Trądzik
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Trądzik pospolity (acne vulgaris) jest przewlekłą chorobą zapalną jednostki włosowo-łojowej o złożonej patogenezie, obejmującej nadprodukcję sebum, hiperkeratynizację ujść mieszków włosowych, kolonizację przez Cutibacterium acnes oraz stan zapalny. Nowoczesne badania wskazują, że stan zapalny może inicjować proces chorobowy jeszcze przed powstaniem mikrozaskórnika. Kluczowe szlaki sygnalizacyjne zaangażowane w patogenezę to m.in. PI3K/Akt/FoxO1/mTORC1, Wnt/β-katenina, NF-κB oraz MAPK. Androgeny, zwłaszcza dihydrotestosteron (DHT), oraz insulina i IGF-1 odgrywają istotną rolę w stymulacji produkcji sebum i aktywacji kaskad zapalnych. Hiperkeratynizacja jest modulowana przez cytokiny prozapalne, takie jak IL-1, TNF-α i IL-8, które promują komedogenezę. Dysbioza mikrobiomu, szczególnie nadmierna ekspansja filotypu IA1 C. acnes, oraz aktywacja receptorów Toll-podobnych (TLR2, TLR4) prowadzą do produkcji cytokin prozapalnych i reaktywnych form tlenu, nasilając stan zapalny i uszkodzenia tkanek.

Podstawy patogenezy trądziku

Trądzik pospolity (acne vulgaris) jest przewlekłą chorobą zapalną jednostki włosowo-łojowej o złożonej patogenezie. Przez wiele lat tradycyjny model patogenezy trądziku opisywał cztery główne czynniki patogenetyczne: nadprodukcję sebum, nieprawidłowe rogowacenie ujść mieszków włosowych, kolonizację przez bakterie Cutibacterium acnes (dawniej Propionibacterium acnes) oraz stan zapalny12. Pierwotną zmianą w trądziku jest mikrozaskórnik (microcomedo), który stanowi prekursora wszystkich klinicznych manifestacji choroby3. Współczesne badania wskazują jednak, że relacje między tymi czynnikami są bardziej złożone, a w procesie patogenetycznym biorą udział również inne elementy, takie jak predyspozycje genetyczne, czynniki hormonalne, stres, dieta czy mikrobiom skóry45.

Rola czynników genetycznych

Badania wskazują, że trądzik ma silny komponent genetyczny. Według jednych z badań, aż 80% predyspozycji do rozwoju trądziku może być uwarunkowane genetycznie1. Zidentyfikowano około 50 loci genetycznych związanych z trądzikiem2. Badania bliźniąt wykazały, że dziedziczność trądziku może sięgać nawet 85% wariancji populacyjnej3. Zakłada się, że geny związane z trądzikiem wpływają na homeostazę komórek macierzystych, przebudowę tkanek, adhezję komórkową i metabolizm androgenów4.

Aktualne spojrzenie na patogenezę trądziku

Współczesne badania sugerują, że klasyczny model patogenezy trądziku, w którym mikrozaskórnik jest pierwotną zmianą, może wymagać rewizji. Badania prowadzone w laboratorium Sewona Kanga wykazały, że w skórze pacjentów z trądzikiem występuje populacja komórek zapalnych jeszcze przed rozwojem hiperkeratynizacji i powstaniem mikrozaskórnika1. Obserwacje te sugerują, że stan zapalny może być inicjującym wydarzeniem w rozwoju trądziku, a nie jedynie konsekwencją powstania zaskórnika23.

Aktualne spojrzenie na patogenezę trądziku podkreśla jej złożony i wieloczynnikowy charakter, obejmujący interakcje między następującymi elementami: nadmierną produkcją sebum stymulowaną przez androgeny, zaburzeniami keratynizacji mieszków włosowych, dysbiozą mikrobiomu skóry (szczególnie dotyczącą C. acnes) oraz kaskadą reakcji zapalnych, która może rozpoczynać się wcześniej niż sądzono12.

Nadprodukcja sebum jako kluczowy element patogenezy

Nadmierna produkcja sebum jest jednym z najważniejszych czynników w rozwoju trądziku. Nasilone wydzielanie łoju jest bezpośrednio związane z nasileniem trądziku – wyższa produkcja sebum powoduje większe podrażnienie przewodu łojowego i w rezultacie zwiększone wytwarzanie keratyny12. Sebum stwarza idealne środowisko dla namnażania się bakterii C. acnes, co prowadzi do hiperkeratynizacji mieszków włosowych i stanu zapalnego3.

Regulacja produkcji sebum

Produkcja i wydzielanie sebum są regulowane przez szereg różnych hormonów i mediatorów1. Najważniejszymi czynnikami regulującymi produkcję sebum są:

  • Androgeny – główne hormony stymulujące produkcję łoju. Dihydrotestosteron (DHT) jest głównym hormonem androgenowym odpowiedzialnym za produkcję sebum w skórze12.
  • Insulina i insulinopodobny czynnik wzrostu-1 (IGF-1) – odgrywają kluczową rolę w patogenezie trądziku, szczególnie w okresie dojrzewania12.
  • Hormon wzrostu i inne mediatory, w tym receptory aktywowane przez proliferatory peroksysomów (PPAR), które regulują gruczoł łojowy i mogą przyczyniać się do rozwoju trądziku3.

123

Szlaki sygnalizacyjne w patogenezie trądziku

Badania molekularne wskazały na kilka kluczowych szlaków sygnalizacyjnych zaangażowanych w patogenezę trądziku:

  • Szlak PI3K/Akt/FoxO1/mTORC1 – jest to najważniejszy szlak sygnalizacyjny odpowiedzialny za patogenezę trądziku. Po związaniu IGF-1 z jego receptorem, aktywowana jest kinaza PI3K, co prowadzi do aktywacji kinazy AKT (znanej również jako białko kinaza B), kluczowego punktu kontrolnego regulacji sieci wzrostu12.
  • Szlak Wnt/β-katenina – ważny w rozwoju mieszka włosowego i gruczołu łojowego12.
  • Szlak NF-κB – odgrywa kluczową rolę w procesie zapalnym poprzez regulację uwalniania mediatorów zapalnych1.
  • Szlak MAPK (kinazy aktywowane mitogenami) – uczestniczy w modulacji aktywności sebocytów, keratynocytów i komórek zapalnych1.

1234

Zwiększona sygnalizacja IGF-1 poprzez hamowanie FoxO1 zależne od AKT zwiększa aktywność transkrypcyjną AR, SREBF1, PPARγ i STAT3, kluczowych czynników transkrypcyjnych, które promują lipogenezę w sebocytach1. Dodatkowo, fosforylacja białka wiążącego p53 – MDM2 – mediowana przez AKT, promuje degradację p53, ważnego czynnika w patogenezie trądziku23.

Hiperkeratynizacja mieszków włosowych

Hiperkeratynizacja mieszków włosowych obejmuje zwiększoną proliferację keratynocytów i zmniejszone złuszczanie, co prowadzi do powstawania mikrozaskórników wypełnionych sebum i keratyną1. Proces ten jest krytycznym elementem patogenezy trądziku, prowadzącym do powstania zaskórników otwartych i zamkniętych2.

Mechanizmy hiperkeratynizacji

Kilka czynników przyczynia się do nieprawidłowej keratynizacji ujść mieszków włosowych:

  • Androgeny – mogą wpływać nie tylko na ilość wytwarzanego sebum, ale także na różnicowanie mieszka włosowego, co może przyczyniać się do trądziku1.
  • Mediatory zapalne – takie jak interleukina-1 (IL-1), odgrywają centralną rolę w regulacji odpowiedzi zapalnych i immunologicznych. Wykazano, że ekspresja i wydzielanie IL-1 dramatycznie wzrasta podczas wczesnych etapów rozwoju zmian trądzikowych2.
  • Czynniki wzrostu – indukują patogenezę trądziku. Ich sygnały wejściowe zbiegają się w aktywacji kinazy AKT, która modyfikuje aktywność i ekspresję ważnych czynników transkrypcyjnych promujących chorobę3.

123

Rola prozapalnych cytokin w hiperkeratynizacji

Cytokiny prozapalne odgrywają kluczową rolę w regulacji procesów keratynizacji w trądziku:

  • IL-1 – jest niezbędna do tworzenia zaskórników i może promować komedogenezę w obrębie jednostki włosowo-łojowej12.
  • TNF-α i IL-8 – są produkowane przez komórki T CD4+ i makrofagi, aktywują lokalne komórki śródbłonka do zwiększania mediatorów zapalnych, takich jak VCAM-1, ICAM-1 i HLA-DR w naczyniach wokół mieszka włosowo-łojowego3.

123

Dane silnie sugerują, że mediatory zapalne są obecne i zdolne do promowania komedogenezy w obrębie jednostki włosowo-łojowej już we wczesnym etapie rozwoju trądziku1.

