Wirus zika – Epidemiologia

Wirus zika
Epidemiologia

Wirus Zika (ZIKV), należący do rodzaju Flavivirus, jest przenoszony głównie przez komary Aedes aegypti i Aedes albopictus, które gryzą w ciągu dnia. Po raz pierwszy wyizolowany w 1947 roku, wirus pozostawał endemiczny w Afryce i Azji do 2007 roku, kiedy to nastąpiła pierwsza duża epidemia na wyspie Yap. W latach 2015-2016 doszło do gwałtownego rozprzestrzenienia się wirusa w obu Amerykach, z szacowanymi 440 000-1 300 300 przypadkami zakażeń w Brazylii w 2015 roku oraz ponad 41 000 przypadkami w USA i terytoriach. ZIKV może być również przenoszony drogą płciową oraz wertykalną, co zwiększa ryzyko transmisji. Nadzór epidemiologiczny opiera się głównie na pasywnych systemach zgłaszania, które zaniżają rzeczywistą liczbę zakażeń, zwłaszcza że tylko około 20% zakażonych wykazuje objawy, które są zwykle łagodne i niespecyficzne. Wysoka seroprewalencja (do 49%) po epidemiach wskazuje na szerokie rozprzestrzenienie wirusa w populacji.

Epidemiologia wirusa zika

Wirus zika (ZIKV) to arbowirus z rodzaju Flavivirus (rodzina Flaviviridae), filogenetycznie bardzo zbliżony do innych wirusów, takich jak wirus dengi, żółtej gorączki, japońskiego zapalenia mózgu i wirusa Zachodniego Nilu. Wirus zika został po raz pierwszy wyizolowany w 1947 roku od małp w lesie Zika w Ugandzie, a pierwszy dobrze udokumentowany przypadek zakażenia u ludzi odnotowano w 1964 roku. Przez kolejne dekady wirus pozostawał głównie w Afryce, z niewielkimi i sporadycznymi ogniskami w Azji¹²³.

Historycznie, w latach 1947-2007 odnotowano tylko 14 sporadycznych przypadków zakażenia wirusem zika u ludzi. Pierwsza duża epidemia choroby wywołanej przez wirus zika została zgłoszona na wyspie Yap (Federalne Stany Mikronezji) w 2007 roku, obejmując 49 potwierdzonych i 59 prawdopodobnych przypadków zakażenia. Druga epidemia, obejmująca 30 000-32 000 objawowych przypadków (11,5% populacji), wystąpiła w Polinezji Francuskiej w latach 2013-2014, a seroprewalencja po wybuchu epidemii wynosiła 49% w populacji ogólnej⁴.

W marcu 2015 roku wirus zika dotarł do Brazylii, co stanowiło pierwszy przypadek jego wprowadzenia do Ameryk. Szacuje się, że w 2015 roku w Brazylii wystąpiło 440 000-1 300 300 przypadków zakażenia wirusem zika⁵. Późniejsze rozprzestrzenianie się wirusa było gwałtowne – od maja 2015 roku władze zdrowia publicznego Brazylii potwierdziły transmisję wirusa zika w północno-wschodniej części kraju⁶.

Globalne rozprzestrzenianie wirusa

W szczytowym okresie epidemii w latach 2015-2016 w obu Amerykach wirus zika rozprzestrzenił się w sposób wybuchowy przez Amerykę Południową, Amerykę Środkową i Karaiby⁷⁸. Według Panamerykańskiej Organizacji Zdrowia (PAHO), 75 krajów i terytoriów potwierdziło lokalną, wektorową transmisję wirusa zika w regionie Ameryk⁹. W okresie od stycznia 2015 r. do listopada 2016 r. w Stanach Zjednoczonych i ich terytoriach zgłoszono ponad 41 000 przypadków zakażenia wirusem zika, z czego 3461 przypadków dotyczyło kobiet w ciąży¹⁰.

Lokalna transmisja wirusa zika rozpoczęła się na terytoriach USA: Portoryko, Amerykańskie Samoa i Wyspy Dziewicze Stanów Zjednoczonych w 2015 roku. W kontynentalnych Stanach Zjednoczonych w latach 2015-2016 odnotowano ograniczoną lokalną transmisję na Florydzie i w Teksasie¹¹¹². Od 2018 roku nie zgłoszono żadnych przypadków transmisji wirusa zika przez komary w kontynentalnych Stanach Zjednoczonych, a od 2019 roku nie zgłoszono żadnych potwierdzonych przypadków choroby wirusa zika z terytoriów USA¹³¹⁴.

Według danych Światowej Organizacji Zdrowia (WHO), do chwili obecnej łącznie 89 krajów i terytoriów zgłosiło dowody transmisji wirusa zika przez komary¹⁵. W maju 2024 roku liczba ta wzrosła do 92 krajów i terytoriów z udokumentowanymi dowodami obecnej lub wcześniejszej autochtonicznej transmisji wirusa zika przenoszonego przez komary¹⁶.

Chociaż liczba przypadków zachorowań na wirus zika od 2017 roku globalnie spadła, transmisja utrzymuje się na niskim poziomie w kilku krajach Ameryki i innych regionach endemicznych¹⁷¹⁸.

Czynniki ryzyka i rozprzestrzenianie geograficzne

Wirus zika jest przenoszony przede wszystkim przez komary z rodzaju Aedes, głównie Aedes aegypti i Aedes albopictus, które gryzą głównie w ciągu dnia¹⁹²⁰. Te same gatunki komarów przenoszą również wirusy dengi i chikungunya²¹.

Przewidywanie, gdzie wirus zika będzie się rozprzestrzeniał, jest trudne. Jednak ponieważ ten sam komar, który przenosi wirusa zika, przenosi również dengę i chikungunyę, można oczekiwać lokalnej transmisji wirusa zika wszędzie tam, gdzie przenoszona była denga lub chikungunya²².

Czynniki przyspieszające rozprzestrzenianie się wirusa zika w obu Amerykach mogą obejmować fakt, że nie wydaje się on wymagać zwierzęcego gospodarza rezerwuarowego, jak w przypadku wirusa Zachodniego Nilu²³. Rozprzestrzenianie się wirusa zika, a także innych pojawiających się chorób przenoszonych przez komary Aedes, takich jak denga i chikungunya, jest częściowo spowodowane czynnikami antropogenicznymi²⁴.

Wirus zika może rozprzestrzeniać się wszędzie tam, gdzie występują komary Aedes aegypti. Jest to wirus przenoszony między ludźmi głównie przez tego komara, który powszechnie występuje wokół domów i obszarów miejskich²⁵.

Systemy nadzoru nad wirusem zika

Nadzór nad zdrowiem publicznym w zakresie wirusa zika opiera się przede wszystkim na zgłoszeniach potencjalnych przypadków od pracowników opieki zdrowotnej do wydziałów zdrowia. Departamenty zdrowia wykorzystują te raporty o przypadkach do śledzenia przypływów i odpływów infekcji w lokalnych obszarach, oceny skuteczności programów zapobiegania i kontroli oraz kierowania działaniami w zakresie zdrowia publicznego²⁶.

Chociaż przedstawiane są jako proste liczby osób ze schorzeniem, dane z nadzoru nad wirusem zika są wynikiem złożonego procesu, w którym czynniki kontekstowe, organizacyjne i ludzkie wpływają na to, czy przypadek zostanie zidentyfikowany²⁷.

Wyzwania w nadzorze nad wirusem zika

Nadzór nad wirusem zika opiera się głównie na raportach pracowników opieki zdrowotnej o przypadkach osób z chorobą wywołaną przez wirusa zika (ZVD), wykorzystując system chorób podlegających zgłoszeniu. Tabele oparte na takich pasywnych systemach nadzoru są znane z zaniżania rzeczywistej liczby przypadków, ponieważ niektóre osoby nigdy nie są diagnozowane, a inne nie są zgłaszane, i wydaje się, że ten „fenomen góry lodowej” dotyczy również ZVD²⁸.

Ze względu na to, że praktyki nadzoru nad wirusem zika znacznie różnią się w poszczególnych krajach, CDC nie zawsze dysponuje dokładnymi informacjami na temat obecnego ryzyka transmisji wirusa zika w wielu obszarach geograficznych. Z tego powodu kraje i terytoria z obecną lub przeszłą transmisją są uważane za zagrożone transmisją wirusa zika²⁹.

Wiele czynników, w tym duża liczba pacjentów bezobjawowych i z łagodnymi objawami oraz brak spójnej międzynarodowej definicji przypadku choroby wirusa zika, komplikuje zrozumienie wirusa i może utrudniać reakcje na obecny wybuch epidemii³⁰.

Brak walidowanych testów diagnostycznych, spójnych międzynarodowych definicji przypadków i informacji o trendach może również przyczyniać się do trudności w oszacowaniu częstości występowania wirusa³¹.

Systemy nadzoru w różnych krajach

W Stanach Zjednoczonych stany i terytoria indywidualnie określają, czy wymagane jest powiadamianie departamentów zdrowia o zakażeniu wirusem zika, a Rada Epidemiologów Stanowych i Terytorialnych utrzymuje definicje przypadków w celu zapewnienia spójności³². Choroba wywołana przez wirus zika (Zika) jest chorobą podlegającą zgłoszeniu w całym kraju. CDC jest powiadamiane o przypadkach przez stanowe i lokalne departamenty zdrowia, które stosują standardowe definicje przypadków³³.

WHO wspiera kraje w prowadzeniu nadzoru i kontroli arbowirusów poprzez wdrażanie Globalnej Inicjatywy Arbowirusowej, która jest zgodna z zaleceniami określonymi w Strategicznym Planie Reagowania na Wirusa Zika i rozszerza je³⁴.

WHO reaguje na wirusa zika poprzez: wspieranie krajów w potwierdzaniu wybuchów epidemii za pośrednictwem sieci współpracujących laboratoriów; zapewnianie wsparcia technicznego i wytycznych dla krajów w zakresie skutecznego zarządzania epidemiami chorób przenoszonych przez komary; opracowywanie strategii, polityk i planów zarządzania epidemiami opartych na dowodach; zapewnianie wsparcia technicznego i wytycznych dla krajów w zakresie skutecznego zarządzania przypadkami i epidemiami; wspieranie krajów w ulepszaniu systemów raportowania; oraz publikowanie wytycznych i podręczników dotyczących nadzoru epidemiologicznego, laboratorium, klinicznego zarządzania przypadkami i kontroli wektorów dla państw członkowskich³⁵.

Według wytycznych WHO dotyczących nadzoru nad wirusem zika, nadzór nad wirusem zika powinien stanowić część krajowego systemu nadzoru każdego kraju i uwzględniać wszelkie istniejące systemy nadzoru nad innymi chorobami arbowirusowymi, takimi jak denga i chikungunya, oraz chorobami, które mogą być częścią diagnostyki różnicowej, w tym porażenie wiotkie, odra i różyczka³⁶.

Ograniczenia i wyzwania w systemach nadzoru

Dane z nadzoru nad zdrowiem publicznym są raportowane na podstawie miejsca zamieszkania, a nie miejsca, w którym mogło dojść do narażenia³⁷. Systemy nadzoru chorób zliczają przypadki przede wszystkim na podstawie miejsca zamieszkania pacjenta, a nie konkretnego miejsca narażenia³⁸.

Czas zgłaszania przypadków również dodaje pewien stopień niepewności do interpretacji danych z nadzoru. Celem nadzoru – pasywnego i aktywnego – jest wykrywanie i mierzenie choroby; jednak sposób interpretacji danych wejściowych systemu przez decydentów i opinię publiczną to inny problem³⁹.

Biorąc pod uwagę czynniki wpływające zarówno na testowanie, jak i raportowanie, można założyć, że raporty z nadzoru nad wirusem zika, podobnie jak większość systemów nadzoru opartych na przypadkach, znacznie zaniżają liczbę prawdziwych infekcji⁴⁰.

Obecne systemy nadzoru mają niskie prawdopodobieństwo wykrycia epidemii zakażeń wirusem zika, ciężkiej mikrocefalii i zespołu Guillaina-Barrégo i mogą prowadzić do znacznego wzrostu obciążenia systemu opieki zdrowotnej ze względu na wykrywanie dużej liczby fałszywie dodatnich przypadków⁴¹.

Epidemie wirusa zika nie były wykrywalne poprzez nadzór nieserologiczny. Epidemie były wykrywalne przez nadzór serologiczny, jeśli ryzyko infekcji wzrosło o co najmniej 10%, ale ponad 50% wszystkich przypadków było fałszywie dodatnich⁴².

Ustalenia wskazują, że mało prawdopodobne jest, aby epidemie zakażenia wirusem zika i domniemane powiązane skutki w Ameryce Łacińskiej zostały wykryte poprzez systemy nadzoru oparte na obecnych wytycznych⁴³.

Szczegółowe dane epidemiologiczne

Od lutego do listopada 2016 r. WHO ogłosiło stan zagrożenia zdrowia publicznego o znaczeniu międzynarodowym (PHEIC) w związku z mikrocefalią, innymi zaburzeniami neurologicznymi i wirusem zika, a związek przyczynowy między wirusem zika a wadami wrodzonymi został wkrótce potwierdzony⁴⁴.

W czerwcu 2016 r., według epidemiologicznej aktualizacji Panamerykańskiej Organizacji Zdrowia (PAHO), łącznie 39 krajów i terytoriów w regionie Ameryki potwierdziło lokalną transmisję wirusa zika przez wektory od 2015 r⁴⁵.

Rozpowszechnienie i częstotliwość występowania

W latach 2015-2016 odnotowano ponad 900 000 podejrzanych przypadków wirusa zika⁴⁶. W przypadku epidemii w Brazylii szacuje się, że liczba podejrzanych przypadków zakażenia wirusem zika wyniosła od 440 000 do 1 300 000 do końca 2015 r⁴⁷.

W latach 2018-2022 w stanie Georgia zgłoszono łącznie 8 przypadków wirusa zika. Podczas gdy w Georgii występują komary, które mogą przenosić wirusa zika, nigdy nie zgłoszono lokalnie nabytego wirusa zika z ekspozycji na komary w Georgii⁴⁸.

