycosis (yeast/fungal infection) of Candida species on the mucous membranes of the mouth. […] This candidal carriage state is not considered a disease, but when Candida species become pathogenic and invade host tissues, oral candidiasis can occur. This change usually constitutes an opportunistic infection by normally harmless micro-organisms because of local (i.e., mucosal) or systemic factors altering host immunity. […] The exact process by which Candida species switch from acting as normal oral commensals (saprophytic) state in the carrier to acting as a pathogenic organism (parasitic state) is not completely understood. […] Several Candida species are polymorphogenic, that is, capable of growing in different forms depending on the environmental conditions. Candida albicans can appear as a yeast form (blastospores), which is thought to be relatively harmless; and a hyphal form associated with invasion of host tissues. […] As a general rule, candidiasis presenting with white lesions is mainly caused by Candida species in the hyphal form and red lesions by yeast forms.

• #3 Oral candidiasis pathophysiology – wikidoc

  https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Oral_candidiasis_pathophysiology

  Candida is a normal commensal of skin and mucous membranes. A competent immune system and an intact regenerating healthy skin prevent the virulence of Candida. […] Any condition that compromises cell-mediated immunity, worsens the general status of the patient or provide a favorable medium for Candida to form biofilms put the patient at increased risk for having candidiasis. […] Candidal gene VPS4 plays an important role in mucosal candidiasis specifically. Moreover, fungi with mutations affecting this gene were found to be less virulent.

• #3 Oral Candidosis: Pathophysiology and Best Practice for Diagnosis, Classification, and Successful Management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8306613/

  The growth of Candida in saliva or carbohydrate-rich nutrient medium is often accompanied by acid production and a concomitant reduction in pH to very low levels. […] A high-carbohydrate diet or poor glycemic control in diabetic patients can promote Candida proliferation and increase the production of hydrolytic enzymes, such as secreted aspartyl proteinases (SAPs) and phospholipases (LPs), capable of degrading the basement membrane, extracellular matrix, and epithelial cell junctions that not only enhance yeast invasion of the altered oral epithelium but also offer direct cytotoxicity and induce mucosa inflammation seen in atrophic or erythematous candidosis. […] In vitro studies by Samaranayake et al. showed that using glucose-supplemented saliva mixed with added antibiotics to suppress bacterial growth resulted in a rapid decline in pH from 7.5 to 3.2 over a 48-h period, accompanied by yeast growth. […] These results suggest that sugar may promote yeast growth. […] Candida can participate not just passively but actively in the process of pathogenesis to establish oral candidosis.

• #3 Oral Candidiasis: A Disease of Opportunity

  https://www.mdpi.com/2309-608X/6/1/15

  The major biological feature of C. albicans with significant clinical implications resides in its ability to form biofilms. In fact, the majority of C. albicans infections are associated with formation of biofilms on a variety of surfaces, and the transition of C. albicans from budding yeast to a filamentous hyphal is central to its ability to form pathogenic biofilms. Biofilms are structured communities of surface-associated microbial populations embedded in an extracellular matrix which are described to have a multifaceted role. […] Importantly, in addition to Candida pathogenic factors and interactions with the host immune system, it is now acknowledged that the bacterial component of the oral microbiome plays an important role in the development and exacerbation of OC.

• #3 An Unconventional Oral Candidiasis in an Immunocompetent Patient

  https://www.mdpi.com/2309-608X/9/3/295

  Here we presented a clinical case of oral candidiasis sustained by a strain of C. lusitaniae and a strain of C. albicans that become chronic and multi-resistant following biofilms formation. […] During coinfection, the C. albicans strain exhibited a hyphal phenotype, typically associated with biofilm formation. […] Biofilm is, by definition, represented by a complex network of polymorphic cells, including hyphal, pseudohyphal, and round yeast cells wrapped in an extracellular matrix (ECM), in which multifactorial resistance occurs, thus involving the physiological state of cells, overstimulation of drug efflux pumps, and the limitation of the diffusion of the antifungal drugs through biofilms exerted by the ECM. […] It is known that the formation of polymicrobial biofilms from cross-kingdom interaction between C. albicans and oral bacteria (such as Streptococcus mutans and Staphylococcus aureus) predispose in a particular way to the onset of oral candidiasis, and that in these cases the combined administration of povidone-iodine and fluconazole is particularly effective as it is able to completely inhibit the carriage of C. albicans and the development and growth of the biofilm.