Rola Cutibacterium acnes w patogenezie trądziku

Cutibacterium acnes (dawniej Propionibacterium acnes) jest beztlenowym organizmem obecnym w zmianach trądzikowych1. Jest to bakteria komensalna występująca w mieszkach łojowych, ale może również być oportunistycznym patogenem jako główny gracz w rozwoju trądziku pospolitego2.

Mechanizmy prozapalne indukowane przez C. acnes

C. acnes stymuluje stan zapalny poprzez różne mechanizmy:

  • Produkcja mediatorów prozapalnych – C. acnes stymuluje stan zapalny, wytwarzając prozapalne mediatory, które dyfundują przez ścianę mieszka. Bakteria aktywuje receptor Toll-podobny 2 (TLR2) na monocytach i neutrofilach1.
  • Aktywacja TLR2 i TLR4 – prowadzi do produkcji wielu prozapalnych cytokin, w tym interleukin 12 i 8 oraz czynnika martwicy nowotworów (TNF)23.
  • Aktywacja inflamasomu NLRP3 – C. acnes prowadzi do sekrecji prozapalnych cytokin w różnych komórkach immunologicznych4.

123

C. acnes inicjuje proces zapalny w patogenezie trądziku, wyzwalając produkcję reaktywnych form tlenu (ROS) i cytokin zapalnych poprzez receptor Toll-podobny 2, receptor aktywowany przez proliferatory peroksysomów, szlak mTOR i wrodzony układ odpornościowy1.

Rola dysbiozy mikrobiomowej

Współczesne badania wskazują, że trądzik nie jest spowodowany nadmiernym namnażaniem się C. acnes per se, ale wynika z dysbiozy spowodowanej utratą różnorodności filotypów C. acnes1. Filotyp IA1 bakterii C. acnes jest nadmiernie obecny w zmianach zapalnych u pacjentów z trądzikiem w porównaniu do osób zdrowych2.

Warto zauważyć, że na skórze występują również inne bakterie, takie jak Staphylococcus epidermidis, które mogą odgrywać rolę w patofizjologii trądziku pospolitego1. Ponadto, badania sugerują, że P. acnes nie jest wymagany do rozwoju stanu zapalnego w zmianach trądzikowych, niezależnie od typu zmiany2.

Stan zapalny w patogenezie trądziku

Stan zapalny jest kluczowym elementem patogenezy trądziku i współczesne badania sugerują, że może on występować na wszystkich etapach rozwoju zmian trądzikowych, a nawet może być inicjującym wydarzeniem w rozwoju choroby12.

Mechanizmy zapalne w trądziku

W procesie zapalnym w trądziku uczestniczy wiele mechanizmów:

  • Aktywacja receptorów Toll-podobnych (TLR) – szczególnie TLR2 i TLR4, które są kluczowymi klasami receptorów rozpoznających wzorce (PRR) rozpoznających P. acnes w naskórku i odpowiedzialnych za stan zapalny12.
  • Produkcja cytokin prozapalnych – C. acnes stymuluje produkcję IL-1β, IL-8, TNF-α i LTB4, które odgrywają kluczową rolę w rozwoju stanu zapalnego12.
  • Aktywacja kaskady AP-1 – w wyżej wymienionym kaskadzie zapalnej aktywuje metaloproteinazy macierzy, które przyczyniają się do lokalnego niszczenia tkanek i powstawania blizn1.
  • Rola makrofagów – makrofagi odgrywają kluczową rolę w patogenezie trądziku, regulując stężenie lipidów i ułatwiając eliminację C. acnes. Jednak nadmierna reakcja immunologiczna może wywołać stan zapalny i późniejsze bliznowacenie potrądzikowe2.

12345

Molekularne mechanizmy leżące u podstaw stresu oksydacyjnego i uszkodzenia komórek wywołanego zapaleniem w trądziku były badane. Sygnalizacja za pośrednictwem NF-κB i STAT, mediowana przez TLR, została określona jako kluczowy mechanizm trądziku1.

Rola peptydów przeciwdrobnoustrojowych

Peptydy przeciwdrobnoustrojowe (AMP) odgrywają istotną rolę w patogenezie trądziku:

  • Beta-defensyny (hBD) i katelicydyny – są intensywnie badane w patogenezie trądziku. Regulacja syntezy wrodzonych i specyficznych AMP jest zaburzona u pacjentów z trądzikiem1.
  • Reaktywna adipogeneza – pierwszym etapem reaktywnej adipogenezy jest uwalnianie peptydów przeciwdrobnoustrojowych, znanych również jako peptydy obrony gospodarza. Ta zapalna odpowiedź immunologiczna w trądziku jest wywoływana przez ekspozycję na produkty bakteryjne, co wyjaśnia zapalną prezentację trądziku u ludzi2.

12

Badania pokazały, że po aktywacji TLR2 następuje indukcja zwiększonej syntezy lipidów i katelicydyny. Jest to ważne odkrycie, ponieważ potwierdza skuteczność retinoidów jako terapii w zapobieganiu i leczeniu trądziku. Retinoidy indukują katelicydynę i zmniejszają syntezę lipidów w preadipocytach skórnych – hamowanie reaktywnej adipogenezy w fibroblastach skórnych utrudni rozwój trądziku u ludzi1.

Wpływ czynników hormonalnych na patogenezę trądziku

Czynniki hormonalne odgrywają kluczową rolę w patogenezie trądziku. Skóra jest organem endokrynnym zdolnym do produkcji androgenów, a hormony te są zaangażowane we wczesne etapy kaskady klinicznej patogenezy trądziku1.

Rola androgenów

Androgeny są głównymi hormonami odpowiedzialnymi za rozwój trądziku:

  • Stymulacja produkcji sebum – androgeny stymulują produkcję łoju przez sebocyty w gruczołach łojowych skóry, co tworzy wysoce korzystne mikrośrodowisko dla wzrostu bakterii C. acnes w mieszku włosowo-łojowym1.
  • Dihydrotestosteron (DHT) – jest głównym hormonem androgenowym odpowiedzialnym za produkcję sebum w skórze2.
  • Stymulacja cytokin i szlaków zapalnych – androgeny stymulują również cytokiny i inne szlaki zapalne, prowadząc do efektów kaskadowych, które dodatkowo promują rozwój zmian3.

12

„Jeśli nie ma androgenów, nie ma sebum, a jeśli nie ma sebum, nie ma trądziku; i to jest praktycznie uniwersalnie prawdziwe” – podkreślił ekspert w dziedzinie dermatologii, Dr Del Rosso1.

Rola IGF-1 i insuliny

Oprócz androgenów, inne hormony również odgrywają ważną rolę w patogenezie trądziku:

  • Insulinopodobny czynnik wzrostu-1 (IGF-1) – zwiększa aktywność gruczołów łojowych i produkcję sebum, szczególnie w okresie dojrzewania1.
  • Insulina – wysokie stężenia insuliny, występujące np. przy diecie o wysokim indeksie glikemicznym, mogą nasilać produkcję sebum i stan zapalny2.

12

Dieta zachodnia, charakteryzująca się żywnością o wysokim indeksie glikemicznym, rafinowanymi zbożami, czerwonym mięsem, mlekiem i produktami mlecznymi, białkiem jaj i tłuszczami nasyconymi, zwiększa obciążenie glikemiczne, produkcję insuliny, IGF-1 i poziomy leucyny; z kolei podwyższenie tych czynników zmniejsza aktywność FOX O1, tracąc zdolność do hamowania receptorów androgenowych i aktywności mTORC-11.

Nowe odkrycia w patogenezie trądziku

Współczesne badania dostarczają nowych informacji na temat patogenezy trądziku, które mogą prowadzić do rozwoju innowacyjnych strategii terapeutycznych1.

Rola czynników transkrypcyjnych p53, FoxO1 i FoxO3

Badania wskazują na kluczową rolę trzech czynników transkrypcyjnych – p53, FoxO1 i FoxO3 – w patogenezie trądziku:

  • Supresja p53, FoxO1 i FoxO3 – odgrywa ważną rolę w patogenezie trądziku, podczas gdy ich regulacja w górę za pośrednictwem izotretynoiny wyjaśnia korzystne i niepożądane efekty izotretynoiny w leczeniu trądziku1.
  • p53 jako negatywny regulator genu IGF1R – p53 został zidentyfikowany jako negatywny regulator genu IGF1R, który pośredniczy w zwiększonej sygnalizacji IGF-1/mTORC1 w okresie dojrzewania i przy diecie zachodniej2.
  • Izotretynoina zwiększa ekspresję p53, FoxO1 i FoxO3 – w gruczołach łojowych pacjentów z trądzikiem3.

123

Nadekspresja tych proapoptotycznych czynników transkrypcyjnych wyjaśnia pożądany efekt hamujący sebum izotretynoiny poprzez indukcję apoptozy sebocytów i wyczerpanie komórek progenitorowych sebocytów BLIMP1(+)1.