Na Tajwanie pierwszy importowany przypadek zidentyfikowano w styczniu 2016 r. Nie doszło do lokalnej transmisji wirusa, a w latach 2016-2022 potwierdzono tylko 26 importowanych przypadków⁴⁹.

W Kanadzie do 31 sierpnia 2018 r. zgłoszono 569 przypadków związanych z podróżami i 4 przypadki przeniesione drogą płciową od czasu wykrycia pierwszych przypadków w październiku 2015 r⁵⁰.

W Europie w 2019 r. Europejskie CDC zgłosiło 71 przypadków zakażenia wirusem zika, z których większość (92%) była związana z podróżami, z nielicznymi przypadkami transmisji lokalnej w wyniku kontaktu seksualnego lub transmisji wertykalnej⁵¹.

Czynniki demograficzne i populacyjne

Skumulowana zapadalność (wskaźnik ataku) na ZVD była znacznie wyższa u kobiet w porównaniu z mężczyznami we wszystkich grupach wiekowych z wyjątkiem 0-4 lat i osób w wieku 80 lat i starszych. Skumulowana zapadalność na ZVD u kobiet w ciąży wyniosła 3 120 zgłoszonych przypadków na 100 000 populacji (95% CI: 3 077-3 164)⁵².

Podczas epidemii wirusa zika w Kolumbii w latach 2015-2017 wykryto znaczące obciążenia związane z nadzorem. Model badawczy wykazał, że wskaźnik wykrywalności objawowych przypadków wśród kobiet w wieku reprodukcyjnym wynosił 99% (95% CI: 98,7-100), w porównaniu do 85,4% (95% CI: 84,7-86,1) w innych grupach demograficznych. Wynika to z faktu, że działania w zakresie badań przesiewowych i wykrywania przypadków były skierowane bardziej na kobiety w ciąży i kobiety w wieku reprodukcyjnym niż na inne grupy demograficzne, potencjalnie wprowadzając błąd w analizach epidemiologicznych dynamiki transmisji⁵³.

Badania wykazały, że po skorygowaniu różnic w prawdopodobieństwie zgłaszania, kobiety pozostawały bardziej podatne na objawowe zakażenie wirusem zika niż mężczyźni⁵⁴.

Zakażenie wirusem zika może dotknąć osoby ze wszystkich grup wiekowych, a mężczyźni i kobiety są w równym stopniu narażeni na zakażenie wirusem zika⁵⁵.

Transmisja wirusa zika

Wirus zika jest przenoszony przede wszystkim przez komary z rodzaju Aedes, które gryzą głównie w ciągu dnia⁵⁶. Dwa typy komarów Aedes są zdolne do przenoszenia wirusa zika: Aedes aegypti i Aedes albopictus⁵⁷.

Chociaż mniej powszechne, istnieją inne drogi, którymi wirus zika może się rozprzestrzeniać. Wirus zika jest obecny w nasieniu i może być przenoszony przez mężczyzn na ich partnerów seksualnych poprzez stosunki seksualne, w tym stosunki pochwowe i analne, a prawdopodobnie także seks oralny (fellatio), nawet gdy mężczyźni nie mają objawów⁵⁸.

Wirus zika może być również przenoszony przez mężczyzn lub kobiety na ich partnerów seksualnych podczas dzielenia się zabawkami seksualnymi, nawet gdy zakażone osoby nie mają objawów⁵⁹.

Udokumentowano również transmisję seksualną i wertykalną (z matki na dziecko) wirusa zika w ograniczonej liczbie przypadków, podobnie jak transmisję poprzez transfuzję krwi⁶⁰.

Infekcja wirusem zika podczas ciąży może powodować u płodu mikrocefalię (wrodzony zespół obejmujący niepełny rozwój mózgu i małą wielkość głowy), inne ciężkie wady mózgu płodu, oczne i inne wady, które razem określane są jako wrodzony zespół wirusa zika⁶¹.

Wpływ na zdrowie publiczne

Podczas epidemii, która miała miejsce w Polinezji Francuskiej w latach 2013 i 2014, zaobserwowano wzrost liczby przypadków zespołu Guillaina-Barrégo (GBS) i innych objawów neurologicznych w związku z zakażeniem wirusem zika, a ostatnio w Amerykach również został on powiązany z innymi objawami neurologicznymi⁶².

W październiku 2015 roku władze zdrowotne Brazylii potwierdziły wzrost częstości występowania mikrocefalii u noworodków w regionie północno-wschodnim kraju, co zbiegło się w czasie z wybuchem epidemii wirusa zika. Następnie opisano inne wady wrodzone, niewydolność łożyska, ograniczenie wzrostu wewnątrzmacicznego i śmierć płodu w związku z zakażeniem wirusem zika podczas ciąży⁶³.

Powikłania zdrowotne związane z wirusem zika

Istnieje consensus naukowy, że wirus zika jest przyczyną mikrocefalii i zespołu Guillaina-Barrégo⁶⁴. Manifestacje kliniczne najwyraźniej zmieniły się od czasu dużej epidemii w Polinezji Francuskiej w latach 2013-2014, kiedy zgłaszano ciężkie powikłania neurologiczne, a następnie wzrost liczby ciężkich wad wrodzonych podczas pojawienia się wirusa w Brazylii w 2015 roku⁶⁵.

CDC szacuje, że 6% dzieci urodzonych przez matki z wirusem zika podczas ciąży będzie miało wady wrodzone związane z wirusem zika, takie jak uszkodzenie mózgu, uszkodzenie oczu i/lub mikrocefalię przy urodzeniu⁶⁶.

Zakażenie wirusem zika podczas ciąży jest znane z powodowania powikłań u płodu, takich jak mikrocefalia, nieprawidłowości ośrodkowego układu nerwowego i śmierć płodu⁶⁷.

Zgony przypisywane wirusowi zika są rzadkie, z wyłączeniem utraty płodu wśród kobiet zakażonych podczas ciąży i noworodków z ciężką wrodzoną chorobą wywołaną przez wirusa zika⁶⁸.

Niedawne badanie śledziło 11 850 podejrzanych przypadków wrodzonego zespołu związanego z wirusem zika (CZS) urodzonych w Brazylii w latach 2015-2018, z których 28,3% zostało potwierdzonych, 9,3% było niejednoznacznych, a 62,4% niepotwierdzonych. Potwierdzone przypadki miały prawie dwa razy wyższy wskaźnik śmiertelności w porównaniu z niepotwierdzonymi przypadkami⁶⁹.

Obciążenie systemów opieki zdrowotnej

Trudność utrzymania liczby przypadków wynika z faktu, że objawy choroby są zazwyczaj łagodne i nie wszystkie dotknięte osoby są obserwowane przez służby zdrowia. Najważniejsze jest wykrycie krążenia wirusa, wzmocnienie reakcji służb zdrowia i wzmocnienie nadzoru nad poważnymi przypadkami i powikłaniami⁷⁰.

Obfitość bezobjawowych i łagodnych infekcji oraz ograniczone testy diagnostyczne sugerują, że transmisja w wielu lokalizacjach prawdopodobnie pozostaje niedostatecznie rozpoznana⁷¹.

Tylko 1 na 5 osób zakażonych wirusem zika zwykle wykazuje objawy, a objawy są generalnie łagodne, więc trudno jest ustalić jasną zapadalność na infekcję⁷².

Diagnoza kliniczna zakażenia wirusem zika jest trudna, ponieważ objawy często przypominają inne zakażenia flawiwirusami⁷³.

Nadzór i monitorowanie wirusa zika

Światowa Organizacja Zdrowia (WHO) kompiluje okresowe podsumowania globalnej epidemiologii transmisji wirusa zika, a najnowsza kompilacja danych została opublikowana jako przegląd najnowszej epidemiologii zakażenia wirusem zika w American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, opisując dane do końca 2023 roku⁷⁴.

Od czasu publikacji poprzedniej aktualizacji epidemiologicznej WHO dotyczącej wirusa zika w 2022 r., trzy kraje zostały dodane do listy krajów z dowodami autochtonicznej transmisji wirusa przenoszonego przez komary, a dwa kraje do listy krajów z ustalonymi populacjami Aedes aegypti, ale bez udokumentowanej transmisji wirusa zika⁷⁵.

Metody nadzoru

Systemy nadzoru nad zdrowiem publicznym obejmują również przypadki, które są identyfikowane poprzez aktywny nadzór, w którym departamenty zdrowia proaktywnie pracują nad identyfikacją przypadków⁷⁶.

Do wzmocnienia nadzoru nad zakażeniami wirusem zika i chorobami wrodzonymi należy stosować ukierunkowany nadzór z wykorzystaniem jasnych definicji przypadków i odpowiednich epidemiologicznie algorytmów testów laboratoryjnych⁷⁷.

PAHO/WHO wspiera rozwój modelu zintegrowanego systemu nadzoru epidemiologicznego dla dengi, chikungunya i zika. Model ten integruje nadzór epidemiologiczny, kliniczny, laboratoryjny i entomologiczny w celu generowania standardowych i terminowych informacji dla podejmowania decyzji⁷⁸.

W celu zrozumienia ryzyka i odpowiedniego zaradzenia zagrożeniu, kluczowe jest określenie rozmieszczenia komarów, ich gęstości i składu gatunkowego na całym obszarze docelowym. Nadzór dostarczy również bezpośrednich dowodów na zwiększone ryzyko transmisji wirusa zika⁷⁹.

Nowoczesne technologie w nadzorze

Podczas epidemii wirusa zika w 2016 roku technologie cyfrowe odegrały ważną rolę, pomagając zrozumieć samą chorobę, ulepszając narzędzia diagnostyczne i kontrolując rozprzestrzenianie się infekcji⁸⁰.

Większość artykułów raportowała wykorzystanie modelowania obliczeniowego i systemów dużych zbiorów danych jako podstawowe podejścia, zwykle dedykowane monitorowaniu chorób. Przegląd zidentyfikował 32 prace, które wykorzystywały techniki modelowania obliczeniowego, w tym modelowanie matematyczne i podejścia oparte na mapowaniu systemów informacji geograficznej (GIS), głównie w celu oszacowania skali epidemii wirusa zika, badania dynamiki transmisji i przewidywania rozprzestrzeniania się ZIKV na inne regiony⁸¹.

Technologie cyfrowe, takie jak OpenZika, mogłyby przyspieszyć odkrywanie nowych leków przeciwwirusowych przeciwko wirusowi zika⁸².

Globalne inicjatywy nadzoru

W odpowiedzi na trwającą międzynarodową epidemię wirusa zika, Wielka Brytania prowadzi nadzór nad kobietami w ciąży z odpowiednią historią podróży oraz nad niemowlętami z możliwym wrodzonym zespołem wirusa zika⁸³.

WHO wzywa do zintegrowanego nadzoru nad chorobami arbowirusowymi o znaczeniu dla zdrowia publicznego, w tym dengi, chikungunya, żółtej gorączki i zika, które są przenoszone przez ten sam wektor komara⁸⁴.

Głównym problemem jest zmniejszenie raportowania przypadków wirusa zika. Jednym z największych wyzwań związanych z nadzorem nad wirusem zika jest to, że obecnie znajdujemy się w okresie post-epidemicznym, co oznacza, że uwaga, zasoby i finansowanie zmalały⁸⁵.

Władze zdrowia publicznego, lekarze, zagrożone społeczności i podróżni powinni pozostać czujni na możliwość transmisji wirusa zika i wdrażać środki ograniczające ryzyko zakażenia wirusem zika i innymi arbowirusami przenoszonymi przez komary Aedes⁸⁶.

Profilaktyka i kontrola

Nie ma szczepionki ani lekarstwa, które mogłoby zapobiec zakażeniu wirusem zika. Infekcji można zapobiec, unikając ukąszeń komarów i narażenia na wirus drogą płciową⁸⁷.

Osoby, które powróciły z podróży do obszaru zagrożonego wirusem zika, powinny również przestrzegać kroków mających na celu uniknięcie ukąszeń komarów przez trzy tygodnie po powrocie, aby zapobiec przenoszeniu wirusa zika na lokalne komary, które mogłyby rozprzestrzenić wirusa na innych⁸⁸.

Zapobieganie transmisji wirusa zika

Zapobieganie zakażeniu wirusem zika zależy od kontroli komarów Aedes i unikania ukąszeń komarów. Ponieważ wirus zika może być przenoszony drogą płciową, mężczyźni i kobiety, którzy mieszkają w obszarach trwającej transmisji wirusa zika lub podróżują do nich, powinni powstrzymać się od aktywności seksualnej lub konsekwentnie i prawidłowo stosować metody barierowe podczas seksu, gdy ich partnerka jest w ciąży⁸⁹.

Komitet Nadzwyczajny ds. wirusa zika IHR, na spotkaniu 8 marca 2016 r., stwierdził, że kobietom w ciąży należy doradzić, aby nie podróżowały do obszarów trwających epidemii wirusa zika; kobiety w ciąży, których partnerzy seksualni mieszkają w obszarach z epidemiami wirusa zika lub podróżują do nich, powinny zapewnić bezpieczne praktyki seksualne lub powstrzymać się od seksu przez czas trwania ciąży⁹⁰.

Obecnie ryzyko wirusa zika w większości części świata jest bardzo niskie. Niewiele osób wymaga teraz testów. Testy są zalecane, jeśli masz objawy wirusa zika i niedawno podróżowałeś do obszaru z obecną epidemią wirusa zika (czerwone obszary). Testy są zalecane, jeśli jesteś w ciąży, masz objawy wirusa zika i niedawno podróżowałeś do obszaru zagrożonego wirusem zika (fioletowe obszary)⁹¹.

Międzynarodowe wysiłki w zakresie kontroli

Od końca 2015 roku administracja (USA) agresywnie pracuje nad zwalczaniem wirusa zika, wirusa przenoszonego głównie przez komary, który ostatnio został powiązany z wadami wrodzonymi i innymi niepokojącymi skutkami zdrowotnymi⁹².

Rząd federalny monitoruje wirusa zika i współpracuje z krajowymi i międzynarodowymi partnerami zdrowia publicznego w celu alertowania pracowników opieki zdrowotnej i opinii publicznej o wirusie zika; zapewniania laboratoriom zdrowia publicznego testów diagnostycznych; oraz wykrywania i raportowania przypadków zarówno w kraju, jak i za granicą⁹³.