• #3 Oral Thrush

  https://www.prescribingcompanion.com/nigeria/infections-and-infectious-diseases-prescribing/dental-and-oral-disorders/oral-thrush/

  Immunosuppression results in the Candida albicans (a normal oral commensal) becoming virulent. […] It invades and proliferates in superficial epithelium. […] Results in a thick plaque which is oedematous and not easily rubbed off.

• #3 Oral thrush in adults | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/infections-and-poisoning/oral-thrush-in-adults/

  Low numbers of the fungus Candida are naturally found in the mouth and digestive system of most people. They dont usually cause any problems, but can lead to oral thrush if they multiply. […] There are a number of reasons why this may happen, including: taking a course of antibiotics, particularly over a long period or at a high dose, taking inhaled corticosteroid medication for asthma, wearing dentures (false teeth), particularly if they dont fit properly, having poor oral hygiene, having a dry mouth, either because of a medical condition or a medication you are taking, smoking, having chemotherapy or radiotherapy to treat cancer. […] Babies, young children and elderly people are at a particularly high risk of developing oral thrush, as are people with certain underlying conditions, including diabetes, an iron deficiency or vitamin B12 deficiency, an underactive thyroid (hypothyroidism) and HIV.

• #3 Oral Candidiasis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545282/

  Oral candidiasis is an infection of the oral cavity by Candida albicans. The condition is generally obtained secondary to immune suppression, which can be local or systemic, including extremes of age (newborns and elderly), immunocompromising diseases such as HIV/AIDS, and chronic systemic steroid and antibiotic use. […] Candidal species cause oral candidiasis when a patient’s host immunity becomes disrupted. This disruption can be local, secondary to oral corticosteroid use. Overgrowth of the fungus then leads to the formation of a pseudomembrane. […] In healthy patients, the patient’s immune system and normal bacteria flora inhibit candida growth. Consequently, immunosuppression such as diabetes, dentures, steroid use, malnutrition, vitamin deficiencies, and recent antibiotic use often leads to the disease. […] Candida species are found in the oral cavity of immunocompetent individuals as a commensal population, and a shift to pathological activity is triggered by a decrease in the host’s immunity, e.g., extremes of age, immunocompromising diseases, long-term steroids, and antibiotic treatment.

• #3 Thrush: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/10956-thrush

  Thrush rarely causes complications in people with healthy immune systems. But if you have a weakened immune system, Candida can enter your bloodstream and spread to other areas of your body, such as your eyes, brain or heart. This type of infection is serious and may lead to septic shock, a life-threatening condition.

• #3 Fluconazole: Uses, Dosage, Side Effects, Warnings – Drugs.com

  https://www.drugs.com/fluconazole.html

  Fluconazole works by targeting a key enzyme (lanosterol 14-alpha-demethylase) responsible for building a crucial cell wall component (ergosterol) in fungi. By blocking this enzyme, Fluconazole prevents the fungus from forming a normal cell wall, leading to the buildup of abnormal sterols. […] These abnormal sterols weaken the fungal cell wall, hindering its growth. Fluconazole’s mechanism of action means it has a much greater effect on this enzyme in fungi compared to the same enzyme in human cells. This selectivity helps minimize side effects.

• #3 DT News – UK – Mechanism behind oral candidiasis discovered

  https://uk.dental-tribune.com/news/mechanism-behind-oral-candidiasis-discovered/

  LONDON, UK/PITTSBURGH, US: A recently discovered peptide toxin has been identified by a team of UK and US researchers as the cause of the development of oral candidiasis, also known as oral thrush. The substance, called Candidalysin, which is produced by the Candida albicans fungus, was found to punch a hole into cells lining the mouth, thus triggering the immune response. […] Understanding its role in the infection mechanism in the mouth could eventually lead to better treatments for the condition and other fungal infections, the scientists said. […] Our research provides vital clues to understand the immune defence network at barrier sites of the body. This knowledge may ultimately be harnessed to design antifungal vaccines, said Naglik.