Rola reaktywnej adipogenezy

Nowe badania zidentyfikowały wcześniej nieznane komponenty w patogenezie trądziku:

  • Reaktywna adipogeneza w okołomieszkowych fibroblastach skórnych – badacze odkryli, że „reaktywna adipogeneza w okołomieszkowych fibroblastach skórnych aktywnie przyczynia się do patofizjologii trądziku”1.
  • Odpowiedź dermalna na C. acnes – odkryto, że dermalne okołomieszkowe fibroblasty, poprzez swoją reakcję adipogenezy, mają wcześniej nieznaną rolę w patogenezie trądziku2.

1

To głębsze zrozumienie patofizjologii trądziku może umożliwić rozwój nowych terapii. Retinoidy hamują reaktywną adipogenezę w fibroblastach skórnych, co utrudnia rozwój trądziku u ludzi1.

Rola witaminy B12

Badania sugerują również rolę witaminy B12 w patogenezie trądziku:

  • Wpływ na ekspresję genów bakterii skórnych – przyjmowanie suplementów witaminy B12 wpływa na geny ekspresjonowane przez bakterie żyjące na naszej skórze. Wzorzec ekspresji genów — transkryptom — został zmieniony u dziesięciu na dziesięciu zdrowych badanych osób i wywołał rozwój trądziku u jednego badanego1.
  • Hamowanie biosyntezy witaminy B12 – porównując profile ekspresji genów mikrobiota skóry u pacjentów z trądzikiem z profilami od zdrowych osób, okazało się, że szlak biosyntezy witaminy B12 w bakterii skórnej Propionibacterium acnes był znacząco obniżony u pacjentów z trądzikiem2.
  • Produkcja porfiryn – zespół Li hodował kultury P. acnes i odkrył, że suplementacja witaminą B12 promowała produkcję porfiryn, które jak wykazano, indukują stan zapalny w trądziku3.

12

Odkrycia te sugerują nowy szlak patogenezy bakteryjnej w trądziku i dostarczają jedno molekularne wyjaśnienie dla długotrwałej obserwacji klinicznej, że suplementacja witaminą B12 prowadzi do rozwoju trądziku u części osób1.

Wpływ czynników środowiskowych na patogenezę trądziku

Oprócz czynników genetycznych i hormonalnych, w patogenezie trądziku ważną rolę odgrywają również czynniki środowiskowe12.

Wpływ stresu

Stres jest znany jako czynnik korelujący z zaostrzeniami trądziku i jest obecnie uważany za systemowy czynnik napędzający trądzik1. Stres wpływa na trądzik poprzez:

  • Wahania hormonalne – w tym wzrost poziomu kortyzolu i androgenów, stymulujące aktywność gruczołów łojowych, prowadzące do nadmiernej produkcji sebum1.
  • Stan zapalny – wywołany stresem uwolnienie cytokin zaostrza zmiany trądzikowe2.
  • Zmienione funkcje bariery skórnej – stres upośledza funkcję bariery skórnej, zmienia odpowiedzi immunologiczne i wpływa na czynniki stylu życia, takie jak dieta, sen i nawyki pielęgnacyjne, które przyczyniają się do nasilenia trądziku3.

12

Dodatkowo, neuropeptydy, stres oksydacyjny, insulinooporność, zmienione pH skóry, zmiany naczyniowe i zmiany w mikrobiomie skóry odgrywają znaczącą rolę w patogenezie trądziku wywołanego stresem1.

Wpływ diety

Dieta jest obecnie uznawana za ważny czynnik przyczyniający się do trądziku1. Badania sugerują, że:

  • Dieta o wysokim indeksie glikemicznym – powoduje wzrost insuliny, co prawdopodobnie zwiększa produkcję sebum. W rezultacie żywność o wysokim IG może bezpośrednio wpływać na rozwój i nasilenie trądziku1.
  • Mleko i produkty mleczne – badanie z 2019 roku z udziałem osób w wieku od 10 do 24 lat wykazało, że picie pełnego mleka trzy lub więcej dni w tygodniu było związane z umiarkowanym lub ciężkim trądzikiem2.
  • Dieta zachodnia – charakteryzuje się żywnością o wysokim indeksie glikemicznym, rafinowanymi zbożami, czerwonym mięsem, mlekiem i produktami mlecznymi, białkiem jajecznym i tłuszczami nasyconymi. Ten rodzaj diety zwiększa obciążenie glikemiczne, produkcję insuliny, IGF-1 i poziomy leucyny3.

12

Hipotezy dotyczące wpływu diety na patogenezę trądziku są poparte obserwacją niskiej częstości występowania trądziku w kulturach z dietą paleolityczną składającą się z minimalnie przetworzonych pokarmów, warzyw, małych ilości węglowodanów i bez nabiału lub jego pochodnych1.

Implikacje terapeutyczne wynikające z patogenezy

Zrozumienie patogenezy trądziku ma kluczowe znaczenie dla opracowania skutecznych strategii terapeutycznych1.

Celowanie w kluczowe komponenty patogenezy

Skuteczne leczenie trądziku powinno być ukierunkowane na główne komponenty patogenezy:

  • Izotretynoina – jest jedynym lekiem, który oddziałuje na wszystkie cztery filary patogenezy trądziku: nadprodukcję sebum, hiperkeratynizację mieszków, kolonizację przez C. acnes i stan zapalny1.
  • Klaskoteron – jest jedynym lekiem miejscowym, który celuje w nadmierną produkcję sebum. Jest to nowy miejscowy inhibitor receptora androgenowego zatwierdzony do leczenia trądziku pospolitego u pacjentów w wieku 12 lat i starszych23.
  • Terapia kombinowana – niezależnie od tego, który rodzaj leczenia jest wybrany dla dowolnego filaru, monoterapia pojedynczym środkiem jest często niewystarczająca. „Historycznie łączyliśmy terapie, aby leczyć wiele przyczyn trądziku” – podkreślił ekspert4.

123

Łączenie zabiegów o różnych mechanizmach działania może pomóc w przeciwdziałaniu czterem głównym filarom patogenezy trądziku, a wprowadzenie klaskoterone oznacza, że możemy teraz również celować i hamować androgeny w skórze za pomocą terapii miejscowej1.

Nowe strategie terapeutyczne

Badania nad patogenezą trądziku prowadzą do rozwoju nowych strategii terapeutycznych:

  • Inhibitory TLR2 – TLR2 odgrywa kluczową rolę w rozpoznawaniu P. acnes i inicjowaniu odpowiedzi zapalnej. Nadmierne P. acnes może prowadzić do promowania stanu zapalnego i niszczenia tkanek przez prozapalne cytokiny mediowane przez TLR2. TLR2 jest skutecznym celem interwencji terapeutycznej w celu zablokowania odpowiedzi zapalnych podczas inwazji P. acnes1.
  • Leki modulujące szlak PI3K/Akt/mTORC1 – chociaż te środki przeciwtrądzikowe mają różne efekty farmakologiczne przeciwko różnym czynniom patogenezy trądziku, wszystkie z nich mają synergistyczny mechanizm działania, tłumienie sygnalizacji Akt/mTORC1 i wzmocnienie transdukcji sygnału p532.
  • Naturalny związek Emodin – skutecznie hamuje proliferację, indukuje zatrzymanie cyklu komórkowego i apoptozę sebocytów SZ95 w sposób zależny od dawki. Emodin hamuje aktywację szlaku sygnalizacyjnego PI3K/Akt/FoxO1 indukowanego przez IGF-1, co wykazało specyficzny efekt hamujący emodinu na transdukcję PI3K3.
  • Fukoksantyna – wykazuje znaczące działanie przeciwzapalne poprzez regulację szlaku sygnalizacyjnego IκBα/NF-κB i hamowanie translokacji jądrowej NF-κB, oferując nowy kierunek badań nad leczeniem trądziku4.

1234

Badania nad modyfikacją aktywności makrofagów w trądziku są obiecujące. Kompleksowe zrozumienie patogenezy trądziku pospolitego nie zostało jeszcze w pełni osiągnięte. Niemniej jednak liczne badania empiryczne podkreśliły zdolność istniejących strategii terapeutycznych do łagodzenia trądziku poprzez modulowanie funkcjonalności makrofagów1.

Kolejne rozdziały

Zapraszamy do dalszego czytania naszego leksykonu.

Wybierz kolejny rozdział z menu poniżej, aby otworzyć nową podstronę kompedium wiedzy i uzyskać szczegółowe informację o leku, substancji lub chorobie.