Żądane zasoby będą budować na naszych trwających wysiłkach w zakresie gotowości i będą wspierać istotne strategie zwalczania tego wirusa, takie jak szybkie rozszerzanie programów kontroli komarów; przyspieszenie badań nad szczepionkami i rozwoju diagnostyki; umożliwienie testowania i pozyskiwania szczepionek i diagnostyki; edukowanie pracowników opieki zdrowotnej, kobiet w ciąży i ich partnerów; poprawienie epidemiologii i rozszerzenie zdolności laboratoryjnych i testów diagnostycznych; poprawa usług zdrowotnych i wsparcia dla kobiet w ciąży o niskich dochodach, oraz wzmocnienie zdolności krajów dotkniętych wirusem zika do lepszego zwalczania komarów i kontroli transmisji⁹⁴.

Działania będą koncentrować się szczególnie na Ameryce Południowej, Ameryce Środkowej, Karaibach i będą: Wdrażać zintegrowane działania w zakresie zarządzania wektorami w krajach zagrożonych wirusem zika; Ustanawiać kampanie edukacyjne, aby upoważnić społeczności w dotkniętych krajach do podjęcia działań w celu ochrony siebie przed wirusem zika, a także innych chorób przenoszonych przez komary⁹⁵.

Te zasoby będą wspierać krytyczne działania w zakresie zdrowia publicznego, które są w toku, w tym gotowość, nadzór, zbieranie danych i komunikację ryzyka⁹⁶.

Regionalne działania kontrolne

Hrabstwo San Diego jest na pierwszej linii frontu, aby powstrzymać rozprzestrzenianie się wirusa zika. Urzędnicy zdrowia publicznego hrabstwa i kontroli wektorów nadal współpracują z pracownikami służby zdrowia i mieszkańcami w celu zbadania potencjalnych przypadków wirusa zika i podjęcia niezbędnych środków ostrożności, aby zminimalizować szanse lokalnej transmisji⁹⁷.

Ponieważ wirus zika jest przede wszystkim przenoszony przez komary, CDC zaleca, aby wszyscy podróżujący do obszaru dotkniętego wirusem zika podjęli środki w celu zapobiegania ukąszeniom komarów, zwłaszcza osoby, które regularnie przekraczają granicę. Ważne jest, aby podróżni chronili się przed ukąszeniami komarów po powrocie do USA, ponieważ jeśli komar ukąsi zainfekowaną osobę, która jest nadal zaraźliwa, może rozprzestrzenić wirusa na inną osobę⁹⁸.

Wydział Kontroli Komarów Hrabstwa Monmouth będzie nadal wdrażać kompleksowy zintegrowany program zarządzania komarami, który obejmuje: Nadzór nad populacjami komarów i chorobami – czynnik napędzający operacje kontrolne. Lokalne komary są zbierane i badane pod kątem wirusa Zachodniego Nilu, zapalenia mózgu koni wschodnich (EEE) i dengi od maja do października⁹⁹.

Każdego dnia CDC i inne światowe agencje zdrowia dostarczają więcej informacji i zaktualizowanych wytycznych dotyczących wirusa zika. Wydział Kontroli Komarów Hrabstwa Monmouth wraz z Wydziałem Zdrowia Hrabstwa czujnie śledzą te wydarzenia i zintegrują wszelkie stosowne wytyczne w swoich operacjach¹⁰⁰.

Departament Zdrowia Pennsylwanii i Departament Ochrony Środowiska stworzyły Plan Reagowania na Wirusa Zika, aby przygotować się do testów na wirusa zika, aby wzmocnić nadzór i kontrolę populacji komarów, które mogą rozprzestrzeniać wirusa zika, oraz aby wzmocnić nadzór nad przypadkami wirusa zika w Pennsylwanii¹⁰¹.

Kolejne rozdziały

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Wybierz kolejny rozdział z menu poniżej, aby otworzyć nową podstronę kompedium wiedzy i uzyskać szczegółowe informację o leku, substancji lub chorobie.