• #4 Oral thrush (monoliasis, oral candidiasis, OC) | Healthengine Blog

  https://healthinfo.healthengine.com.au/oral-thrush-monoliasis-oral-candidiasis-oc

  Oral thrush (or oral candidiasis) is a type of thrush found in the oral cavity. It is a type of fungal (yeast) infection, caused most commonly by Candida albicans, but can also be caused by other non-albican species like C. krusei, C. parapsilosi, C. glabrata, C. tropicalis and C. dubliniensis. As the Candida species are a part of the normal flora that lives in the mouth, it is the change in the normal oral environment, rather than the actual exposure or infection per se, that results in the occurrence of this disease. […] Any changes in the oral environment can cause the Candida species to multiply and colonise the mouth, leading to oral thrush. […] Saliva plays a major role in the prevention of Candidal overgrowth; therefore, disturbances to normal salivary physiology and decreased salivary flow represent major risk factors for oral thrush.

• #4 Oral Candidosis: Pathophysiology and Best Practice for Diagnosis, Classification, and Successful Management

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8306613/

  The growth of Candida in saliva or carbohydrate-rich nutrient medium is often accompanied by acid production and a concomitant reduction in pH to very low levels. […] A high-carbohydrate diet or poor glycemic control in diabetic patients can promote Candida proliferation and increase the production of hydrolytic enzymes, such as secreted aspartyl proteinases (SAPs) and phospholipases (LPs), capable of degrading the basement membrane, extracellular matrix, and epithelial cell junctions that not only enhance yeast invasion of the altered oral epithelium but also offer direct cytotoxicity and induce mucosa inflammation seen in atrophic or erythematous candidosis. […] In vitro studies by Samaranayake et al. showed that using glucose-supplemented saliva mixed with added antibiotics to suppress bacterial growth resulted in a rapid decline in pH from 7.5 to 3.2 over a 48-h period, accompanied by yeast growth. […] These results suggest that sugar may promote yeast growth. […] Candida can participate not just passively but actively in the process of pathogenesis to establish oral candidosis.

• #4 Oral thrush – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/oral-thrush/symptoms-causes/syc-20353533

  Oral thrush, also called oral candidiasis (kan-dih-DIE-uh-sis), is a condition in which the fungus Candida albicans builds up in the mouth. […] A healthy immune system works to get rid of harmful invading organisms, such as viruses, bacteria and fungi. This maintains a balance between „good” and „bad” microbes in your body. But sometimes these protective measures fail. Then candida fungus grows and allows an oral thrush infection to take hold. […] The most common type of candida fungus is Candida albicans. Several factors, such as a weakened immune system, can raise your risk of oral thrush. […] Oral thrush usually isn’t a big concern for healthy children and adults. But for people with lowered immunity, such as from cancer treatment or HIV/AIDS, thrush can be more serious. Oral thrush that isn’t treated can lead to more-serious systemic candida infections. If you have a weakened immune system, thrush may spread to your esophagus or other parts of your body.

• #4 Oral Candidiasis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545282/

  Oral candidiasis is an infection of the oral cavity by Candida albicans. The condition is generally obtained secondary to immune suppression, which can be local or systemic, including extremes of age (newborns and elderly), immunocompromising diseases such as HIV/AIDS, and chronic systemic steroid and antibiotic use. […] Candidal species cause oral candidiasis when a patient’s host immunity becomes disrupted. This disruption can be local, secondary to oral corticosteroid use. Overgrowth of the fungus then leads to the formation of a pseudomembrane. […] In healthy patients, the patient’s immune system and normal bacteria flora inhibit candida growth. Consequently, immunosuppression such as diabetes, dentures, steroid use, malnutrition, vitamin deficiencies, and recent antibiotic use often leads to the disease. […] Candida species are found in the oral cavity of immunocompetent individuals as a commensal population, and a shift to pathological activity is triggered by a decrease in the host’s immunity, e.g., extremes of age, immunocompromising diseases, long-term steroids, and antibiotic treatment.

• #4 Oral thrush in adults | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/infections-and-poisoning/oral-thrush-in-adults/

  Low numbers of the fungus Candida are naturally found in the mouth and digestive system of most people. They dont usually cause any problems, but can lead to oral thrush if they multiply. […] There are a number of reasons why this may happen, including: taking a course of antibiotics, particularly over a long period or at a high dose, taking inhaled corticosteroid medication for asthma, wearing dentures (false teeth), particularly if they dont fit properly, having poor oral hygiene, having a dry mouth, either because of a medical condition or a medication you are taking, smoking, having chemotherapy or radiotherapy to treat cancer. […] Babies, young children and elderly people are at a particularly high risk of developing oral thrush, as are people with certain underlying conditions, including diabetes, an iron deficiency or vitamin B12 deficiency, an underactive thyroid (hypothyroidism) and HIV.