  1. 15.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Acne Vulgaris: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1069804-overview
    Acne vulgaris is a common chronic skin disease involving blockage and/or inflammation of pilosebaceous units (hair follicles and their accompanying sebaceous gland). Acne develops from the following four factors: (1) follicular epidermal hyperproliferation with subsequent plugging of the follicle, (2) excess sebum production, (3) the presence and activity of the commensal bacteria Cutibacterium acnes (formerly Propionibacterium acnes), and (4) inflammation. […] The pathogenesis of acne vulgaris is multifactorial. The key factor is genetics. Acne develops as a result of an interplay of the following four factors: Release of inflammatory mediators into the skin, Follicular hyperkeratinization with subsequent plugging of the follicle, Cutibacterium acnes (formerly Propionibacterium acnes) follicular colonization, Excess sebum production.
  • #1 4 Factors of Acne Pathogenesis
    https://www.ajmc.com/view/4-factors-of-acne-pathogenesis
    Acne has a complex pathophysiology that involves many factors. […] He talked about the 4 classic causes: too much oil production, hair follicles that get clogged, bacteria, and inflammation. […] Those causes go along well with how we treat acne. The treatments we use attack 1 or more of those 4 causes. […] One twin study found 80% of acne is genetic. […] Roughly 50 genetic loci have been associated with acne. […] The androgens have to be very close and central to acne. […] One is when you get acne. You get acne when the hormones go wild, and that creates increased sebum production. Sebum is a prerequisite for acne. […] The androgens might not just affect the amount of sebum produced, the oil thats produced in those facial oil glands, but it can also affect the differentiation of the hair follicle that may contribute to acne. […] We know if you give androgen blockers to patients with acne, you can make acne better, which proves that acne is, at least part, an androgen-driven process.
  • #1 Acne: Pathogenesis Revisited – Maui Derm
    https://mauiderm.com/acne-pathogenesis-revisited/
    For decades the pathogenesis of acne has centered on the formation of the microcomedones as the initiating event followed by an inflammatory cascade. […] Data coming out of the lab of Sewon Kang has taken a close look at the issue of what initiates the acne process. […] It was found that in acne patients there appeared a population of inflammatory cells with an absence of neutrophils in the majority of the locations that were evaluated. This inflammation appeared before the development of hyperkeratinization and microcomedone formation indicating that the microcomedone might not be the initiating lesion. […] Dr. Kangs group tracked the development of acne lesions and they found that about three out of ten of the lesions developed into an inflammatory lesion without a visible comedonal lesion.
  • #1
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00403-019-01908-x
    Acne vulgaris is a cutaneous chronic inflammatory disorder with complex pathogenesis. Four factors play vital roles in acne pathophysiology: hyperseborrhea and dysseborrhea, altered keratinization of the pilosebaceous duct, Cutibacterium acnes (C. acnes) and inflammation. […] The main hormones responsible for the development of acne vulgaris include androgens, insulin and insulin-like growth factor-1. Other factors involved in this process are corticotropin-releasing hormone, -melanocyte-stimulating hormone and substance P. Wnt/-catenin signaling pathway, phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathway, mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway, adenosine 5-monophosphate-activated protein kinase pathway and nuclear factor kappa B pathway participate in the modulation of sebocyte, keratinocyte and inflammatory cell (e.g. lymphocytes, monocytes, macrophages, neutrophils) activity. Among all the triggers and pathways mentioned above, IGF-1-induced PI3K/Akt/Forkhead box protein O1/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) C1 pathway is the most important signaling responsible for acne pathogenesis. […] Although these anti-acne agents have various pharmacological effects against the diverse pathogenesis of acne, all of them have a synergistic mode of action, the attenuation of Akt/mTORC1 signaling and enhancement of p53 signal transduction.
  • #1 Pathogenesis – GPnotebook
    https://gpnotebook.com/pages/dermatology/acne-vulgaris/pathogenesis
    Acne severity is directly related to the secretion of sebum – a higher rate causes more irritation of the duct and subsequently, increased keratin production. […] Release of pilosebaceous contents into the surrounding dermis triggers the inflammatory response. […] This may be further aggravated by the release of exo-enzymes from the anaerobic bacterium, Propionobacterium acnes, commonly found in large quantities in the sebaceous glands of susceptible patients. […] Four pathophysiological processes occur to produce acne: androgen driven increase in sebum production, blockage of the sebaceous follicle by keratin and sebum, colonisation of the follicle with Propionibacterium acnes, inflammation. […] Increased androgen production causes abnormal epithelial desquamation and follicular obstruction leading to formation of the micro-comedone, the precursor lesion in acne, invisible to the naked eye.
  • #1 Acne Vulgaris: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1069804-overview
    Activation of the toll-like receptor 2 then leads to the production of multiple proinflammatory cytokines, including interleukins 12 and 8 and tumor necrosis factor. Hypersensitivity to C acnes (formerly P acnes) may also explain why some individuals develop inflammatory acne vulgaris while others do not. […] Excess sebum is another key factor in the development of acne vulgaris. Sebum production and excretion are regulated by a number of different hormones and mediators. In particular, androgen hormones promote sebum production and release. […] The degree of comedonal acne in prepubertal girls correlates with circulating levels of the adrenal androgen dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS). […] Numerous other mediators and receptors, including growth hormone and insulinlike growth factor, as well as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors also regulate the sebaceous gland and may contribute to the development of acne. […] Furthermore, the sebaceous gland acts a neuroendocrine-inflammatory organ that is activated via corticotrophin-releasing hormones in response to stress and normal functions.
  • #1 Acne – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acne
    Acne vulgaris is a chronic skin disease of the pilosebaceous unit and develops due to blockages in the skin’s hair follicles. […] The blockages in the skin’s hair follicles that cause acne vulgaris manifestations occur as a result of the following four abnormal processes: increased oily sebum production (influenced by androgens), excessive deposition of the protein keratin leading to comedo formation, colonization of the follicle by Cutibacterium acnes (C. acnes) bacteria, and the local release of pro-inflammatory chemicals in the skin. […] The main hormonal driver of oily sebum production in the skin is dihydrotestosterone. […] C. acnes triggers skin inflammation in acne by increasing the production of several pro-inflammatory chemical signals (such as IL-1, IL-8, TNF-, and LTB4); IL-1 is essential to comedo formation.
  • #1 Acne Transcriptomics: Fundamentals of Acne Pathogenesis and Isotretinoin Treatment
    https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4409/12/22/2600
    Various growth factors induce the pathogenesis of acne. Their input signals converge in the activation of the kinase AKT (protein kinase B), which modifies the activity and expression of important transcription factors promoting the disease. […] After the binding of IGF-1 to its receptor, phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) is activated, resulting in the activation of the kinase AKT (also known as protein kinase B), a key checkpoint of growth network regulation. […] Thus, increased IGF-1 signaling via the AKT-mediated suppression of FoxO1 enhances the transcriptional activity of AR, SREBF1, PPARγ and STAT3, crucial transcription factors which promote sebaceous lipogenesis. […] The AKT-mediated phosphorylation of the p53-binding protein MDM2 promotes the degradation of p53. In contrast, isotretinoin enhances the expression of p53, FoxO1 and FoxO3 in the sebaceous glands of acne patients.
  • #1 Genome-wide meta-analysis identifies novel loci conferring risk of acne vulgaris | European Journal of Human Genetics
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41431-023-01326-8
    Concordant with current knowledge of the pathogenesis of acne, genetic studies have outlined biological pathways with overlapping functions, such as stem cell homeostasis, tissue remodeling, cell adhesion, and androgen metabolism. […] Genome-wide association studies (GWASs) have led to the identification of 46 susceptibility loci in European populations, highlighting genes with established roles in the determination of hair follicle development, morphology, and activity and underscoring the importance of TGF-mediated signaling pathways. […] In recent years acne has been reframed as a disorder of SG progenitor differentiation and migration. […] SG development is coupled to HF morphogenesis, which relies on an extensive epithelial-mesenchymal crosstalk, involving Wnt, EDAR, Bmp, Hedgehog and FGF signaling pathways.
  • #1 Fucoxanthin ameliorates Propionibacterium acnes-induced ear inflammation in mice by modulating the IκBα/NF-κB signaling pathway and inhibiting NF-κB nuclear translocation | PLOS One
    https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0322950