Materiały źródłowe

#1 Guidelines for surveillance of Zika virus disease and its complications
https://iris.paho.org/handle/10665.2/28405
Guidelines for surveillance of Zika virus disease and its complications […] Zika virus (ZIKV) is an arbovirus of the genus Flavivirus (family Flaviviridae), phylogenetically very close to other viruses, such as the dengue, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis, and West Nile viruses. […] Subsequently, outbreaks have been recorded in Africa, Asia, the Western Pacific region and, more recently, in the Americas. […] Sexual and vertical (mother-to-child) transmission of ZIKV have been documented in a limited number of cases, as has transmission through blood transfusion. […] During an outbreak that occurred in French Polynesia in 2013 and 2014, an increase in cases of Guillain-Barr syndrome (GBS) and other neurological manifestations was observed in association with ZIKV infection and recently, in the Americas, it has also been associated with other neurological manifestations.
#2 Zika Virus Infection – Taiwan Centers for Disease Control
https://www.cdc.gov.tw/En/Category/ListContent/bg0g_VU_Ysrgkes_KRUDgQ?uaid=91bZXZRT3mSvsWGyfF6mfg
Zika virus is a mosquito-borne flavivirus that was first identified in Uganda in 1947 in monkeys. […] Since Zika virus was found, it has been recorded in Africa, the Americas, Asia and the Pacific. […] A Zika outbreak in Brazil, identified in early 2015, was followed by an unusual increase in microcephaly among newborns, as well as an increased number of cases of Guillain-Barr syndrome, following a similar cluster in French Polynesia in 2014. […] From the 1960s to 1980s, human infections of Zika virus were found across Africa and Asia, typically accompanied by mild illness. […] The first large outbreak of disease caused by Zika infection was reported from the Island of Yap (Federated States of Micronesia) in 2007. […] From 2015 to 2016, the virus spread and affected more than 70 countries in the Americas, Oceania, Southeast Asia and Africa.
#3 Zika Virus | BCM
https://www.bcm.edu/departments/molecular-virology-and-microbiology/emerging-infections-and-biodefense/specific-agents/zika
Zika virus, first identified in 1947 in Uganda, had been thought to produce a rare and mild disease until it suddenly emerged in Brazil in 2015 and spread explosively through South America, Central America, and the Caribbean. […] Zika virus is transmitted primarily by mosquitoes that thrive in tropical climates and urban areas. […] Zika virus is transmitted primarily through the bite of an infected female mosquito. […] Two types of Aedes mosquitoes are capable of transmitting Zika virus Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. […] Although less common, there exist other routes by which Zika virus can spread. […] Zika virus was first isolated in 1947 in the Zika Forest of Uganda […] However it was not until March 2015, when an outbreak erupted in Brazil, that Zika virus became a worldwide concern.
#4 Zika virus: Infectious substances pathogen safety data sheet – Canada.ca
https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/laboratory-biosafety-biosecurity/pathogen-safety-data-sheets-risk-assessment/zika-virus.html
Zika virus was first isolated in 1947 from a sentinel rhesus monkey in the Zika forest of Uganda, and was also isolated from mosquitoes collected in this region shortly thereafter. […] The first well-documented report of human Zika virus infection occurred in 1964. […] From 1947 to 2007, only 14 sporadic cases of human infection with Zika virus were reported. […] The first Zika virus outbreak occurred on Yap Island, Polynesia in 2007, comprising 49 confirmed and 59 probable cases of infection. […] A second outbreak involving 30,000-32,000 symptomatic cases (11.5% of the population) occurred in French Polynesia in 2013-2014, and seroprevalence following the outbreak was 49% in the general population. […] Evidence of current or past Zika virus transmission has been reported in Africa, Asia, the Pacific Islands, and the Americas.
#5 Zika virus: Infectious substances pathogen safety data sheet – Canada.ca
https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/laboratory-biosafety-biosecurity/pathogen-safety-data-sheets-risk-assessment/zika-virus.html
Zika virus spread to the Americas in March 2015, where it was first identified in Brazil. […] It is estimated that 440,000-1,300,300 cases of Zika virus infection occurred in 2015 in Brazil. […] Factors influencing the likelihood and severity of symptoms and sequelae associated with Zika virus infection remain unclear. […] Zika virus infection during pregnancy is known to cause fetal complications, such as microcephaly, central nervous system abnormalities and fetal death. […] Clinical diagnosis of Zika virus infection is difficult as symptoms often resemble other flavivirus infections. […] During the symptomatic phase (i.e., within 7 days of symptom onset), molecular testing using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) on whole blood or serum is the diagnostic method of choice. […] Serological methods such as enzyme immunoassays, immunofluorescence assays, and neutralization assays are typically used at 7 or more days post-symptom onset; although these methods are limited by potential cross-reactivity with other flaviviruses.
#6 Zika: : Symptoms, Prevention and Treatments – PAHO/WHO
https://www.paho.org/en/topics/zika
Zika fever is an infectious disease caused by the Zika virus (ZIKV) and transmitted through the bite of Aedes mosquitoes infected with ZIKV. […] The virus was isolated for the first time in 1947 in the Zika forest in Uganda. Since then, it has remained mainly in Africa, with small and sporadic outbreaks in Asia. In 2007, a major epidemic was reported on the island of Yap (Micronesia), where nearly 75% of the population was infected. In May 2015, the public health authorities of Brazil confirmed transmission of the Zika Virus in the country’s northeast. […] In February 2016, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared ZIKV-related microcephaly a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC). However, in November 2016, WHO declared the end of the emergency. Zika now is endemic in the Americas.
#7 Zika Cases in the United States | Zika Virus | CDC
https://www.cdc.gov/zika/zika-cases-us/index.html
Zika virus disease (Zika) is a nationally notifiable condition. […] There is no current local transmission of Zika virus in the continental United States. […] Since 2019, there have been no confirmed Zika cases reported from US territories. […] No mosquito-borne transmission of Zika virus has ever been reported in Alaska and Hawaii. […] In 2015 and 2016, large outbreaks of Zika virus occurred in the Americas, resulting in an increase in travel-associated cases in US states, widespread transmission in Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands, and limited local transmission in Florida and Texas. […] Since 2018, there have been no reports of Zika virus transmission by mosquitoes in the continental United States. […] CDC is notified of cases by state and local health departments using standard case definitions.
#8 Zika Virus | BCM
https://www.bcm.edu/departments/molecular-virology-and-microbiology/emerging-infections-and-biodefense/specific-agents/zika
Zika virus, first identified in 1947 in Uganda, had been thought to produce a rare and mild disease until it suddenly emerged in Brazil in 2015 and spread explosively through South America, Central America, and the Caribbean. […] Zika virus is transmitted primarily by mosquitoes that thrive in tropical climates and urban areas. […] Zika virus is transmitted primarily through the bite of an infected female mosquito. […] Two types of Aedes mosquitoes are capable of transmitting Zika virus Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. […] Although less common, there exist other routes by which Zika virus can spread. […] Zika virus was first isolated in 1947 in the Zika Forest of Uganda […] However it was not until March 2015, when an outbreak erupted in Brazil, that Zika virus became a worldwide concern.
#9 Zika virus infection epidemiology and demographics – wikidoc
https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Zika_virus_infection_epidemiology_and_demographics
The incidence of Zika virus infection is often correlated to one of its commonly associated complications, neonatal microcephaly. […] As of November 2015, it is estimated that 99.7/100,000 live births of infants displaying microcephaly may be attributed to Zika virus. […] According to WHO regional office for Americas, 75 countries and territories have confirmed indigenous vector-borne transmission of Zika virus in the region of Americas. […] Zika virus infection may affect individuals of all age groups. […] Men and women are equally affected by Zika virus infection.
#10 The Epidemiology of Zika Virus in the World: A Comprehensive Review Study | Clinical and Experimental Investigations | Science Repository | Open Access
https://www.sciencerepository.org/the-epidemiology-of-zika-virus-in-the-world-a-comprehensive_CEI-2020-2-106.php
After the outbreak of Zika virus in Brazil, the virus was able to spread rapidly and right now more than 70 countries have reported cases of this infection. […] The largest known Zika outbreak reported started in October 2013 in French Polynesia and affected more than 28000 individuals. […] The peak of the Zika epidemic was in November 2015. […] At the beginning of 2016, 52 countries had reported active viral transmission of Zika virus and on 31st August 2016, 72 countries and territories had observed the transmission of Zika virus. […] Since January 2015, over 41000 cases of Zika infection have been reported within the United States and its territories of which 3461 cases were pregnant women. […] After the risk assessment and management of infection of the virus, it has attracted global attention, especially after the announcement and warning on behalf of the WHO.
#11 Zika Cases in the United States | Zika Virus | CDC
https://www.cdc.gov/zika/zika-cases-us/index.html
Zika virus disease (Zika) is a nationally notifiable condition. […] There is no current local transmission of Zika virus in the continental United States. […] Since 2019, there have been no confirmed Zika cases reported from US territories. […] No mosquito-borne transmission of Zika virus has ever been reported in Alaska and Hawaii. […] In 2015 and 2016, large outbreaks of Zika virus occurred in the Americas, resulting in an increase in travel-associated cases in US states, widespread transmission in Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands, and limited local transmission in Florida and Texas. […] Since 2018, there have been no reports of Zika virus transmission by mosquitoes in the continental United States. […] CDC is notified of cases by state and local health departments using standard case definitions.
#12 Zika Virus | BCM
https://www.bcm.edu/departments/molecular-virology-and-microbiology/emerging-infections-and-biodefense/specific-agents/zika
Altogether, more than 85 countries and territories have reported evidence of mosquito-acquired Zika infection. […] The epidemic has since waned and as of May 2019 no countries were reporting active outbreaks of Zika virus. […] Local transmission of Zika virus began in the U.S. territories of Puerto Rico, American Samoa, and the U.S. Virgin Islands in 2015. […] There is currently no cure for Zika virus disease and no drugs to treat it. […] For now, mosquito control is considered the best way to prevent infection and combat Zika virus. […] To date, cases have been reported in over 86 countries and territories, and it is expected that Zika virus will continue to expand its range into additional regions where the Aedes mosquitoes are found, including areas of the United States. […] The spread of Zika virus, as well as other emerging Aedes mosquito-transmitted diseases, such as dengue and chikungunya, is due in part to man-made factors.
#13 Zika Cases in the United States | Zika Virus | CDC
https://www.cdc.gov/zika/zika-cases-us/index.html
Zika virus disease (Zika) is a nationally notifiable condition. […] There is no current local transmission of Zika virus in the continental United States. […] Since 2019, there have been no confirmed Zika cases reported from US territories. […] No mosquito-borne transmission of Zika virus has ever been reported in Alaska and Hawaii. […] In 2015 and 2016, large outbreaks of Zika virus occurred in the Americas, resulting in an increase in travel-associated cases in US states, widespread transmission in Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands, and limited local transmission in Florida and Texas. […] Since 2018, there have been no reports of Zika virus transmission by mosquitoes in the continental United States. […] CDC is notified of cases by state and local health departments using standard case definitions.
#14 Zika Virus
https://www.michigan.gov/emergingdiseases/home/zika-virus
Zika virus is spread through mosquitoes, particularly Aedes species mosquitoes, including Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. […] Beginning in 2015 a large outbreak of Zika virus occurred in South America, Central America, Mexico and the Caribbean. […] The CDC still recommends that pregnant women, or couples that are planning for pregnancy avoid travel to areas with ongoing Zika activity. […] There is no current local transmission of Zika virus in the continental United States. The last cases of Zika virus acquired in the continental U.S. were in Florida and Texas in 2016-17. […] Since 2019, there have been no confirmed Zika virus disease cases reported from the U.S. territories. […] Travelers who are pregnant or planning a pregnancy can should not travel to areas with a current outbreak of Zika (red areas).
#15
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/zika-virus
Zika virus is transmitted primarily by Aedes mosquitoes, which bite mostly during the day. […] Although cases of Zika virus disease declined from 2017 onwards globally, transmission persists at low levels in several countries in the Americas and other endemic regions. […] In outbreaks over the last decade Zika virus infection was found to be associated with increased incidence of Guillain-Barr syndrome. […] From February to November 2016, WHO declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) regarding microcephaly, other neurological disorders and Zika virus, and the causal link between Zika virus and congenital malformations was soon confirmed. […] To date, a total of 89 countries and territories have reported evidence of mosquito transmitted Zika virus infection; however, surveillance remains limited globally.
#16 A Review of the Recent Epidemiology of Zika Virus Infection – PubMed
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39933180/
Zika virus (ZIKV) is a flavivirus transmitted primarily by the bite of infected Aedes species mosquitoes. […] We conducted a review of published literature and official data sources to describe recent Zika epidemiological trends, building on WHO updates posted in 2019 and 2022. […] Globally, cases declined after the height of ZIKV transmission in the Americas in 2015-2016; however, transmission continues across multiple regions, with intermittent outbreaks reported. […] As of December 2023, there is documented evidence of current or prior autochthonous mosquito-borne ZIKV transmission in 92 countries and territories; most recently, Guinea, Mali, and Sri Lanka were included on the basis of recent or retrospective testing of specimens collected during surveillance activities or studies.
#17
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/zika-virus
Zika virus is transmitted primarily by Aedes mosquitoes, which bite mostly during the day. […] Although cases of Zika virus disease declined from 2017 onwards globally, transmission persists at low levels in several countries in the Americas and other endemic regions. […] In outbreaks over the last decade Zika virus infection was found to be associated with increased incidence of Guillain-Barr syndrome. […] From February to November 2016, WHO declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) regarding microcephaly, other neurological disorders and Zika virus, and the causal link between Zika virus and congenital malformations was soon confirmed. […] To date, a total of 89 countries and territories have reported evidence of mosquito transmitted Zika virus infection; however, surveillance remains limited globally.
#18
https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/zika-epidemiology-update-may-2024
World Health Organization compiles periodic summaries of the global epidemiology of Zika virus transmission, and the most recent compilation of data has been published as a review of the recent epidemiology of Zika virus infection in the American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, describing data through the end of 2023. […] Zika transmission persists in several countries but has generally been at low levels throughout 2018 to the present. […] Since the previous WHO Zika epidemiological update was published in 2022, three countries have been added to the list of countries with evidence of autochthonous, mosquito-borne transmission, and two countries to the list of countries with established Aedes aegypti populations but no documented Zika transmission. […] Findings underscore the importance of sustained vigilance to ensure integrated country preparedness for early detection and response, monitoring risk, vector control and the development of diagnostics, vaccines, and therapeutics.
#19
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/zika-virus
Zika virus is transmitted primarily by Aedes mosquitoes, which bite mostly during the day. […] Although cases of Zika virus disease declined from 2017 onwards globally, transmission persists at low levels in several countries in the Americas and other endemic regions. […] In outbreaks over the last decade Zika virus infection was found to be associated with increased incidence of Guillain-Barr syndrome. […] From February to November 2016, WHO declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) regarding microcephaly, other neurological disorders and Zika virus, and the causal link between Zika virus and congenital malformations was soon confirmed. […] To date, a total of 89 countries and territories have reported evidence of mosquito transmitted Zika virus infection; however, surveillance remains limited globally.
#20 Zika Virus | Public Health Ontario
https://www.publichealthontario.ca/en/Diseases-and-Conditions/Infectious-Diseases/Vector-Borne-Zoonotic-Diseases/Zika-virus
Current assessments of the epidemiology of ZIKV infection and evidence that continues to emerge on the prevention, clinical presentation and complications of infection. […] Zika virus is a viral infection transmitted by Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes, which also transmit dengue and chikungunya viruses.
#21 Zika | World Mosquito Program
https://www.worldmosquitoprogram.org/en/learn/mosquito-borne-diseases/zika
Zika virus disease, also called Zika fever, is caused by a virus transmitted primarily by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. […] Global outbreaks in 2015 were recorded in Africa, the Americas, Asia and the Pacific. On 1 February 2016, the World Health Organization declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. […] It is possible to contract Zika in Africa, the Americas, Asia and the Pacific. Zika cases have been reported from more than 80 countries. […] Since 2015, more than 900,000 suspected cases of Zika have been reported. […] Zika can spread wherever Aedes aegypti mosquitoes are present. It is a virus transmitted between humans primarily by this mosquito, which is commonly found around homes and urban areas. […] There is no vaccine for Zika virus. Prevention relies on reducing exposure to mosquito bites, by removing mosquito breeding sites, using insecticides to suppress the mosquito population, and wearing protective clothing and repellents. […] However, the World Mosquito Programs Wolbachia method is showing promising results internationally. It is helping to block the transmission of Zika, as well as other viruses transmitted by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, such as dengue, chikungunya and yellow fever.
#22 Zika Virus (ZV) Infections – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition
https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/arboviruses-arenaviridae-and-filoviridae/zika-virus-zv-infections