• #5 Oral Candidiasis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545282/

  Oral candidiasis is an infection of the oral cavity by Candida albicans. The condition is generally obtained secondary to immune suppression, which can be local or systemic, including extremes of age (newborns and elderly), immunocompromising diseases such as HIV/AIDS, and chronic systemic steroid and antibiotic use. […] Candidal species cause oral candidiasis when a patient’s host immunity becomes disrupted. This disruption can be local, secondary to oral corticosteroid use. Overgrowth of the fungus then leads to the formation of a pseudomembrane. […] In healthy patients, the patient’s immune system and normal bacteria flora inhibit candida growth. Consequently, immunosuppression such as diabetes, dentures, steroid use, malnutrition, vitamin deficiencies, and recent antibiotic use often leads to the disease. […] Candida species are found in the oral cavity of immunocompetent individuals as a commensal population, and a shift to pathological activity is triggered by a decrease in the host’s immunity, e.g., extremes of age, immunocompromising diseases, long-term steroids, and antibiotic treatment.

• #5 Oral thrush in adults | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/infections-and-poisoning/oral-thrush-in-adults/

  Low numbers of the fungus Candida are naturally found in the mouth and digestive system of most people. They dont usually cause any problems, but can lead to oral thrush if they multiply. […] There are a number of reasons why this may happen, including: taking a course of antibiotics, particularly over a long period or at a high dose, taking inhaled corticosteroid medication for asthma, wearing dentures (false teeth), particularly if they dont fit properly, having poor oral hygiene, having a dry mouth, either because of a medical condition or a medication you are taking, smoking, having chemotherapy or radiotherapy to treat cancer. […] Babies, young children and elderly people are at a particularly high risk of developing oral thrush, as are people with certain underlying conditions, including diabetes, an iron deficiency or vitamin B12 deficiency, an underactive thyroid (hypothyroidism) and HIV.

• #6 Oral Thrush (for Parents) | Nemours KidsHealth

  https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/thrush.html

  Oral thrush is caused by the overgrowth of a yeast (a type of fungus) called Candida albicans. […] Most people (including infants) naturally have Candida in their mouths and digestive tracts, which is considered normal growth. […] But if the immune system is weakened (from an illness or medicines like chemotherapy) or not fully developed (as in babies), Candida in the digestive tract can overgrow and lead to an infection. […] Candida overgrowth also can happen after a baby has been given antibiotics for a bacterial infection because antibiotics can kill off the „good” bacteria that keep the Candida from growing.

• #6 Oral thrush in adults | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/infections-and-poisoning/oral-thrush-in-adults/

  Low numbers of the fungus Candida are naturally found in the mouth and digestive system of most people. They dont usually cause any problems, but can lead to oral thrush if they multiply. […] There are a number of reasons why this may happen, including: taking a course of antibiotics, particularly over a long period or at a high dose, taking inhaled corticosteroid medication for asthma, wearing dentures (false teeth), particularly if they dont fit properly, having poor oral hygiene, having a dry mouth, either because of a medical condition or a medication you are taking, smoking, having chemotherapy or radiotherapy to treat cancer. […] Babies, young children and elderly people are at a particularly high risk of developing oral thrush, as are people with certain underlying conditions, including diabetes, an iron deficiency or vitamin B12 deficiency, an underactive thyroid (hypothyroidism) and HIV.

• #6 Oral Candidiasis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545282/

  Oral candidiasis is an infection of the oral cavity by Candida albicans. The condition is generally obtained secondary to immune suppression, which can be local or systemic, including extremes of age (newborns and elderly), immunocompromising diseases such as HIV/AIDS, and chronic systemic steroid and antibiotic use. […] Candidal species cause oral candidiasis when a patient’s host immunity becomes disrupted. This disruption can be local, secondary to oral corticosteroid use. Overgrowth of the fungus then leads to the formation of a pseudomembrane. […] In healthy patients, the patient’s immune system and normal bacteria flora inhibit candida growth. Consequently, immunosuppression such as diabetes, dentures, steroid use, malnutrition, vitamin deficiencies, and recent antibiotic use often leads to the disease. […] Candida species are found in the oral cavity of immunocompetent individuals as a commensal population, and a shift to pathological activity is triggered by a decrease in the host’s immunity, e.g., extremes of age, immunocompromising diseases, long-term steroids, and antibiotic treatment.