    The NF-B signaling pathway plays a crucial role in the inflammatory process by regulating the release of inflammatory mediators, and fucoxanthin, as a natural compound, is believed to have potential anti-inflammatory effects. […] Fucoxanthin, as a natural compound, is believed to intervene in the IB/NF-B signaling pathway. […] The research findings suggest that fucoxanthin inhibits the nuclear translocation of NF-B, preventing NF-B from entering the nucleus, thereby inhibiting the excessive release of inflammatory mediators and alleviating the severity of the inflammatory response. […] Fucoxanthin exhibits significant anti-inflammatory effects by regulating the IB/NF-B signaling pathway and inhibiting NF-B nuclear translocation, offering a new research direction for the treatment of acne.
  • #1 Acne Vulgaris: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1069804-overview
    Research has shown that inflammatory responses actually occur before hyperkeratinization. Cytokines produced by CD4+ T cells and macrophages activate local endothelial cells to up-regulate inflammatory mediators such as vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), and human leukocyte antigen (HLA)DR in the vessels around the pilosebaceous follicle. […] Follicular hyperkeratinization involves increased keratinocyte proliferation and decreased desquamation, leading to sebum- and keratin-filled microcomedones. […] C acnes (formerly P acnes) is an anaerobic organism present in acne lesions. The presence of C acnes (formerly P acnes) promotes inflammation through a variety of mechanisms. C acnes (formerly P acnes) stimulates inflammation by producing proinflammatory mediators that diffuse through the follicle wall. Studies have shown that C acnes (formerly P acnes) activates the toll-like receptor 2 on monocytes and neutrophils.
  • #1 The Role of Inflammation in the Pathology of Acne | JCAD – The Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology
    https://jcadonline.com/the-role-of-inflammation-in-the-pathology-of-acne/
    Thus, it appears that P. acnes is not required for the development of inflammation in acne lesions, regardless of the lesion type. […] Cytokines and inflammation in the pilosebaceous unit. IL-1 plays a central role in regulation of inflammatory and immune responses in general, and several studies have implicated a role for this cytokine in the pathogenesis of acne vulgaris. […] There is also evidence that IL-1 expression and secretion is dramatically increased during the early stages of acne lesion development. […] Collectively, these data strongly suggest that inflammatory mediators are both present and capable of promoting comedogenesis within the pilosebaceous unit. […] Given the findings regarding chronic inflammation in acne, combining a retinoid with an anti-inflammatory that has a nonoverlapping mechanism of action may provide an incremental gain in efficacy.
  • #1 Efficacy of FRO on Acne Vulgaris Pathogenesis
    https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4923/15/7/1885
    Cutibacterium acnes (CA) is a human skin commensal microorganism. The CA IA1 phylotype is overabundant in the inflammatory lesions of acne patients compared to those of healthy subjects. CA (phylotype IA1) contributes to the inflammatory process by producing a variety of chemical factors that induce neutrophil chemotaxis and trigger the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. […] C. acnes initiates the inflammatory process of acne pathogenesis by triggering the production of ROS and inflammatory cytokines via Toll-like receptor 2, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor, the mTOR pathway, and the innate immune system. […] The molecular mechanisms underlying oxidative stress and inflammation-induced cell injury in acne have been previously investigated. TLR-mediated NF-κB and STAT signaling have been determined to be key acne mechanisms.
  • #1 Taking a More Holistic View of the Pathogenesis of Acne 
    https://practicaldermatology.com/topics/acne-rosacea/taking-more-holistic-view-pathogenesis-acne/26539/
    Stress is known to be correlated with acne flares and is now considered to be a systemic driver of acne. […] Diet is now recognized as an important contributing factor to acne. […] The role of the microbiome in the pathogenesis of acne continues to evolve. It is now understood that acne is not caused by an over proliferation of C. acnes per se, but instead results from dysbiosis caused by loss of diversity in C. acnes phylotypes. […] Finally, the compounding effects of these systemic drivers of acne leads to an aberrant or exaggerated immune response, that contributes to acne.
  • #1 Acne – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acne
    C. acnes’ ability to bind and activate a class of immune system receptors known as toll-like receptors (TLRs), especially TLR2 and TLR4, is a core mechanism of acne-related skin inflammation. […] This inflammatory cascade typically leads to the formation of inflammatory acne lesions, including papules, infected pustules, or nodules. […] The involvement of AP-1 in the aforementioned inflammatory cascade activates matrix metalloproteinases, which contribute to local tissue destruction and scar formation. […] Along with the bacteria C. acnes, the bacterial species Staphylococcus epidermidis (S. epidermidis) also takes a part in the physiopathology of acne vulgaris.
  • #1 The Role of Inflammation in the Pathology of Acne | JCAD – The Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology
    https://jcadonline.com/the-role-of-inflammation-in-the-pathology-of-acne/
    Emerging data indicate that acne vulgaris is a primary inflammatory disease, with histological, immunological, and clinical evidence suggesting that inflammation occurs at all stages of acne lesion development. […] Thus, because inflammation is critical to all types of acne lesions and is multifactorial, anti-inflammatory drugs can be expected to exert effects against all lesion stages, albeit via distinct mechanisms of anti-inflammation.
  • #1 Toll-like receptor 2 plays a critical role in pathogenesis of acne vulgaris | Biomedical Dermatology | Full Text
    https://biomeddermatol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s41702-019-0042-2
    Acne vulgaris is a common inflammatory skin disease, affecting adolescents across the globe. Recent evidences underline that Propionibacterium acnes (P. acnes) promotes acne through Toll-like receptor (TLR) activation. Especially, Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) has emerged as one of the major classes of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that are recognizing P. acnes in the epidermis and responsible for inflammation. […] Although P. acnes has been known to be one of the major causes of acne vulgaris, an appropriate drug to alleviate acne pathogenesis is poorly developed. This review focuses on the molecular structure of TLR2 as well as mechanism how TLR2 recognize P. acnes to induce inflammatory cytokines, which is related to acne vulgaris pathogenesis. […] The mechanism of inducing acne vulgaris remains unclear; however, recent studies revealed that Propionibacterium acnes (P. acnes) implicated in the inflammatory acne.
  • #1 Editor’s Pick: The Role of Toll-Like Receptors and Antimicrobial Peptides in the Pathogenesis of Acne Vulgaris – European Medical Journal
    https://www.emjreviews.com/dermatology/article/editors-pick-the-role-of-toll-like-receptors-and-antimicrobial-peptides-in-the-pathogenesis-of-acne-vulgaris/
    Chemokine and cytokine synthesis in human monocytes is induced by P. acnes-mediated TLR2 activation. […] The regulation of the synthesis of innate and specific AMPs is known to be impaired in AV patients. […] The roles of AMPs, particularly those including hBD and cathelicidin subgroups, have been extensively investigated in AV pathogenesis. […] In conclusion, the discovery of TLRs and AMPs introduced a new perspective to the investigations of the innate immune system. However, there is still a lot to elucidate about the biology of TLRs and AMPs. TLRs and AMPs play crucial roles in AV pathogenesis and extensive studies on this matter will increase the understanding of AV pathogenesis.
  • #1 Researchers Identify Key Mechanisms in the Pathophysiology of Acne
    https://www.genengnews.com/topics/translational-medicine/researchers-identify-key-mechanisms-in-the-pathophysiology-of-acne/
    The first step of reactive adipogenesis is the release of antimicrobial peptides, also known as host defense peptides. This inflammatory immune response in acne is driven by an exposure to bacterial products, which explains the inflammatory presentation of acne in humans. […] The research showed that following the activation of TLR2, an induction of increased lipid synthesis and cathelicidin occurs. […] Importantly, this study reinforces the effectiveness of retinoids as a therapy in acne prevention and treatment. Retinoids induce cathelicidin and decrease lipid synthesis in the dermal preadipocyte—so the inhibition of reactive adipogenesis in dermal fibroblasts will hinder the development of acne in humans. […] This deeper understanding of the pathophysiology of acne may allow for the development of new therapies.
  • #1 A Roadmap for Clear Skin: Pathways to Put Acne in the Rearview Mirror – European Medical Journal
    https://www.emjreviews.com/dermatology/symposium/a-roadmap-for-clear-skin-pathways-to-put-acne-in-the-rearview-mirror-s240125/
    Yet, as Del Rosso explained, the pivotal role that androgen hormones play in acne pathogenesis has previously been overlooked. […] We now know that the skin itself is an endocrine organ, capable of producing androgens, and that these hormones are implicated early on in the clinical cascade of acne pathogenesis. […] Notably, androgens stimulate sebum production by sebocytes within sebaceous glands in the skin, which creates a highly favorable microenvironment for growth of C. acnes bacteria within the pilosebaceous follicle. […] If there are no androgens, there’s no sebum, and if there’s no sebum, there’s no acne; and that’s practically universally true, Del Rosso remarked. […] Androgens also stimulate cytokines and other inflammatory pathways, leading to downstream effects that further promote lesion development.
  • #1 Acne and diet: a review of pathogenic mechanisms
    http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1665-11462022000200083