Predicting where the Zika virus will spread is difficult. However, because the same mosquito that transmits Zika also transmits dengue and chikungunya, local transmission of Zika virus can be expected wherever dengue or chikungunya has been transmitted. […] Zika virus is present in semen and can be transmitted by men to their sex partners through sexual intercourse, including vaginal and anal sex and probably oral sex (fellatio), even when the men do not have symptoms. […] Zika virus may also be transmitted by men or women to their sex partners when sex toys are shared, even when infected people have no symptoms. […] Zika virus infection during pregnancy can cause microcephaly (a congenital disorder involving incomplete brain development and small head size), other severe fetal brain, ocular, and other defects that, together are termed congenital Zika syndrome.
#23 Zika Virus: Education, Public Health, Integrated Mosquito Management
https://www.vdci.net/vector-borne-diseases/zika-virus-education-and-mosquito-management-to-protect-public-health/
Zika virus (ZIKV) was first discovered in 1947 in the Zika Forest of Uganda. […] However, in 2007, it was associated with a disease outbreak on Yap Island in the South Pacific, representing the first time it had spread outside of Asia. […] ZIKV is transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes. In the Americas, it has only been linked to transmission by Aedes aegypti. […] A portion of the United States is at a higher risk because of climate and the presence of Aedes mosquitoes. […] One of the factors accelerating the spread of Zika virus throughout the Americas could be that it does not appear to require an animal reservoir host, like West Nile virus. […] In order to understand the risk and address the threat appropriately, it is critical to determine the mosquito distribution, density, and species composition throughout the target area. Surveillance will also provide direct evidence of an increased transmission risk of Zika virus.
#24 Zika Virus | BCM
https://www.bcm.edu/departments/molecular-virology-and-microbiology/emerging-infections-and-biodefense/specific-agents/zika
Altogether, more than 85 countries and territories have reported evidence of mosquito-acquired Zika infection. […] The epidemic has since waned and as of May 2019 no countries were reporting active outbreaks of Zika virus. […] Local transmission of Zika virus began in the U.S. territories of Puerto Rico, American Samoa, and the U.S. Virgin Islands in 2015. […] There is currently no cure for Zika virus disease and no drugs to treat it. […] For now, mosquito control is considered the best way to prevent infection and combat Zika virus. […] To date, cases have been reported in over 86 countries and territories, and it is expected that Zika virus will continue to expand its range into additional regions where the Aedes mosquitoes are found, including areas of the United States. […] The spread of Zika virus, as well as other emerging Aedes mosquito-transmitted diseases, such as dengue and chikungunya, is due in part to man-made factors.
#25 Zika | World Mosquito Program
https://www.worldmosquitoprogram.org/en/learn/mosquito-borne-diseases/zika
Zika virus disease, also called Zika fever, is caused by a virus transmitted primarily by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. […] Global outbreaks in 2015 were recorded in Africa, the Americas, Asia and the Pacific. On 1 February 2016, the World Health Organization declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. […] It is possible to contract Zika in Africa, the Americas, Asia and the Pacific. Zika cases have been reported from more than 80 countries. […] Since 2015, more than 900,000 suspected cases of Zika have been reported. […] Zika can spread wherever Aedes aegypti mosquitoes are present. It is a virus transmitted between humans primarily by this mosquito, which is commonly found around homes and urban areas. […] There is no vaccine for Zika virus. Prevention relies on reducing exposure to mosquito bites, by removing mosquito breeding sites, using insecticides to suppress the mosquito population, and wearing protective clothing and repellents. […] However, the World Mosquito Programs Wolbachia method is showing promising results internationally. It is helping to block the transmission of Zika, as well as other viruses transmitted by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, such as dengue, chikungunya and yellow fever.
#26 Public Health Surveillance for Zika Virus: Data Interpretation and Report Validity
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6137786/
Zika virus provides an example for which public health surveillance is based primarily on health care provider notifications to health departments of potential cases. […] As with most infectious diseases, public health surveillance for Zika virus is based primarily on health care provider notifications to health departments of potential cases of individuals with Zika virus disease (ZVD). Health departments use these case reports to track the ebb and flow of infections in state and local areas, evaluate the effectiveness of prevention and control programs, and guide public health actions. […] Although presented as simple counts of individuals with the condition, Zika surveillance data are the result of a complex process in which contextual, organizational, and human factors influence whether a case is identified.
#27 Public Health Surveillance for Zika Virus: Data Interpretation and Report Validity
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6137786/
Zika virus provides an example for which public health surveillance is based primarily on health care provider notifications to health departments of potential cases. […] As with most infectious diseases, public health surveillance for Zika virus is based primarily on health care provider notifications to health departments of potential cases of individuals with Zika virus disease (ZVD). Health departments use these case reports to track the ebb and flow of infections in state and local areas, evaluate the effectiveness of prevention and control programs, and guide public health actions. […] Although presented as simple counts of individuals with the condition, Zika surveillance data are the result of a complex process in which contextual, organizational, and human factors influence whether a case is identified.
#28 Public Health Surveillance for Zika Virus: Data Interpretation and Report Validity
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6137786/
The goal of this article is to use the ongoing US Zika virus outbreak to illustrate how case-based surveillance data can provide incomplete information on the spread of a disease in a population and to illustrate the challenges for public health practitioners and policymakers drawing conclusions from these data. […] Surveillance for Zika is based primarily on health care provider reports of cases of individuals with ZVD using a notifiable disease system. […] Tabulations based on such passive surveillance systems are known to undercount the actual number of cases because some individuals are never diagnosed and others are not reported, and this iceberg phenomenon seems to be the case with ZVD. […] In the United States, states and territories individually determine whether notification of health departments of Zika virus infection is required, and the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists maintains case definitions to ensure consistency.
#29 Countries & Territories at Risk for Zika | Zika Virus | CDC
https://www.cdc.gov/zika/geo/index.html
Check this page for information about countries and territories at risk for Zika virus transmission before you make travel plans. […] Since surveillance practices for Zika virus vary greatly among countries, CDC does not always have accurate information on the current risk of Zika virus transmission in many geographic areas. […] For this reason, countries and territories with current or past transmission are considered at risk for Zika virus transmission. […] The large Zika virus outbreaks that occurred during 2015 and 2016 in the Americas are over, but Zika virus continues to be a risk in many countries around the world. […] Current or past transmission is defined as having had locally acquired, mosquito-borne Zika cases. […] Some countries with temporally and geographically limited Zika virus transmission in the past may be classified as having no reported cases if they meet the following criteria: 1) had no confirmed locally acquired Zika virus disease cases for 12 months; 2) are located in a subtropic or temperate climate; and 3) have a comprehensive arboviral surveillance system, high capacity for diagnostic testing and consistent timely reporting of diagnostic results.
#30 Emerging Infectious Diseases: Preliminary Observations on the Zika Virus Outbreak | U.S. GAO
https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-16-470t
While several countries have reported outbreaks of Zika virus disease which appear to be primarily transmitted to humans by mosquitos unanswered questions remain regarding the epidemiology and transmission of the disease. […] Many factors including a large number of asymptomatic patients and patients with mild symptoms, and a lack of a consistent international case definition of Zika virus disease complicate understanding of the virus and may hinder responses to the current outbreak. […] A lack of validated diagnostic tests, consistent international case definitions, and trend information may also contribute to difficulty in estimating the prevalence of the virus. […] Moreover, the World Health Organization has acknowledged the need for a consistent case definition that is, a set of uniform criteria to define the disease for public health surveillance and to determine who is included in the count and who is excluded.
#31 Emerging Infectious Diseases: Preliminary Observations on the Zika Virus Outbreak | U.S. GAO
https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-16-470t
While several countries have reported outbreaks of Zika virus disease which appear to be primarily transmitted to humans by mosquitos unanswered questions remain regarding the epidemiology and transmission of the disease. […] Many factors including a large number of asymptomatic patients and patients with mild symptoms, and a lack of a consistent international case definition of Zika virus disease complicate understanding of the virus and may hinder responses to the current outbreak. […] A lack of validated diagnostic tests, consistent international case definitions, and trend information may also contribute to difficulty in estimating the prevalence of the virus. […] Moreover, the World Health Organization has acknowledged the need for a consistent case definition that is, a set of uniform criteria to define the disease for public health surveillance and to determine who is included in the count and who is excluded.
#32 Public Health Surveillance for Zika Virus: Data Interpretation and Report Validity
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6137786/
The goal of this article is to use the ongoing US Zika virus outbreak to illustrate how case-based surveillance data can provide incomplete information on the spread of a disease in a population and to illustrate the challenges for public health practitioners and policymakers drawing conclusions from these data. […] Surveillance for Zika is based primarily on health care provider reports of cases of individuals with ZVD using a notifiable disease system. […] Tabulations based on such passive surveillance systems are known to undercount the actual number of cases because some individuals are never diagnosed and others are not reported, and this iceberg phenomenon seems to be the case with ZVD. […] In the United States, states and territories individually determine whether notification of health departments of Zika virus infection is required, and the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists maintains case definitions to ensure consistency.
#33 Zika Cases in the United States | Zika Virus | CDC
https://www.cdc.gov/zika/zika-cases-us/index.html
Zika virus disease (Zika) is a nationally notifiable condition. […] There is no current local transmission of Zika virus in the continental United States. […] Since 2019, there have been no confirmed Zika cases reported from US territories. […] No mosquito-borne transmission of Zika virus has ever been reported in Alaska and Hawaii. […] In 2015 and 2016, large outbreaks of Zika virus occurred in the Americas, resulting in an increase in travel-associated cases in US states, widespread transmission in Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands, and limited local transmission in Florida and Texas. […] Since 2018, there have been no reports of Zika virus transmission by mosquitoes in the continental United States. […] CDC is notified of cases by state and local health departments using standard case definitions.
#34
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/zika-virus
WHO supports countries to conduct surveillance and control of arboviruses through the implementation of the Global Arbovirus Initiative, which is aligned with and expands upon recommendations laid out in the Zika Strategic Response Plan. […] WHO responds to Zika in the following ways: supporting countries in the confirmation of outbreaks through its collaborating network of laboratories; providing technical support and guidance to countries for the effective management of mosquito-borne disease outbreaks; reviewing the development of new tools, including insecticide products and application technologies; formulating evidence-based strategies, policies, and outbreak management plans; providing technical support and guidance to countries for the effective management of cases and outbreaks; supporting countries to improve their reporting systems; providing training on clinical management, diagnosis and vector control at the regional level with some of its collaborating centres; and publishing guidelines and handbooks on epidemiological surveillance, laboratory, clinical case management and vector control for Member States.
#35
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/zika-virus
WHO supports countries to conduct surveillance and control of arboviruses through the implementation of the Global Arbovirus Initiative, which is aligned with and expands upon recommendations laid out in the Zika Strategic Response Plan. […] WHO responds to Zika in the following ways: supporting countries in the confirmation of outbreaks through its collaborating network of laboratories; providing technical support and guidance to countries for the effective management of mosquito-borne disease outbreaks; reviewing the development of new tools, including insecticide products and application technologies; formulating evidence-based strategies, policies, and outbreak management plans; providing technical support and guidance to countries for the effective management of cases and outbreaks; supporting countries to improve their reporting systems; providing training on clinical management, diagnosis and vector control at the regional level with some of its collaborating centres; and publishing guidelines and handbooks on epidemiological surveillance, laboratory, clinical case management and vector control for Member States.
#36 The Importance of Disease Surveillance: The Case of Zika Virus Disease – O’Neill : O’Neill
https://oneill.law.georgetown.edu/the-importance-of-disease-surveillance-the-case-of-zika-virus-disease/
Local transmission of Zika virus disease was reported in most countries in the Americas in the following months, leading to over 800,000 cases reported to the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO). […] According to the WHO Zika Surveillance Guidelines, Zika surveillance should form part of each countrys national surveillance system and take into consideration any existing surveillance systems for other arboviral diseases, such as dengue and chikungunya, and diseases that may be part of the differential diagnosis, including, accid paralysis, measles, and rubella. […] WHO calls for integrated surveillance of arboviral diseases of public health importance including dengue, chikungunya, yellow fever, and Zika, which are all transmitted by the same mosquito vector. […] A major concern is decreased reporting of Zika. […] One of the greatest challenges of Zika surveillance is that we have now transitioned into a post-epidemic period, meaning attention, resources, and funding have dwindled.
#37 Public Health Surveillance for Zika Virus: Data Interpretation and Report Validity
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6137786/
Epidemiological linkage involves a combination of risk factors such as recent travel to areas with ongoing transmission; having sexual contact with partners who recently traveled to such an area; being a recipient of blood, blood products, or an organ transplant from a person with known infection; or clinical suspicion of mosquito-borne transmission. […] Early in the US Zika outbreak, the only laboratories capable of testing samples were state and local health departments. […] Whether a case is reported depends, in the first instance, on individuals decisions to seek medical assessment. […] Public health surveillance systems also include cases that are identified through active surveillance, in which health departments proactively work to identify cases. […] Public health surveillance data are reported on the basis of place of residence rather than where the exposure might have taken place.
#38 Zika | Georgia Department of Public Health
https://dph.georgia.gov/epidemiology/zvbd/zika
Zika virus outbreaks have been known to occur in various regions worldwide, particularly in tropical and subtropical areas. Some of the regions where Zika virus outbreaks have been reported include: […] Since 2019, no US state has reported local transmission of Zika. All cases have been travel-associated. However, the US (Georgia included) does have mosquitos that can spread the disease. […] While Georgia has mosquitos that can transmit the Zika virus, there has never been a locally acquired Zika virus from mosquito exposure reported in Georgia. […] From the years 2018 to 2022, a total of 8 cases of Zika virus were reported in Georgia residents. […] Disease surveillance systems primarily count cases based on the patient’s residential location rather than the specific location of exposure. […] For information on local Zika or mosquito surveillance, contact your local health district or the Georgia Department of Public Health, Epidemiology Section at 404-657-2588 and ask to speak to the Vectorborne Disease Team.
#39 Public Health Surveillance for Zika Virus: Data Interpretation and Report Validity
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6137786/
The timing of case reports also adds a degree of uncertainty to the interpretation of surveillance data. […] The purpose of surveillancepassive and activeis to detect and measure disease; however, how the inputs of the system are interpreted by decision-makers and the public is another concern. […] Taking into account factors that influence both testing and reporting, it is reasonable to assume that Zika surveillance reports, like most case-based surveillance systems, substantially undercount the number of true infections.
#40 Public Health Surveillance for Zika Virus: Data Interpretation and Report Validity
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6137786/
The timing of case reports also adds a degree of uncertainty to the interpretation of surveillance data. […] The purpose of surveillancepassive and activeis to detect and measure disease; however, how the inputs of the system are interpreted by decision-makers and the public is another concern. […] Taking into account factors that influence both testing and reporting, it is reasonable to assume that Zika surveillance reports, like most case-based surveillance systems, substantially undercount the number of true infections.
#41 An assessment of public health surveillance of Zika virus infection and potentially associated outcomes in Latin America | BMC Public Health | Full Text
https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-018-5566-7