• #7 Oral thrush in adults | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/infections-and-poisoning/oral-thrush-in-adults/

  Low numbers of the fungus Candida are naturally found in the mouth and digestive system of most people. They dont usually cause any problems, but can lead to oral thrush if they multiply. […] There are a number of reasons why this may happen, including: taking a course of antibiotics, particularly over a long period or at a high dose, taking inhaled corticosteroid medication for asthma, wearing dentures (false teeth), particularly if they dont fit properly, having poor oral hygiene, having a dry mouth, either because of a medical condition or a medication you are taking, smoking, having chemotherapy or radiotherapy to treat cancer. […] Babies, young children and elderly people are at a particularly high risk of developing oral thrush, as are people with certain underlying conditions, including diabetes, an iron deficiency or vitamin B12 deficiency, an underactive thyroid (hypothyroidism) and HIV.

• #7 Oral Candidiasis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545282/

  Oral candidiasis is an infection of the oral cavity by Candida albicans. The condition is generally obtained secondary to immune suppression, which can be local or systemic, including extremes of age (newborns and elderly), immunocompromising diseases such as HIV/AIDS, and chronic systemic steroid and antibiotic use. […] Candidal species cause oral candidiasis when a patient’s host immunity becomes disrupted. This disruption can be local, secondary to oral corticosteroid use. Overgrowth of the fungus then leads to the formation of a pseudomembrane. […] In healthy patients, the patient’s immune system and normal bacteria flora inhibit candida growth. Consequently, immunosuppression such as diabetes, dentures, steroid use, malnutrition, vitamin deficiencies, and recent antibiotic use often leads to the disease. […] Candida species are found in the oral cavity of immunocompetent individuals as a commensal population, and a shift to pathological activity is triggered by a decrease in the host’s immunity, e.g., extremes of age, immunocompromising diseases, long-term steroids, and antibiotic treatment.

• #8 Oral thrush: Symptoms, treatments, and more

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/178864

  Oral thrush, also known as oral candidiasis, is a fungal infection that can affect the mouth. […] Oral thrush most commonly occurs due to the fungus Candida albicans. However, Candida glabrata, Candida tropicalis, and Candida krusei can also cause the infection. […] However, people on certain medications, with reduced immune systems, or with certain medical conditions are susceptible to oral thrush when C. albicans grows out of control. […] Medical professionals sometimes divide oral thrush into three groups based on appearance, although the condition can sometimes sit between categories. The three groups are: […] A doctor may prescribe fluconazole for severe infections or thrush affecting the esophagus. […] Chemoradiation therapy for head and neck cancer can lead to mucositis, which is when the mouth becomes sore and inflamed. A 2020 study notes that Candidainfection is both a result of chemo-radiation mucositis and a risk factor.

• #8 Oral thrush in adults | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/infections-and-poisoning/oral-thrush-in-adults/

  Low numbers of the fungus Candida are naturally found in the mouth and digestive system of most people. They dont usually cause any problems, but can lead to oral thrush if they multiply. […] There are a number of reasons why this may happen, including: taking a course of antibiotics, particularly over a long period or at a high dose, taking inhaled corticosteroid medication for asthma, wearing dentures (false teeth), particularly if they dont fit properly, having poor oral hygiene, having a dry mouth, either because of a medical condition or a medication you are taking, smoking, having chemotherapy or radiotherapy to treat cancer. […] Babies, young children and elderly people are at a particularly high risk of developing oral thrush, as are people with certain underlying conditions, including diabetes, an iron deficiency or vitamin B12 deficiency, an underactive thyroid (hypothyroidism) and HIV.

• #9 Oral thrush in adults | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/infections-and-poisoning/oral-thrush-in-adults/

  Low numbers of the fungus Candida are naturally found in the mouth and digestive system of most people. They dont usually cause any problems, but can lead to oral thrush if they multiply. […] There are a number of reasons why this may happen, including: taking a course of antibiotics, particularly over a long period or at a high dose, taking inhaled corticosteroid medication for asthma, wearing dentures (false teeth), particularly if they dont fit properly, having poor oral hygiene, having a dry mouth, either because of a medical condition or a medication you are taking, smoking, having chemotherapy or radiotherapy to treat cancer. […] Babies, young children and elderly people are at a particularly high risk of developing oral thrush, as are people with certain underlying conditions, including diabetes, an iron deficiency or vitamin B12 deficiency, an underactive thyroid (hypothyroidism) and HIV.

Zobacz więcej