    High GI and GL induce hyperinsulinemia, thus stimulating increased concentrations of IGF-1 and androgens, which can also activate the mTORC-1 receptor and SREBP, resulting in the amplification of pathways of acne pathogenesis. […] The Western diet is characterized by high GI foods, refined grains, red meat, milk and dairy products, egg protein, and saturated fats. This type of diet increases GL, insulin production, IGF-1, and leucine levels; in turn, upregulation of these factors decreases FOX O1 activity, thus losing the ability to inhibit androgen receptors and mTORC-1 activity. […] Hypotheses on the influence of diet on acne pathogenesis are supported by observing low incidence of acne in cultures with paleolithic diets composed of minimally processed foods, vegetables, low amounts of carbohydrates, and no dairy or its derivatives.
  • #1 What is the pathogenesis of acne? – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15679586/
    For a long time, the mantra of acne pathogenesis debates has been that acne vulgaris lesions develop when (supposedly largely androgen-mediated) increased sebum production, ductal hypercornification, and propionibacteria come together with local inflammatory process in the unlucky affected individual. […] However, exciting recent progress in this–conceptually long somewhat stagnant, yet clinically, psychologically, and socioeconomically highly relevant–everyday battlefield of skin pathology encourages one to critically revisit conventional concepts of acne pathogenesis. […] Also, this provides a good opportunity for defining more sharply key open questions and intriguing acne characteristics whose underlying biological basis has far too long remained uninvestigated, and to emphasize promising new acne research avenues off-the-beaten-track–in the hope of promoting the corresponding development of innovative strategies for acne management.
  • #1 Acne Transcriptomics: Fundamentals of Acne Pathogenesis and Isotretinoin Treatment
    https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4409/12/22/2600
    This review on acne transcriptomics allows for deeper insights into the pathogenesis of acne and isotretinoin’s mode of action. […] Acne vulgaris is a very common chronic, inflammatory skin disorder with a complex pathogenesis. Four factors play vital roles in the pathophysiology of acne: hyperseborrhea and dysseborrhea, the altered keratinization of the pilosebaceous duct (comedogenesis), effects mediated by Cutibacterium acnes (C. acnes) and Th17-cell-driven inflammation. […] Isotretinoin is the most efficient anti-acne drug, improving all major factors of the pathogenesis of acne. […] This review focuses on three key transcription factors, p53, FoxO1 and FoxO3, whose suppression plays an important role in the pathogenesis of acne, whereas their upregulation via isotretinoin explains isotretinoin’s beneficial and adverse effects in the treatment of acne.
  • #1 Acne Transcriptomics: Fundamentals of Acne Pathogenesis and Isotretinoin Treatment
    https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4409/12/22/2600
    The overexpression of these proapoptotic transcription factors explains isotretinoin’s desirable sebum-suppressive effect via the induction of sebocyte apoptosis and the depletion of BLIMP1(+) sebocyte progenitor cells; it also explains its adverse effects, including teratogenicity (neural crest cell apoptosis), a reduced ovarian reserve (granulosa cell apoptosis), the risk of depression (the apoptosis of hypothalamic neurons), VLDL hyperlipidemia, intracranial hypertension and dry skin.
  • #1 Researchers Identify Key Mechanisms in the Pathophysiology of Acne
    https://www.genengnews.com/topics/translational-medicine/researchers-identify-key-mechanisms-in-the-pathophysiology-of-acne/
    A new study conducted by researchers in the department of dermatology at the University of California, San Diego has found previously unknown components in the pathogenesis of acne. The team discovered that “reactive adipogenesis in perifollicular dermal fibroblasts actively contributes to the pathophysiology of acne. This observation offers mechanistic insight into this common disease.” […] The researchers believed that dermal fibroblasts in humans would display a response consistent with reactive adipogenesis (the formation of fat cells) which was modeled in human and mouse skin lesions with Cutabacterium acnes (C. acnes) development, which was then was modified by retinoid treatment. The results showed that dermal perifollicular fibroblasts, through their adipogenesis reaction, have a previously unknown role in the pathogenesis of acne.
  • #1 Vitamin B12 study hints at a molecular mechanism for acne pathogenesis – The Pharmaceutical Journal
    https://pharmaceutical-journal.com/article/news/vitamin-b12-study-hints-at-a-molecular-mechanism-for-acne-pathogenesis
    Study gives a molecular explanation for the link between vitamin B12 and acne. […] Taking vitamin B12 supplements affects the genes expressed by bacteria living on our skin, report researchers at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) in Science Translational Medicine on 24 June 2015. […] The pattern of gene expression — the transcriptome — was altered in ten out of ten healthy subjects studied, and triggered the development of acne in one subject. […] Acne was used as a disease model in order to look at the molecular response of the skin microbiota to host metabolite signalling in disease pathogenesis. […] By comparing the gene expression profiles of the skin microbiota in acne patients with the profiles from healthy individuals, the vitamin B12 biosynthesis pathway in the skin bacterium Propionibacterium acnes turned out to be significantly down-regulated in acne patients.
  • #1 Vitamin B12 study hints at a molecular mechanism for acne pathogenesis – The Pharmaceutical Journal
    https://pharmaceutical-journal.com/article/news/vitamin-b12-study-hints-at-a-molecular-mechanism-for-acne-pathogenesis
    Li’s team also grew P. acnes cultures and found that vitamin B12 supplementation promoted the production of porphyrins, which have been shown to induce inflammation in acne. […] The findings suggest a new bacterial pathogenesis pathway in acne and provide one molecular explanation for a long-standing clinical observation that vitamin B12 supplementation leads to acne development in a subset of individuals. […] Understanding these changes will help us further investigate the molecular mechanism of acne pathogenesis and identify potential new drug targets for acne treatment, Li says.
  • #1 Taking a More Holistic View of the Pathogenesis of Acne 
    https://practicaldermatology.com/topics/acne-rosacea/taking-more-holistic-view-pathogenesis-acne/26539/
    Although the full pathophysiology is still evolving, the development of acne is conventionally viewed as the result of four pathogenic factors that occur locally at the pilosebaceous unit (PSU): follicular hyperkeratinization, excess sebum production, Cutibacterium acnes (C. acnes) colonization, and a local immune response. Current therapeutics, therefore, have targeted these mechanisms. […] Although these are the established mechanisms for the development of acne, more recent studies have demonstrated there are other factors that drive or exacerbate acne in our patients. These factors are now being discussed as part of a broader picture as they influence the pathogenesis of acne by affecting the whole patient and not just the microenvironment of the PSU. […] Almost all acne has an underlying hormonal component, with a consensus that androgens are the main player. The onset of acne is linked to an increase in the production of androgens that occurs in both sexes at puberty.
  • #1 Exploring Stress-Induced Mechanisms in Acne Pathogenesis | Scilit
    https://www.scilit.com/publications/ebe48e268bf25e9d81278c0d59b35f47
    Acne vulgaris affects millions worldwide, with psychological stress emerging as a significant contributor to its development. […] Stress influences acne via hormonal fluctuations, inflammation, immune modulation, altered skin barrier function, and lifestyle changes. […] Our investigation revealed multiple key mechanisms through which stress impacts acne development and exacerbation. Hormonal fluctuations, including increases in cortisol and androgens, stimulate sebaceous gland activity, leading to excess sebum production. […] Inflammation, triggered by stress-induced cytokine release, exacerbates acne lesions. […] Stress also impairs skin barrier function, alters immune responses, and influences lifestyle factors such as diet, sleep, and skincare habits, all of which contribute to acne severity.
  • #1 Exploring Stress-Induced Mechanisms in Acne Pathogenesis | Scilit
    https://www.scilit.com/publications/ebe48e268bf25e9d81278c0d59b35f47
    Additionally, neuropeptides, oxidative stress, insulin resistance, altered skin pH, vascular changes, and changes in the skin microbiome play significant roles in stress-induced acne pathogenesis. […] Our investigation reveals stress’s varied impact on acne through hormonal fluctuations, inflammation, barrier function impairment, immune modulation, behavioral factors, psychological distress, neuropeptides, oxidative stress, insulin resistance, altered skin pH, vascular changes, lifestyle habits, and skin microbiome alterations. […] Understanding stress-acne interplay emphasizes the importance of comprehensive approaches to improve acne outcomes, recognizing the bidirectional relationship between physiological and psychological factors in acne pathogenesis and exacerbation.
  • #1 How to Get Rid of Acne: 14 Home Remedies for Pimples
    https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/13-acne-remedies
    Exfoliation is the process of removing the top layer of dead skin cells. It may improve acne by removing the skin cells that clog pores. […] Eating high GI foods causes a spike in insulin, which likely increases sebum production. As a result, high GI foods may directly affect the development and severity of acne. […] A 2019 study with people ages 10 to 24 found that drinking whole milk three or more days each week was linked to moderate or severe acne. […] According to 2017 research, the hormones released during periods of stress may increase sebum production and inflammation, making acne worse. […] A 2018 study noted that exercise can decrease stress and anxiety, both of which can contribute to the development of acne. […] According to a 2021 publication, a strain of brewers yeast called Hansen CBS may help decrease acne when taken orally. […] The relationship between milk and acne needs further study. […] The link between stress and acne is not fully understood.