We evaluated whether outbreaks of Zika virus (ZIKV) infection, newborn microcephaly, and Guillain-Barr syndrome (GBS) in Latin America may be detected through current surveillance systems, and how cases detected through surveillance may increase health care burden. […] ZIKV infection outbreaks were not detectable through non-serological surveillance. Outbreaks were detectable through serologic surveillance if infection risk increased by at least 10%, but more than 50% of all cases were false positive. […] Current surveillance systems have a low probability of detecting outbreaks of ZIKV infection, severe microcephaly, and GBS, and could result in significant increases in health care burden, due to the detection of large numbers of false positive cases. […] Our findings suggest surveillance systems for ZIKV, microcephaly, and GBS in Latin America have a limited capacity to detect outbreaks. ZIKV outbreaks were detectable only through serological surveillance. Outbreaks of all and severe microcephaly were detected only when ZIKV infection increased the frequency of these conditions at least two and 24 times, respectively. Outbreaks of GBS were detectable only when GBS risk was at least eight times higher among ZIKV infected individuals. Finally, under most scenarios, cases of ZIKV infection, microcephaly, and GBS were more likely false positive than true positive cases. […] Our findings suggest it is unlikely that outbreaks of ZIKV infection and putative related outcomes in Latin America will be detected through surveillance systems based on current guidelines.
#42 An assessment of public health surveillance of Zika virus infection and potentially associated outcomes in Latin America | BMC Public Health | Full Text
https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-018-5566-7
We evaluated whether outbreaks of Zika virus (ZIKV) infection, newborn microcephaly, and Guillain-Barr syndrome (GBS) in Latin America may be detected through current surveillance systems, and how cases detected through surveillance may increase health care burden. […] ZIKV infection outbreaks were not detectable through non-serological surveillance. Outbreaks were detectable through serologic surveillance if infection risk increased by at least 10%, but more than 50% of all cases were false positive. […] Current surveillance systems have a low probability of detecting outbreaks of ZIKV infection, severe microcephaly, and GBS, and could result in significant increases in health care burden, due to the detection of large numbers of false positive cases. […] Our findings suggest surveillance systems for ZIKV, microcephaly, and GBS in Latin America have a limited capacity to detect outbreaks. ZIKV outbreaks were detectable only through serological surveillance. Outbreaks of all and severe microcephaly were detected only when ZIKV infection increased the frequency of these conditions at least two and 24 times, respectively. Outbreaks of GBS were detectable only when GBS risk was at least eight times higher among ZIKV infected individuals. Finally, under most scenarios, cases of ZIKV infection, microcephaly, and GBS were more likely false positive than true positive cases. […] Our findings suggest it is unlikely that outbreaks of ZIKV infection and putative related outcomes in Latin America will be detected through surveillance systems based on current guidelines.
#43 An assessment of public health surveillance of Zika virus infection and potentially associated outcomes in Latin America | BMC Public Health | Full Text
https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-018-5566-7
We evaluated whether outbreaks of Zika virus (ZIKV) infection, newborn microcephaly, and Guillain-Barr syndrome (GBS) in Latin America may be detected through current surveillance systems, and how cases detected through surveillance may increase health care burden. […] ZIKV infection outbreaks were not detectable through non-serological surveillance. Outbreaks were detectable through serologic surveillance if infection risk increased by at least 10%, but more than 50% of all cases were false positive. […] Current surveillance systems have a low probability of detecting outbreaks of ZIKV infection, severe microcephaly, and GBS, and could result in significant increases in health care burden, due to the detection of large numbers of false positive cases. […] Our findings suggest surveillance systems for ZIKV, microcephaly, and GBS in Latin America have a limited capacity to detect outbreaks. ZIKV outbreaks were detectable only through serological surveillance. Outbreaks of all and severe microcephaly were detected only when ZIKV infection increased the frequency of these conditions at least two and 24 times, respectively. Outbreaks of GBS were detectable only when GBS risk was at least eight times higher among ZIKV infected individuals. Finally, under most scenarios, cases of ZIKV infection, microcephaly, and GBS were more likely false positive than true positive cases. […] Our findings suggest it is unlikely that outbreaks of ZIKV infection and putative related outcomes in Latin America will be detected through surveillance systems based on current guidelines.
#44
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/zika-virus
Zika virus is transmitted primarily by Aedes mosquitoes, which bite mostly during the day. […] Although cases of Zika virus disease declined from 2017 onwards globally, transmission persists at low levels in several countries in the Americas and other endemic regions. […] In outbreaks over the last decade Zika virus infection was found to be associated with increased incidence of Guillain-Barr syndrome. […] From February to November 2016, WHO declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) regarding microcephaly, other neurological disorders and Zika virus, and the causal link between Zika virus and congenital malformations was soon confirmed. […] To date, a total of 89 countries and territories have reported evidence of mosquito transmitted Zika virus infection; however, surveillance remains limited globally.
#45
https://journals.lww.com/co-infectiousdiseases/fulltext/2016/10000/zika_virus_infection__epidemiology,_clinical.6.aspx
It has been estimated that the number of suspected cases of ZIKV infection ranged from 440 000 to 1 300 000 by the end of 2015. […] According to the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) epidemiological update from 2 June 2016, a total of 39 countries and territories in the Region of the Americas have confirmed local, vector-borne transmission of ZIKV since 2015. […] A number of imported cases of ZIKV infection have been reported from travellers from Europe, the Americas, Asia and the Pacific returning from endemic areas where ZIKV epidemics were ongoing. […] The explosive Zika outbreak in Brazil has provided data on the association between microcephaly and/or neurological disorders and ZIKV infection. […] The microcephaly prevalence in foetuses and newborns increased remarkably during 2015-2016 in Brazil.
#46 Zika | World Mosquito Program
https://www.worldmosquitoprogram.org/en/learn/mosquito-borne-diseases/zika
Zika virus disease, also called Zika fever, is caused by a virus transmitted primarily by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. […] Global outbreaks in 2015 were recorded in Africa, the Americas, Asia and the Pacific. On 1 February 2016, the World Health Organization declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. […] It is possible to contract Zika in Africa, the Americas, Asia and the Pacific. Zika cases have been reported from more than 80 countries. […] Since 2015, more than 900,000 suspected cases of Zika have been reported. […] Zika can spread wherever Aedes aegypti mosquitoes are present. It is a virus transmitted between humans primarily by this mosquito, which is commonly found around homes and urban areas. […] There is no vaccine for Zika virus. Prevention relies on reducing exposure to mosquito bites, by removing mosquito breeding sites, using insecticides to suppress the mosquito population, and wearing protective clothing and repellents. […] However, the World Mosquito Programs Wolbachia method is showing promising results internationally. It is helping to block the transmission of Zika, as well as other viruses transmitted by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, such as dengue, chikungunya and yellow fever.
#47
https://journals.lww.com/co-infectiousdiseases/fulltext/2016/10000/zika_virus_infection__epidemiology,_clinical.6.aspx
It has been estimated that the number of suspected cases of ZIKV infection ranged from 440 000 to 1 300 000 by the end of 2015. […] According to the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) epidemiological update from 2 June 2016, a total of 39 countries and territories in the Region of the Americas have confirmed local, vector-borne transmission of ZIKV since 2015. […] A number of imported cases of ZIKV infection have been reported from travellers from Europe, the Americas, Asia and the Pacific returning from endemic areas where ZIKV epidemics were ongoing. […] The explosive Zika outbreak in Brazil has provided data on the association between microcephaly and/or neurological disorders and ZIKV infection. […] The microcephaly prevalence in foetuses and newborns increased remarkably during 2015-2016 in Brazil.
#48 Zika | Georgia Department of Public Health
https://dph.georgia.gov/epidemiology/zvbd/zika
Zika virus outbreaks have been known to occur in various regions worldwide, particularly in tropical and subtropical areas. Some of the regions where Zika virus outbreaks have been reported include: […] Since 2019, no US state has reported local transmission of Zika. All cases have been travel-associated. However, the US (Georgia included) does have mosquitos that can spread the disease. […] While Georgia has mosquitos that can transmit the Zika virus, there has never been a locally acquired Zika virus from mosquito exposure reported in Georgia. […] From the years 2018 to 2022, a total of 8 cases of Zika virus were reported in Georgia residents. […] Disease surveillance systems primarily count cases based on the patient’s residential location rather than the specific location of exposure. […] For information on local Zika or mosquito surveillance, contact your local health district or the Georgia Department of Public Health, Epidemiology Section at 404-657-2588 and ask to speak to the Vectorborne Disease Team.
#49 Zika Virus Infection – Taiwan Centers for Disease Control
https://www.cdc.gov.tw/En/Category/ListContent/bg0g_VU_Ysrgkes_KRUDgQ?uaid=91bZXZRT3mSvsWGyfF6mfg
In Taiwan, the first imported case was identified in January 2016. No local transmission of the virus has occurred and only 26 imported cases have been conformed in 2016-2022. […] Taiwan National Infectious Disease Statistics SystemZika virus infection […] Fever screening at international airports and seaports. […] Selfreporting through tollfree 1922 hotline or local public health authority.
#50 Zika virus: For health professionals – Canada.ca
https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/zika-virus/health-professionals.html
As of August 31, 2018, 569 travel-related cases and 4 sexually transmitted cases had been reported in Canada since cases started being detected in October 2015. […] Surveillance activities have been focused on detecting the number of cases of congenital Zika syndrome (those with observable Zika-related anomalies). […] The World Health Organization monitors Zika case reports from around the world. To date, a number of countries, territories and areas have reported cases of congenital Zika syndrome and/or central nervous system malformations associated with Zika virus infection. Monitoring of pregnant women in other countries experiencing Zika virus outbreaks is ongoing.
#51 Zika Virus: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology
https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2500035-overview
Since Zika virus was first isolated in 1947, the disease has spread outside Africa, mainly into Southeast Asia and the Americas. Until 2007, sporadic cases of Zika virus illness in humans were reported. […] In 2016, around 5,168 laboratory-confirmed non-congenital Zika virus infections were reported in the United States. […] United States territories such as Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands have reported around 37,188 symptomatic Zika virus disease cases, the majority of which were related to autochthonous transmission of the virus. […] Outside of Americas and US states and territories, Cape Verde reported the first African Zika epidemic in 2015-2016. […] Zika virus infections have been reported in Europe since 2013. The European CDC reported 71 cases of Zika virus infection in 2019, the majority (92%) of which were travel associated with few locally transmitted as a result of sexual contact or vertical transmission.
#52 Descriptive analysis of surveillance data for Zika virus disease and Zika virus-associated neurological complications in Colombia, 2015â2017 | PLOS One
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0252236
Understanding risk factors for neurological complications could inform prevention efforts and improve interpretation of ZIKV surveillance data. […] The cumulative incidence (attack rate) of ZVD was estimated using DANE population projections for 2016 as the denominator. […] The cumulative incidence of ZVD was significantly higher for females compared to males across all age groups except 04 years and those 80 years and over. […] The cumulative incidence of ZVD in pregnant females was 3,120 reported cases per 100,000 population (95% CI: 3,0773,164). […] Cases of ZVD were reported in all 32 departments of the country. […] The peak of the ZIKV epidemic occurred during the week ending on February 6, 2016. […] The distributions of ZVD cases and cases of ZIKV-associated neurological complications over time are similar.
#53 Estimating transmissibility of Zika virus in Colombia in the presence of surveillance bias | Nature Communications
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59655-9
The 20152016 Zika virus outbreak in the Americas presented significant challenges in understanding the transmission dynamics due to substantial reporting biases, as women of reproductive age (1539 years) were disproportionately represented in the surveillance data when public awareness of relationship between Zika and microcephaly increased. […] Our model revealed that the detection rate of symptomatic cases among women of reproductive age was 99% (95% CI: 98.7-100), compared to 85.4% (95% CI: 84.7-86.1) in other demographic groups. […] This study underscores the importance of accounting for surveillance biases in epidemiological studies to better understand factors influencing Zika transmission and to inform disease control and prevention. […] These associations had also driven surveillance bias where case screening and detection efforts targeted pregnant women and women of reproductive age more than other demographic groups, potentially introducing bias into epidemiological analyses of the transmission dynamics.
#54 Estimating transmissibility of Zika virus in Colombia in the presence of surveillance bias | Nature Communications
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59655-9
Here, we develop a Bayesian model to account for reporting differences among age-sex groups when estimating transmission dynamics. […] Our approach jointly estimates reporting differences across age-sex groups and identifies factors influencing transmission dynamics, including biological effects of age and sex, meteorological variables such as temperature and precipitation, and geographical factors like population density and altitude. […] After adjusting for differential reporting probabilities, our model revealed significant geographical variation in attack rates. […] Our findings indicate that females remained more susceptible to Zika symptomatic infection than males. […] Higher attack rates among women outside reproductive age groups further support this hypothesis. […] Our study introduced a statistical approach to correct surveillance biases caused by the clinical association of Zika infection with Congenital Zika Syndrome.
#55 Zika virus infection epidemiology and demographics – wikidoc
https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Zika_virus_infection_epidemiology_and_demographics
The incidence of Zika virus infection is often correlated to one of its commonly associated complications, neonatal microcephaly. […] As of November 2015, it is estimated that 99.7/100,000 live births of infants displaying microcephaly may be attributed to Zika virus. […] According to WHO regional office for Americas, 75 countries and territories have confirmed indigenous vector-borne transmission of Zika virus in the region of Americas. […] Zika virus infection may affect individuals of all age groups. […] Men and women are equally affected by Zika virus infection.
#56
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/zika-virus
Zika virus is transmitted primarily by Aedes mosquitoes, which bite mostly during the day. […] Although cases of Zika virus disease declined from 2017 onwards globally, transmission persists at low levels in several countries in the Americas and other endemic regions. […] In outbreaks over the last decade Zika virus infection was found to be associated with increased incidence of Guillain-Barr syndrome. […] From February to November 2016, WHO declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) regarding microcephaly, other neurological disorders and Zika virus, and the causal link between Zika virus and congenital malformations was soon confirmed. […] To date, a total of 89 countries and territories have reported evidence of mosquito transmitted Zika virus infection; however, surveillance remains limited globally.
#57 Zika Virus | BCM
https://www.bcm.edu/departments/molecular-virology-and-microbiology/emerging-infections-and-biodefense/specific-agents/zika
Zika virus, first identified in 1947 in Uganda, had been thought to produce a rare and mild disease until it suddenly emerged in Brazil in 2015 and spread explosively through South America, Central America, and the Caribbean. […] Zika virus is transmitted primarily by mosquitoes that thrive in tropical climates and urban areas. […] Zika virus is transmitted primarily through the bite of an infected female mosquito. […] Two types of Aedes mosquitoes are capable of transmitting Zika virus Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. […] Although less common, there exist other routes by which Zika virus can spread. […] Zika virus was first isolated in 1947 in the Zika Forest of Uganda […] However it was not until March 2015, when an outbreak erupted in Brazil, that Zika virus became a worldwide concern.
#58 Zika Virus (ZV) Infections – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition
https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/arboviruses-arenaviridae-and-filoviridae/zika-virus-zv-infections
Predicting where the Zika virus will spread is difficult. However, because the same mosquito that transmits Zika also transmits dengue and chikungunya, local transmission of Zika virus can be expected wherever dengue or chikungunya has been transmitted. […] Zika virus is present in semen and can be transmitted by men to their sex partners through sexual intercourse, including vaginal and anal sex and probably oral sex (fellatio), even when the men do not have symptoms. […] Zika virus may also be transmitted by men or women to their sex partners when sex toys are shared, even when infected people have no symptoms. […] Zika virus infection during pregnancy can cause microcephaly (a congenital disorder involving incomplete brain development and small head size), other severe fetal brain, ocular, and other defects that, together are termed congenital Zika syndrome.
#59 Zika Virus (ZV) Infections – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition
https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/arboviruses-arenaviridae-and-filoviridae/zika-virus-zv-infections
Predicting where the Zika virus will spread is difficult. However, because the same mosquito that transmits Zika also transmits dengue and chikungunya, local transmission of Zika virus can be expected wherever dengue or chikungunya has been transmitted. […] Zika virus is present in semen and can be transmitted by men to their sex partners through sexual intercourse, including vaginal and anal sex and probably oral sex (fellatio), even when the men do not have symptoms. […] Zika virus may also be transmitted by men or women to their sex partners when sex toys are shared, even when infected people have no symptoms. […] Zika virus infection during pregnancy can cause microcephaly (a congenital disorder involving incomplete brain development and small head size), other severe fetal brain, ocular, and other defects that, together are termed congenital Zika syndrome.
#60 Guidelines for surveillance of Zika virus disease and its complications
https://iris.paho.org/handle/10665.2/28405
Guidelines for surveillance of Zika virus disease and its complications […] Zika virus (ZIKV) is an arbovirus of the genus Flavivirus (family Flaviviridae), phylogenetically very close to other viruses, such as the dengue, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis, and West Nile viruses. […] Subsequently, outbreaks have been recorded in Africa, Asia, the Western Pacific region and, more recently, in the Americas. […] Sexual and vertical (mother-to-child) transmission of ZIKV have been documented in a limited number of cases, as has transmission through blood transfusion. […] During an outbreak that occurred in French Polynesia in 2013 and 2014, an increase in cases of Guillain-Barr syndrome (GBS) and other neurological manifestations was observed in association with ZIKV infection and recently, in the Americas, it has also been associated with other neurological manifestations.
#61 Zika Virus (ZV) Infections – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition
https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/arboviruses-arenaviridae-and-filoviridae/zika-virus-zv-infections
Predicting where the Zika virus will spread is difficult. However, because the same mosquito that transmits Zika also transmits dengue and chikungunya, local transmission of Zika virus can be expected wherever dengue or chikungunya has been transmitted. […] Zika virus is present in semen and can be transmitted by men to their sex partners through sexual intercourse, including vaginal and anal sex and probably oral sex (fellatio), even when the men do not have symptoms. […] Zika virus may also be transmitted by men or women to their sex partners when sex toys are shared, even when infected people have no symptoms. […] Zika virus infection during pregnancy can cause microcephaly (a congenital disorder involving incomplete brain development and small head size), other severe fetal brain, ocular, and other defects that, together are termed congenital Zika syndrome.
#62 Guidelines for surveillance of Zika virus disease and its complications
https://iris.paho.org/handle/10665.2/28405
Guidelines for surveillance of Zika virus disease and its complications […] Zika virus (ZIKV) is an arbovirus of the genus Flavivirus (family Flaviviridae), phylogenetically very close to other viruses, such as the dengue, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis, and West Nile viruses. […] Subsequently, outbreaks have been recorded in Africa, Asia, the Western Pacific region and, more recently, in the Americas. […] Sexual and vertical (mother-to-child) transmission of ZIKV have been documented in a limited number of cases, as has transmission through blood transfusion. […] During an outbreak that occurred in French Polynesia in 2013 and 2014, an increase in cases of Guillain-Barr syndrome (GBS) and other neurological manifestations was observed in association with ZIKV infection and recently, in the Americas, it has also been associated with other neurological manifestations.
#63 Guidelines for surveillance of Zika virus disease and its complications
https://iris.paho.org/handle/10665.2/28405
In October 2015, the health authorities of Brazil confirmed an increase in the prevalence of microcephaly at birth in the Northeast region of the country, which coincided in time with an outbreak of the ZIKV. […] Subsequently, other birth defects, placental insufficiency, intrauterine growth restriction, and fetal death were described in association with ZIKV infection during pregnancy. […] The latter event led the World Health Organization (WHO) to declare on 1 February 2016 a public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC) and to recommend enhancement of surveillance and research on the relationship between new clusters of microcephaly and other neurological disorders, including Guillain-Barre syndrome and ZIKV infection.
#64 Zika: : Symptoms, Prevention and Treatments – PAHO/WHO
https://www.paho.org/en/topics/zika
The estimated incubation period (time between exposure and symptom onset) for ZIKV disease is 3 to 14 days. […] There is scientific consensus that ZIKV is a cause of microcephaly and Guillain-Barr syndrome. […] Currently there is limited knowledge of Zika virus and the ways it can be transmitted. […] Studies are needed to assess the prevalence of the virus and of transmission through blood transfusion and blood products to better understand the risk Zika presents. […] Specific measures recommended to prevent Zika infection should be part of an overall blood strategy based on the guidelines in PAHO’s Plan of Action for Universal Access to Safe Blood 2014-2019 for strengthening national blood programs. […] The most common form of Zika transmission is through mosquito bites, but the virus has been isolated in semen, and cases of sexual transmission have been observed.
#65
https://journals.lww.com/co-infectiousdiseases/fulltext/2016/10000/zika_virus_infection__epidemiology,_clinical.6.aspx
The spectrum of the Zika clinical manifestations is increasing as the epidemic is spreading. […] Clinical manifestations have apparently changed since the large French Polynesian outbreak in 2013-2014, when severe neurological complications were reported, followed by an increase in severe congenital malformations in the emergence in Brazil in 2015. […] Fatalities attributed to ZIKV are rare, excluding foetal losses among women infected during pregnancy and newborns with severe congenital ZIKV disease. […] The diagnosis of Zika infections can be performed on clinical-epidemiological and laboratorial bases. […] Overall, the laboratorial diagnosis of ZIKV infection relies on the same usual strategies used for other arboviruses, with viral genome detection by RT-PCR tests on acute-phase samples and serology for detection of specific antibody against the virus. […] Accurate, portable and inexpensive point-of-care tests are in need to better identify cases, especially where other arboviruses cocirculate.
#66 Zika Virus – Epidemiology
https://www.vdh.virginia.gov/epidemiology/epidemiology-fact-sheets/zika-virus-disease/
Zika is a risk in many countries and territories, and has been found in the Americas, Pacific Islands, and parts of Africa and Asia. […] Because the mosquitoes that spread the virus are found around the world, it is possible that outbreaks will occur in new countries and territories. […] For a map of areas with risk of Zika, see the CDC webpage on areas at risk for Zika. […] Anyone who lives in or travels to an area with risk of Zika, and has not already been infected, can get Zika. […] Zika virus infection during pregnancy can cause the fetus to develop microcephaly and/or other severe birth defects. […] CDC estimates 6% of babies born to moms with Zika during pregnancy will have Zika-associated birth defects, such as damage to the brain, eye damage, and/or microcephaly at birth.
#67 Zika virus: Infectious substances pathogen safety data sheet – Canada.ca
https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/laboratory-biosafety-biosecurity/pathogen-safety-data-sheets-risk-assessment/zika-virus.html
Zika virus spread to the Americas in March 2015, where it was first identified in Brazil. […] It is estimated that 440,000-1,300,300 cases of Zika virus infection occurred in 2015 in Brazil. […] Factors influencing the likelihood and severity of symptoms and sequelae associated with Zika virus infection remain unclear. […] Zika virus infection during pregnancy is known to cause fetal complications, such as microcephaly, central nervous system abnormalities and fetal death. […] Clinical diagnosis of Zika virus infection is difficult as symptoms often resemble other flavivirus infections. […] During the symptomatic phase (i.e., within 7 days of symptom onset), molecular testing using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) on whole blood or serum is the diagnostic method of choice. […] Serological methods such as enzyme immunoassays, immunofluorescence assays, and neutralization assays are typically used at 7 or more days post-symptom onset; although these methods are limited by potential cross-reactivity with other flaviviruses.
#68
https://journals.lww.com/co-infectiousdiseases/fulltext/2016/10000/zika_virus_infection__epidemiology,_clinical.6.aspx
The spectrum of the Zika clinical manifestations is increasing as the epidemic is spreading. […] Clinical manifestations have apparently changed since the large French Polynesian outbreak in 2013-2014, when severe neurological complications were reported, followed by an increase in severe congenital malformations in the emergence in Brazil in 2015. […] Fatalities attributed to ZIKV are rare, excluding foetal losses among women infected during pregnancy and newborns with severe congenital ZIKV disease. […] The diagnosis of Zika infections can be performed on clinical-epidemiological and laboratorial bases. […] Overall, the laboratorial diagnosis of ZIKV infection relies on the same usual strategies used for other arboviruses, with viral genome detection by RT-PCR tests on acute-phase samples and serology for detection of specific antibody against the virus. […] Accurate, portable and inexpensive point-of-care tests are in need to better identify cases, especially where other arboviruses cocirculate.
#69 Population-based surveillance for congenital zika virus syndrome: a latent class analysis of recorded cases from 2015â2018 | BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth | Full Text
https://bmcpregnancychildbirth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12884-022-04860-3
This study aims to describe clinical findings and determine the medium-term survival of congenital zika syndrome (CZS) suspected cases. […] A retrospective cohort study using routine register-based linked data. It included all suspected cases of CZS born in Brazil from January 1, 2015, to December 31, 2018, and followed up from birth until death, 36 months, or December 31, 2018, whichever came first. […] We followed 11,850 suspected cases of CZS, of which 28.3% were confirmed, 9.3% inconclusive and 62.4% unconfirmed. […] Confirmed cases had almost two times higher mortality when compared with unconfirmed cases. […] Among unconfirmed cases, we identified three distinct clusters with different mortality trajectories. […] The highest mortality risk was observed in those with abnormal imaging findings compatible with congenital infections (HR=12.6; IC95%8.818.0) and other abnormalities (HR=11.6; IC95%8.615.6) compared with those with normal imaging findings.
#70 Zika: : Symptoms, Prevention and Treatments – PAHO/WHO
https://www.paho.org/en/topics/zika
There are two factors for rapid transmission (documented in other countries): (1) Since this is a new virus to the Americas, the entire population is susceptible, lacking defenses to Zika virus; and (2) The Aedes mosquito is widespread in the Region, given the climatic conditions, temperature, and humidity in tropical countries. […] Maintaining a case count is difficult because symptoms of the disease tend to be mild and not everyone affected is seen by health services. What is most important is to detect the circulation of the virus, strengthen the response of health services, and step up surveillance of serious cases and complications. […] PAHO/WHO is supporting the development of an integrated epidemiological surveillance system model for dengue, chikungunya, and Zika. This model integrates epidemiological, clinical, laboratory and entomological surveillance to generate standardized and timely information for decision making.
#71 A Review of the Recent Epidemiology of Zika Virus Infection – PubMed
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39933180/
The abundance of asymptomatic and mild infections and limited diagnostic testing suggest that transmission in many locations likely remains underrecognized. […] Public health authorities, clinicians, communities at risk, and travelers should remain alert to the possibility of ZIKV transmission and implement measures to limit the risk of infection with ZIKV and other Aedes-borne arboviruses. […] To strengthen surveillance for ZIKV infections and congenital disease, targeted surveillance using clear case definitions and epidemiologically appropriate laboratory testing algorithms should be applied.
#72 Zika virus infection epidemiology and demographics – wikidoc
https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Zika_virus_infection_epidemiology_and_demographics
In 2015, Zika virus infection outbreaks rose dramatically, particularly in Brazil, as was observed by the manifestation of a correlated complication, microcephaly, in infants born to mothers with Zika virus infection at an incidence of approximately 100 per 100,000 infants. The majority of Zika virus infection cases are reported in South Africa and tropical Asia. As of 2014, Zika Virus infection outbreaks have also become more common in South America. Cases reported in other regions of the world are attributed to travel from areas with outbreaks. Zika virus infection affects all age groups, with newborn infants particularly vulnerable due to risk of transmission from the mothers upon birth. […] Only 1 in 5 people with Zika virus infection usually becomes symptomatic, and symptoms are generally mild, thus it is hard to establish a clear incidence of the infection.
#73 Zika virus: Infectious substances pathogen safety data sheet – Canada.ca
https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/laboratory-biosafety-biosecurity/pathogen-safety-data-sheets-risk-assessment/zika-virus.html
Zika virus spread to the Americas in March 2015, where it was first identified in Brazil. […] It is estimated that 440,000-1,300,300 cases of Zika virus infection occurred in 2015 in Brazil. […] Factors influencing the likelihood and severity of symptoms and sequelae associated with Zika virus infection remain unclear. […] Zika virus infection during pregnancy is known to cause fetal complications, such as microcephaly, central nervous system abnormalities and fetal death. […] Clinical diagnosis of Zika virus infection is difficult as symptoms often resemble other flavivirus infections. […] During the symptomatic phase (i.e., within 7 days of symptom onset), molecular testing using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) on whole blood or serum is the diagnostic method of choice. […] Serological methods such as enzyme immunoassays, immunofluorescence assays, and neutralization assays are typically used at 7 or more days post-symptom onset; although these methods are limited by potential cross-reactivity with other flaviviruses.
#74
https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/zika-epidemiology-update-may-2024
World Health Organization compiles periodic summaries of the global epidemiology of Zika virus transmission, and the most recent compilation of data has been published as a review of the recent epidemiology of Zika virus infection in the American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, describing data through the end of 2023. […] Zika transmission persists in several countries but has generally been at low levels throughout 2018 to the present. […] Since the previous WHO Zika epidemiological update was published in 2022, three countries have been added to the list of countries with evidence of autochthonous, mosquito-borne transmission, and two countries to the list of countries with established Aedes aegypti populations but no documented Zika transmission. […] Findings underscore the importance of sustained vigilance to ensure integrated country preparedness for early detection and response, monitoring risk, vector control and the development of diagnostics, vaccines, and therapeutics.
#75
https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/zika-epidemiology-update-may-2024
World Health Organization compiles periodic summaries of the global epidemiology of Zika virus transmission, and the most recent compilation of data has been published as a review of the recent epidemiology of Zika virus infection in the American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, describing data through the end of 2023. […] Zika transmission persists in several countries but has generally been at low levels throughout 2018 to the present. […] Since the previous WHO Zika epidemiological update was published in 2022, three countries have been added to the list of countries with evidence of autochthonous, mosquito-borne transmission, and two countries to the list of countries with established Aedes aegypti populations but no documented Zika transmission. […] Findings underscore the importance of sustained vigilance to ensure integrated country preparedness for early detection and response, monitoring risk, vector control and the development of diagnostics, vaccines, and therapeutics.
#76 Public Health Surveillance for Zika Virus: Data Interpretation and Report Validity
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6137786/
Epidemiological linkage involves a combination of risk factors such as recent travel to areas with ongoing transmission; having sexual contact with partners who recently traveled to such an area; being a recipient of blood, blood products, or an organ transplant from a person with known infection; or clinical suspicion of mosquito-borne transmission. […] Early in the US Zika outbreak, the only laboratories capable of testing samples were state and local health departments. […] Whether a case is reported depends, in the first instance, on individuals decisions to seek medical assessment. […] Public health surveillance systems also include cases that are identified through active surveillance, in which health departments proactively work to identify cases. […] Public health surveillance data are reported on the basis of place of residence rather than where the exposure might have taken place.
#77 A Review of the Recent Epidemiology of Zika Virus Infection – PubMed
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39933180/
The abundance of asymptomatic and mild infections and limited diagnostic testing suggest that transmission in many locations likely remains underrecognized. […] Public health authorities, clinicians, communities at risk, and travelers should remain alert to the possibility of ZIKV transmission and implement measures to limit the risk of infection with ZIKV and other Aedes-borne arboviruses. […] To strengthen surveillance for ZIKV infections and congenital disease, targeted surveillance using clear case definitions and epidemiologically appropriate laboratory testing algorithms should be applied.
#78 Zika: : Symptoms, Prevention and Treatments – PAHO/WHO
https://www.paho.org/en/topics/zika
There are two factors for rapid transmission (documented in other countries): (1) Since this is a new virus to the Americas, the entire population is susceptible, lacking defenses to Zika virus; and (2) The Aedes mosquito is widespread in the Region, given the climatic conditions, temperature, and humidity in tropical countries. […] Maintaining a case count is difficult because symptoms of the disease tend to be mild and not everyone affected is seen by health services. What is most important is to detect the circulation of the virus, strengthen the response of health services, and step up surveillance of serious cases and complications. […] PAHO/WHO is supporting the development of an integrated epidemiological surveillance system model for dengue, chikungunya, and Zika. This model integrates epidemiological, clinical, laboratory and entomological surveillance to generate standardized and timely information for decision making.
#79 Zika Virus: Education, Public Health, Integrated Mosquito Management
https://www.vdci.net/vector-borne-diseases/zika-virus-education-and-mosquito-management-to-protect-public-health/
Zika virus (ZIKV) was first discovered in 1947 in the Zika Forest of Uganda. […] However, in 2007, it was associated with a disease outbreak on Yap Island in the South Pacific, representing the first time it had spread outside of Asia. […] ZIKV is transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes. In the Americas, it has only been linked to transmission by Aedes aegypti. […] A portion of the United States is at a higher risk because of climate and the presence of Aedes mosquitoes. […] One of the factors accelerating the spread of Zika virus throughout the Americas could be that it does not appear to require an animal reservoir host, like West Nile virus. […] In order to understand the risk and address the threat appropriately, it is critical to determine the mosquito distribution, density, and species composition throughout the target area. Surveillance will also provide direct evidence of an increased transmission risk of Zika virus.