  • #1 A Roadmap for Clear Skin: Pathways to Put Acne in the Rearview Mirror – European Medical Journal
    https://www.emjreviews.com/dermatology/symposium/a-roadmap-for-clear-skin-pathways-to-put-acne-in-the-rearview-mirror-s240125/
    The skin has, therefore, emerged as a primary target for androgen inhibition and sebum modulation in acne management. […] Clascoterone 1% cream is a novel topical androgen receptor inhibitor approved for the treatment of acne vulgaris in patients 12 years of age and older. […] It directly targets and inhibits androgens in the skin by competing with androgens, primarily dihydrotestosterone (DHT), for binding to the androgen receptor within the cytoplasm of sebocytes, thereby inhibiting sebum production and reducing inflammatory cytokines. […] Combining treatments with different mechanisms can help to address the four major pillars of acne pathogenesis, and the introduction of clascoterone means we can now also target and inhibit androgens in the skin with topical therapy, Del Rosso remarked. […] Comprehensive topical therapy, which is able to address the four major pathophysiologic pillars of acne, is now available, and optimal selection of therapy may also be correlated with acne lesion types.
  • #1 There Are ‘Four Pillars of Acne Pathogenesis’: Make Sure Treatment Hits as Many as Possible | MDedge
    https://community.the-hospitalist.org/content/there-are-four-pillars-acne-pathogenesis-make-sure-treatment-hits-many-possible
    In her wide-ranging presentation, Miranti described the four pillars of acne pathogenesis as increased sebum production caused by androgens, follicular hyperkeratinization in the pilosebaceous unit, colonization by Cutibacterium acnes (formerly Proprionibacterium acnes), and inflammation. […] Acne starts with androgens, but this is a cascade, so you have to find treatment options that hit as many of these four pillars as possible, Miranti explained. […] The only medication that hits all four pillars is isotretinoin. […] Regardless of which treatment is chosen for any pillar, Miranti emphasized that monotherapy with a single agent is often insufficient. […] Historically, we have combined therapies to treat the multiple causes of acne, she said.
  • #1 Toll-like receptor 2 plays a critical role in pathogenesis of acne vulgaris | Biomedical Dermatology | Full Text
    https://biomeddermatol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s41702-019-0042-2
    TLR2 plays a crucial role in P. acnes recognition and initiation of inflammatory response. Excessive P. acnes can result in promoting inflammation and tissue destruction by TLR2-mediated proinflammatory cytokines. TLR2 is an effective target for therapeutic intervention to block inflammatory responses in P. acnes invasion. Therefore, targeting with TLR2 will provide new insights into novel therapeutic targets of acne vulgaris.
  • #1 Frontiers | Macrophages in acne vulgaris: mediating phagocytosis, inflammation, scar formation, and therapeutic implications
    https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/immunology/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2024.1355455/full
    C. acnes plays a cardinal role in inciting the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, largely by the direct activation of Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRR) in macrophages, occurring primarily through Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMP). […] The genesis of scarring is multifaceted, implicating not only the intensity and duration of inflammation but also the intricate interplay of cytokines secreted by diverse macrophage subtypes, orchestrating dermal fibroblasts’ activity. […] Macrophage polarization may further play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of acne scarring. Under normal conditions, M1 macrophages predominantly clear pathogens and debris during wound healing’s initial phase. As healing advances to the proliferative phase, a critical shift to M2 macrophages occurs, promoting tissue regeneration and reducing inflammation. […] The comprehensive understanding of the pathogenesis of acne vulgaris is yet to be fully attained. Nonetheless, numerous empirical studies have highlighted the ability of existing therapeutic strategies to alleviate acne by modulating macrophage functionality.
  • #2 Acne Vulgaris – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459173/
    Acne vulgaris is a chronic inflammatory disorder affecting the pilosebaceous unit, typically following a prolonged course. […] The pathogenesis of acne vulgaris involves the interaction of multiple factors that ultimately lead to the formation of its primary lesion, which is known as „comedo.” […] Acne develops as a result of hypersensitivity of the sebaceous glands to normal levels of circulating androgens. This process is further exacerbated by the presence of Cutibacterium acnes, a bacterial species, and subsequent inflammation. […] The pathogenesis of acne vulgaris involves the interaction of several host factors, including the stimulation of sebaceous glands by circulating androgens, dysbiosis of the pilosebaceous follicle microbiome, and cellular immune responses. […] The microcomedo serves as the primary lesion and is the precursor for all clinical manifestations of acne vulgaris.
  • #2 4 Factors of Acne Pathogenesis
    https://www.ajmc.com/view/4-factors-of-acne-pathogenesis
    Acne has a complex pathophysiology that involves many factors. […] He talked about the 4 classic causes: too much oil production, hair follicles that get clogged, bacteria, and inflammation. […] Those causes go along well with how we treat acne. The treatments we use attack 1 or more of those 4 causes. […] One twin study found 80% of acne is genetic. […] Roughly 50 genetic loci have been associated with acne. […] The androgens have to be very close and central to acne. […] One is when you get acne. You get acne when the hormones go wild, and that creates increased sebum production. Sebum is a prerequisite for acne. […] The androgens might not just affect the amount of sebum produced, the oil thats produced in those facial oil glands, but it can also affect the differentiation of the hair follicle that may contribute to acne. […] We know if you give androgen blockers to patients with acne, you can make acne better, which proves that acne is, at least part, an androgen-driven process.
  • #2 The Role of Inflammation in the Pathology of Acne | JCAD – The Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology
    https://jcadonline.com/the-role-of-inflammation-in-the-pathology-of-acne/
    The conventional perspective of acne pathogenesis holds that Propionibacterium acnes colonizes the duct of the sebaceous follicle, causing an innate immune response and the progression from a so-called noninflammatory comedo to an inflammatory papule, pustule, or nodule. […] However, this viewpoint has come under increasing scrutiny over the last decade, as evidence has emerged supporting a role for inflammation at all stages of acne lesion development, perhaps subclinically even before comedo formation. […] The immunochemical pathways underlying the initiation and propagation of the inflammation in acne are complex and still being elucidated, but may involve Propionibacterium acnes as well as several inflammatory mediators and their target receptors, including cytokines, defensins, peptidases, sebum lipids, and neuropeptides.
  • #2 Acne: Evolving Concepts of Pathogenesis Need to Guide Therapeutic Developments – JDDonline – Journal of Drugs in Dermatology
    https://jddonline.com/articles/acne-evolving-concepts-of-pathogenesis-need-to-guide-therapeutic-developments-S1545961613S0066X/
    Dla dekad trądzik był i pozostaje jedną z najczęstszych chorób diagnozowanych i leczonych przez dermatologów. […] Pełne zrozumienie patogenezy trądziku pozostaje niepewne. […] W ciągu lat wskazywaliśmy na 4 podstawowe komponenty patogenezy trądziku: hiperkeratynizacja, nadprodukcja sebum, proliferacja bakterii i stan zapalny. […] Pojęcie, że hiperkeratynizacja prowadząca do powstawania mikrokomedonów jest inicjującym wydarzeniem w rozwoju trądziku, wydaje się, w najlepszym razie, dyskusyjne. […] Jej artykuł wskazuje również na splątanie wpływów hormonalnych i czynników dietetycznych z innymi czynnikami patogennymi. […] Inny ważny problem w obecnej dziedzinie terapii trądziku to oporność bakterii. […] Nowe koncepcje patogenezy wymagają innego podejścia, gdy opracowujemy nowe podmioty terapeutyczne. […] Badania nad rolą diety mogą również wspierać obecne terapie farmakologiczne. […] Ostatecznie, rozwój nowych cząsteczek terapeutycznych, wobec których P. acnes nie może lub nie będzie rozwijać oporności, będzie niezwykle ważny.
  • #2 Pathogenesis – GPnotebook
    https://gpnotebook.com/pages/dermatology/acne-vulgaris/pathogenesis
    Sebum promotes bacterial growth, leading to proliferation of P acnes. […] Propionobacterium acnes, commonly found in large quantities in the sebaceous glands of susceptible patients, releases chemicals that promote inflammation, propagated by traumatic rupture of comedones into the surrounding dermis. […] Inflammation presents in the form of papules, pustules, nodules and cysts. […] Acne severity is directly related to the secretion of sebum – a higher rate causes more irritation of the duct and subsequently, increased keratin production.
  • #2 A Roadmap for Clear Skin: Pathways to Put Acne in the Rearview Mirror – European Medical Journal
    https://www.emjreviews.com/dermatology/symposium/a-roadmap-for-clear-skin-pathways-to-put-acne-in-the-rearview-mirror-s240125/
    Yet, as Del Rosso explained, the pivotal role that androgen hormones play in acne pathogenesis has previously been overlooked. […] We now know that the skin itself is an endocrine organ, capable of producing androgens, and that these hormones are implicated early on in the clinical cascade of acne pathogenesis. […] Notably, androgens stimulate sebum production by sebocytes within sebaceous glands in the skin, which creates a highly favorable microenvironment for growth of C. acnes bacteria within the pilosebaceous follicle. […] If there are no androgens, there’s no sebum, and if there’s no sebum, there’s no acne; and that’s practically universally true, Del Rosso remarked. […] Androgens also stimulate cytokines and other inflammatory pathways, leading to downstream effects that further promote lesion development.