#80 The role of digital technologies in tackling the Zika outbreak: a scoping review – Ahmadi – Journal of Public Health and Emergency
https://jphe.amegroups.org/article/view/4556/5357
This review identified 19 studies that described the use of big data in the context of the Zika outbreak. […] Four studies described the use of mHealth applications in the context of the Zika outbreak. […] This review identified two studies that described the use of innovative and novel technologies during the Zika outbreak. […] Digital technologies played an important role in the Zika outbreak, aiding understanding of the disease itself, improving diagnostic tools and controlling the spread of the infection. […] The findings suggest that the overall utilization of digital technologies during the Zika outbreak is covered somewhat disproportionately in the scientific literature between January 2016 and July 2017. […] Digital technologies such as OpenZika could accelerate the discovery of new antivirals against Zika.
#81 The role of digital technologies in tackling the Zika outbreak: a scoping review – Ahmadi – Journal of Public Health and Emergency
https://jphe.amegroups.org/article/view/4556/5357
The 2016 Zika outbreak in the Americas was a public health emergency of international concern. […] This scoping review provided an overview of the current state of research on the utilization of digital technologies with specific reference to the Zika outbreak. […] The majority of articles reported the use of computational modelling and big data systems as core approaches, commonly dedicated to disease monitoring. […] Most of the studies identified digital technologies that served the function of monitoring during the Zika outbreak. […] This review identified 32 papers that used computational modelling techniques including mathematical modelling and geographical information systems (GIS) mapping-based approaches mainly to estimate the magnitude of the Zika outbreak, study transmission dynamics, and predict the spread of ZIKV to other regions.
#82 The role of digital technologies in tackling the Zika outbreak: a scoping review – Ahmadi – Journal of Public Health and Emergency
https://jphe.amegroups.org/article/view/4556/5357
This review identified 19 studies that described the use of big data in the context of the Zika outbreak. […] Four studies described the use of mHealth applications in the context of the Zika outbreak. […] This review identified two studies that described the use of innovative and novel technologies during the Zika outbreak. […] Digital technologies played an important role in the Zika outbreak, aiding understanding of the disease itself, improving diagnostic tools and controlling the spread of the infection. […] The findings suggest that the overall utilization of digital technologies during the Zika outbreak is covered somewhat disproportionately in the scientific literature between January 2016 and July 2017. […] Digital technologies such as OpenZika could accelerate the discovery of new antivirals against Zika.
#83
https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/zika-virus-surveillance-for-congenital-zika-syndrome
In response to the ongoing international Zika outbreak, the UK has been undertaking surveillance of pregnant women with relevant travel history, and for babies with possible congenital Zika syndrome. […] Zika virus: epidemiology and cases diagnosed in the UK.
#84 The Importance of Disease Surveillance: The Case of Zika Virus Disease – O’Neill : O’Neill
https://oneill.law.georgetown.edu/the-importance-of-disease-surveillance-the-case-of-zika-virus-disease/
Local transmission of Zika virus disease was reported in most countries in the Americas in the following months, leading to over 800,000 cases reported to the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO). […] According to the WHO Zika Surveillance Guidelines, Zika surveillance should form part of each countrys national surveillance system and take into consideration any existing surveillance systems for other arboviral diseases, such as dengue and chikungunya, and diseases that may be part of the differential diagnosis, including, accid paralysis, measles, and rubella. […] WHO calls for integrated surveillance of arboviral diseases of public health importance including dengue, chikungunya, yellow fever, and Zika, which are all transmitted by the same mosquito vector. […] A major concern is decreased reporting of Zika. […] One of the greatest challenges of Zika surveillance is that we have now transitioned into a post-epidemic period, meaning attention, resources, and funding have dwindled.
#85 The Importance of Disease Surveillance: The Case of Zika Virus Disease – O’Neill : O’Neill
https://oneill.law.georgetown.edu/the-importance-of-disease-surveillance-the-case-of-zika-virus-disease/
Local transmission of Zika virus disease was reported in most countries in the Americas in the following months, leading to over 800,000 cases reported to the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO). […] According to the WHO Zika Surveillance Guidelines, Zika surveillance should form part of each countrys national surveillance system and take into consideration any existing surveillance systems for other arboviral diseases, such as dengue and chikungunya, and diseases that may be part of the differential diagnosis, including, accid paralysis, measles, and rubella. […] WHO calls for integrated surveillance of arboviral diseases of public health importance including dengue, chikungunya, yellow fever, and Zika, which are all transmitted by the same mosquito vector. […] A major concern is decreased reporting of Zika. […] One of the greatest challenges of Zika surveillance is that we have now transitioned into a post-epidemic period, meaning attention, resources, and funding have dwindled.
#86 A Review of the Recent Epidemiology of Zika Virus Infection – PubMed
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39933180/
The abundance of asymptomatic and mild infections and limited diagnostic testing suggest that transmission in many locations likely remains underrecognized. […] Public health authorities, clinicians, communities at risk, and travelers should remain alert to the possibility of ZIKV transmission and implement measures to limit the risk of infection with ZIKV and other Aedes-borne arboviruses. […] To strengthen surveillance for ZIKV infections and congenital disease, targeted surveillance using clear case definitions and epidemiologically appropriate laboratory testing algorithms should be applied.
#87 Zika Virus – Epidemiology
https://www.vdh.virginia.gov/epidemiology/epidemiology-fact-sheets/zika-virus-disease/
If a pregnant woman does travel, she should talk to her healthcare provider before travel and take the following steps to prevent Zika infection: […] Couples planning to become pregnant within three months should work with their healthcare providers to carefully consider the risks and possible consequences of travel to areas with a Zika outbreak or other areas with risk of Zika. […] There is no vaccine to prevent Zika. Infections can be prevented by avoiding mosquito bites and sexual exposure to the virus. […] People who have returned from travel to an area with risk of Zika should also follow steps to avoid mosquito bites for three weeks after returning to prevent them from passing Zika virus to local mosquitoes that could spread the virus to others.
#88 Zika Virus – Epidemiology
https://www.vdh.virginia.gov/epidemiology/epidemiology-fact-sheets/zika-virus-disease/
If a pregnant woman does travel, she should talk to her healthcare provider before travel and take the following steps to prevent Zika infection: […] Couples planning to become pregnant within three months should work with their healthcare providers to carefully consider the risks and possible consequences of travel to areas with a Zika outbreak or other areas with risk of Zika. […] There is no vaccine to prevent Zika. Infections can be prevented by avoiding mosquito bites and sexual exposure to the virus. […] People who have returned from travel to an area with risk of Zika should also follow steps to avoid mosquito bites for three weeks after returning to prevent them from passing Zika virus to local mosquitoes that could spread the virus to others.
#89 Zika Virus (ZV) Infections – Infectious Diseases – Merck Manual Professional Edition
https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/arboviruses-arenaviridae-and-filoviridae/zika-virus-zv-infections
Test pregnant women for Zika virus if they have traveled to or live in areas of ongoing Zika virus transmission using serologic testing (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for IgM, the plaque reduction neutralization test) or RT-PCR. […] Prevention of Zika virus infection depends on controlling Aedes mosquitoes and avoiding mosquito bites. […] Because Zika virus can be transmitted sexually, men and women who live in or have traveled to an area of ongoing Zika virus transmission should abstain from sexual activity or consistently and correctly use barrier methods during sex while their partner is pregnant.
#90 Zika: : Symptoms, Prevention and Treatments – PAHO/WHO
https://www.paho.org/en/topics/zika
The IHR Emergency Committee on Zika virus, at its meeting March 8, 2016, said that pregnant women should be advised not travel to areas of ongoing Zika virus outbreaks; pregnant women whose sexual partners live in or travel to areas with Zika virus outbreaks should ensure safe sexual practices or abstain from sex for the duration of their pregnancy. […] Research is currently under way on the risk of mother-to-child transmission of the virus and its possible effects on babies. […] Diagnosis is based on clinical symptoms and epidemiological circumstances (such as Zika outbreak in the patient’s area or trips to areas where the virus is circulating). […] Once it has been demonstrated that the virus is present in a given area or territory, confirmation of all cases is not necessary, and laboratory testing will be adjusted to routine virological surveillance of the disease.
#91 Zika Virus
https://www.michigan.gov/emergingdiseases/home/zika-virus
Currently the risk of Zika virus in most parts of the world are very low. Few people need testing now. […] Testing is recommended if you have symptoms of Zika and have recently traveled to an area with a current Zika outbreak (red areas). […] Testing is recommended if you are pregnant, have symptoms of Zika and have recently traveled to an area with risk for Zika (purple areas). […] There is no specific medicine or vaccine for Zika virus. […] If you are caring for a person with Zika, take steps to protect yourself from exposure to the persons blood and body fluids (urine, stool, vomit). […] Zika mosquito surveillance by county in Michigan.
#92 FACT SHEET: Preparing for and Responding to the Zika Virus at Home and Abroad | whitehouse.gov
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/02/08/fact-sheet-preparing-and-responding-zika-virus-home-and-abroad
Since late last year, the Administration has been aggressively working to combat Zika, a virus primarily spread by mosquitoes that has recently been linked to birth defects and other concerning health outcomes. […] The Federal Government has been monitoring the Zika virus and working with our domestic and international public health partners to alert healthcare providers and the public about Zika; provide public health laboratories with diagnostic tests; and detect and report cases both domestically and internationally. […] The Pan American Health Organization reports 26 countries and territories in the Americas with local Zika transmission. […] The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reports 50 laboratory-confirmed cases among U.S. travelers from December 2015- February 5, 2016.
#93 FACT SHEET: Preparing for and Responding to the Zika Virus at Home and Abroad | whitehouse.gov
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/02/08/fact-sheet-preparing-and-responding-zika-virus-home-and-abroad
Since late last year, the Administration has been aggressively working to combat Zika, a virus primarily spread by mosquitoes that has recently been linked to birth defects and other concerning health outcomes. […] The Federal Government has been monitoring the Zika virus and working with our domestic and international public health partners to alert healthcare providers and the public about Zika; provide public health laboratories with diagnostic tests; and detect and report cases both domestically and internationally. […] The Pan American Health Organization reports 26 countries and territories in the Americas with local Zika transmission. […] The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reports 50 laboratory-confirmed cases among U.S. travelers from December 2015- February 5, 2016.
#94 FACT SHEET: Preparing for and Responding to the Zika Virus at Home and Abroad | whitehouse.gov
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/02/08/fact-sheet-preparing-and-responding-zika-virus-home-and-abroad
The requested resources will build on our ongoing preparedness efforts and will support essential strategies to combat this virus, such as rapidly expanding mosquito control programs; accelerating vaccine research and diagnostic development; enabling the testing and procurement of vaccines and diagnostics; educating health care providers, pregnant women and their partners; improving epidemiology and expanding laboratory and diagnostic testing capacity; improving health services and supports for low-income pregnant women, and enhancing the ability of Zika-affected countries to better combat mosquitoes and control transmission. […] Congressional action on the Administrations request will accelerate our ability to prevent, detect and respond to the Zika virus and bolster our ability to reduce the potential for future infectious disease outbreaks.
#95 FACT SHEET: Preparing for and Responding to the Zika Virus at Home and Abroad | whitehouse.gov
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/02/08/fact-sheet-preparing-and-responding-zika-virus-home-and-abroad
Puerto Rico is experiencing ongoing active transmission of Zika. […] The request includes $200 million for research, rapid advanced development and commercialization of new vaccines and diagnostic tests for Zika virus. […] The request would also provide flexibility in the use of remaining USAID Ebola funds. […] Activities would focus particularly on South America, Central America, the Caribbean, and would: Implement integrated vector management activities in countries at-risk of Zika virus; […] Establish education campaigns to empower communities in affected countries to take actions to protect themselves from Zika Virus as well as other mosquito-borne diseases; and […] These resources will support critical public health actions underway, including preparedness, surveillance, data collection, and risk communication.
#96 FACT SHEET: Preparing for and Responding to the Zika Virus at Home and Abroad | whitehouse.gov
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/02/08/fact-sheet-preparing-and-responding-zika-virus-home-and-abroad
Puerto Rico is experiencing ongoing active transmission of Zika. […] The request includes $200 million for research, rapid advanced development and commercialization of new vaccines and diagnostic tests for Zika virus. […] The request would also provide flexibility in the use of remaining USAID Ebola funds. […] Activities would focus particularly on South America, Central America, the Caribbean, and would: Implement integrated vector management activities in countries at-risk of Zika virus; […] Establish education campaigns to empower communities in affected countries to take actions to protect themselves from Zika Virus as well as other mosquito-borne diseases; and […] These resources will support critical public health actions underway, including preparedness, surveillance, data collection, and risk communication.
#97
https://www.sandiegocounty.gov/content/sdc/hhsa/programs/phs/community_epidemiology/dc/zika_virus.html
San Diego County is on the front line to stop the spread of the Zika virus. County public health and vector control officials continue to work with medical providers and residents to investigate potential Zika cases and take necessary precautions to minimize the chance of local transmission. […] Because Zika virus is primarily spread by mosquitoes, the CDC recommends that all travelers to Mexico protect themselves from mosquito bites, especially those who cross the border on a regular basis. It is important for travelers to protect themselves from mosquito bites after returning to the U.S. because, if a mosquito bites an infected person who is still contagious, it can spread the virus to another person.
#98
https://www.sandiegocounty.gov/content/sdc/hhsa/programs/phs/community_epidemiology/dc/zika_virus.html
San Diego County is on the front line to stop the spread of the Zika virus. County public health and vector control officials continue to work with medical providers and residents to investigate potential Zika cases and take necessary precautions to minimize the chance of local transmission. […] Because Zika virus is primarily spread by mosquitoes, the CDC recommends that all travelers to Mexico protect themselves from mosquito bites, especially those who cross the border on a regular basis. It is important for travelers to protect themselves from mosquito bites after returning to the U.S. because, if a mosquito bites an infected person who is still contagious, it can spread the virus to another person.
#99
http://visitmonmouth.com/Page.aspx?Id=4672
Aedes aegyptii mosquitoThe primary means of contracting Zika virus is through the bite of an infected mosquito. Not all mosquitoes can transmit Zika virus or any mosquito-borne disease. A mosquito that can pass on a disease is called a vector of that disease. […] The primary mosquito vector involved in the transmission of Zika virus is Aedes aegyptii, a tropical species not found in New Jersey. There is currently no evidence of Zika virus in any mosquitoes in the continental United States, much less Monmouth County. […] Comprehensive mosquito control programs in the United States keep local incidence rates of mosquito-borne diseases very low compared to high global incidence rates. This has been demonstrated for Dengue fever, Chikungunya and West Nile virus. […] The Monmouth County Mosquito Control Division will continue to implement a comprehensive integrated mosquito management program that includes: Surveillance of mosquito populations and disease- the driver of control operations. Local mosquitoes are collected and tested for West Nile virus, Eastern Equine Encephalitis (EEE) and Dengue from May through October.
#100
http://visitmonmouth.com/Page.aspx?Id=4672
Each day, the CDC and other world health agencies provide more information and updated guidance about Zika virus. The Monmouth County Mosquito Control Division along with the County’s Health Department are vigilantly following these developments and will integrate any applicable guidance into our operations.
#101 Zika | Department of Health | Commonwealth of Pennsylvania
https://www.pa.gov/agencies/health/diseases-conditions/infectious-disease/vectorborne-diseases/mosquito-diseases/zika.html
Most people infected with Zika virus have mild symptoms (or no symptoms at all). However, pregnant women who are infected with Zika virus have a greater risk of babies born with microcephaly, a birth defect where the baby’s head is smaller than expected, or other birth defects. Guillain-Barr Syndrome, a rare but severe and progressive neurological disorder, has been reported to be associated with Zika virus infection. […] The CDC has issued travel notices for regions where Zika virus transmission is a risk. Zika travel notices include certain countries in South America, Central America, the Caribbean, the Pacific Islands, Africa and Southeast Asia. Within the U.S., there are currently no travel notices. […] The Pennsylvania Department of Health and Department of Environmental Protection created a Zika Response Plan to prepare for Zika virus testing, to enhance surveillance and control of mosquito populations that can spread Zika virus, and to enhance surveillance for Zika cases in Pennsylvania.