  • #2
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00403-019-01908-x
    Acne vulgaris is a cutaneous chronic inflammatory disorder with complex pathogenesis. Four factors play vital roles in acne pathophysiology: hyperseborrhea and dysseborrhea, altered keratinization of the pilosebaceous duct, Cutibacterium acnes (C. acnes) and inflammation. […] The main hormones responsible for the development of acne vulgaris include androgens, insulin and insulin-like growth factor-1. Other factors involved in this process are corticotropin-releasing hormone, -melanocyte-stimulating hormone and substance P. Wnt/-catenin signaling pathway, phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathway, mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway, adenosine 5-monophosphate-activated protein kinase pathway and nuclear factor kappa B pathway participate in the modulation of sebocyte, keratinocyte and inflammatory cell (e.g. lymphocytes, monocytes, macrophages, neutrophils) activity. Among all the triggers and pathways mentioned above, IGF-1-induced PI3K/Akt/Forkhead box protein O1/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) C1 pathway is the most important signaling responsible for acne pathogenesis. […] Although these anti-acne agents have various pharmacological effects against the diverse pathogenesis of acne, all of them have a synergistic mode of action, the attenuation of Akt/mTORC1 signaling and enhancement of p53 signal transduction.
  • #2 Genome-wide meta-analysis identifies novel loci conferring risk of acne vulgaris | European Journal of Human Genetics
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41431-023-01326-8
    Activation of Wnt signaling in JZ LRIG1+cells results in expansion of the upper HF and downregulation of Wnt signaling promotes keratin 15-expressing bulge cells to migrate and differentiate into sebocytes. […] Thus, comedones are most likely formed by abnormal differentiation of infundibular keratinocytes, which may become hyperproliferative. […] Three novel acne associated genes are also involved in the Wnt signaling pathway: ZNRF3 and KREMEN1 from 22q12.1 and LGR5 from 12q21.1. […] ZNRF3 and ring finger protein 43 (RNF43) are negative regulators of Wnt/-catenin signaling cascade, mediating the ubiquitination, endocytosis, and subsequent degradation of frizzled (FZD) Wnt receptor complex components, resulting in the inhibition of canonical and non-canonical Wnt/catenin signaling pathways.
  • #2 Acne Transcriptomics: Fundamentals of Acne Pathogenesis and Isotretinoin Treatment
    https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4409/12/22/2600
    Various growth factors induce the pathogenesis of acne. Their input signals converge in the activation of the kinase AKT (protein kinase B), which modifies the activity and expression of important transcription factors promoting the disease. […] After the binding of IGF-1 to its receptor, phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) is activated, resulting in the activation of the kinase AKT (also known as protein kinase B), a key checkpoint of growth network regulation. […] Thus, increased IGF-1 signaling via the AKT-mediated suppression of FoxO1 enhances the transcriptional activity of AR, SREBF1, PPARγ and STAT3, crucial transcription factors which promote sebaceous lipogenesis. […] The AKT-mediated phosphorylation of the p53-binding protein MDM2 promotes the degradation of p53. In contrast, isotretinoin enhances the expression of p53, FoxO1 and FoxO3 in the sebaceous glands of acne patients.
  • #2 Acne – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acne
    Acne vulgaris is a chronic skin disease of the pilosebaceous unit and develops due to blockages in the skin’s hair follicles. […] The blockages in the skin’s hair follicles that cause acne vulgaris manifestations occur as a result of the following four abnormal processes: increased oily sebum production (influenced by androgens), excessive deposition of the protein keratin leading to comedo formation, colonization of the follicle by Cutibacterium acnes (C. acnes) bacteria, and the local release of pro-inflammatory chemicals in the skin. […] The main hormonal driver of oily sebum production in the skin is dihydrotestosterone. […] C. acnes triggers skin inflammation in acne by increasing the production of several pro-inflammatory chemical signals (such as IL-1, IL-8, TNF-, and LTB4); IL-1 is essential to comedo formation.
  • #2 The Role of Inflammation in the Pathology of Acne | JCAD – The Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology
    https://jcadonline.com/the-role-of-inflammation-in-the-pathology-of-acne/
    Thus, it appears that P. acnes is not required for the development of inflammation in acne lesions, regardless of the lesion type. […] Cytokines and inflammation in the pilosebaceous unit. IL-1 plays a central role in regulation of inflammatory and immune responses in general, and several studies have implicated a role for this cytokine in the pathogenesis of acne vulgaris. […] There is also evidence that IL-1 expression and secretion is dramatically increased during the early stages of acne lesion development. […] Collectively, these data strongly suggest that inflammatory mediators are both present and capable of promoting comedogenesis within the pilosebaceous unit. […] Given the findings regarding chronic inflammation in acne, combining a retinoid with an anti-inflammatory that has a nonoverlapping mechanism of action may provide an incremental gain in efficacy.
  • #2 Pathogenesis of Acne Vulgaris:What’s New, What’s Interesting and What May Be Clinically Relevant – JDDonline – Journal of Drugs in Dermatology
    https://jddonline.com/articles/pathogenesis-of-acne-vulgariswhats-new-whats-interesting-and-what-may-be-clinically-relevant-S1545961611P0582X
    Acne vulgaris is the most common skin disorder seen in dermatology and primary care offices today with significant associated morbidity. The pathogenesis of acne is complex and multifactorial, and there continues to be an influx of new information to increase our understanding of this chronic disease. Recent advances in acne pathogenesis will be discussed, including theories regarding the sequence of events in acne formation, the functions of P. acnes, TLR involvement and role of the sebaceous gland and factors influencing sebum production. […] The pathogenesis is multifactorial with four primary pathogenic factors including excess sebum production, Propionibacterium acnes (P. acnes) colonization, follicular hyperkeratinization and release of inflammatory mediators into the skin. […] P. acnes is a gram-positive commensal organism found in sebaceous follicles, but can also be an opportunistic pathogen as a major player in the development of acne vulgaris. P. acnes has long been implicated as one of the major contributing factors in the pathogenesis of acne.
  • #2 Acne Vulgaris: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1069804-overview
    Research has shown that inflammatory responses actually occur before hyperkeratinization. Cytokines produced by CD4+ T cells and macrophages activate local endothelial cells to up-regulate inflammatory mediators such as vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), and human leukocyte antigen (HLA)DR in the vessels around the pilosebaceous follicle. […] Follicular hyperkeratinization involves increased keratinocyte proliferation and decreased desquamation, leading to sebum- and keratin-filled microcomedones. […] C acnes (formerly P acnes) is an anaerobic organism present in acne lesions. The presence of C acnes (formerly P acnes) promotes inflammation through a variety of mechanisms. C acnes (formerly P acnes) stimulates inflammation by producing proinflammatory mediators that diffuse through the follicle wall. Studies have shown that C acnes (formerly P acnes) activates the toll-like receptor 2 on monocytes and neutrophils.
  • #2 Acne – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acne
    C. acnes’ ability to bind and activate a class of immune system receptors known as toll-like receptors (TLRs), especially TLR2 and TLR4, is a core mechanism of acne-related skin inflammation. […] This inflammatory cascade typically leads to the formation of inflammatory acne lesions, including papules, infected pustules, or nodules. […] The involvement of AP-1 in the aforementioned inflammatory cascade activates matrix metalloproteinases, which contribute to local tissue destruction and scar formation. […] Along with the bacteria C. acnes, the bacterial species Staphylococcus epidermidis (S. epidermidis) also takes a part in the physiopathology of acne vulgaris.
  • #2 Efficacy of FRO on Acne Vulgaris Pathogenesis
    https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4923/15/7/1885
    Cutibacterium acnes (CA) is a human skin commensal microorganism. The CA IA1 phylotype is overabundant in the inflammatory lesions of acne patients compared to those of healthy subjects. CA (phylotype IA1) contributes to the inflammatory process by producing a variety of chemical factors that induce neutrophil chemotaxis and trigger the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. […] C. acnes initiates the inflammatory process of acne pathogenesis by triggering the production of ROS and inflammatory cytokines via Toll-like receptor 2, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor, the mTOR pathway, and the innate immune system. […] The molecular mechanisms underlying oxidative stress and inflammation-induced cell injury in acne have been previously investigated. TLR-mediated NF-κB and STAT signaling have been determined to be key acne mechanisms.
  • #2 The Role of Inflammation in the Pathology of Acne | JCAD – The Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology
    https://jcadonline.com/the-role-of-inflammation-in-the-pathology-of-acne/
    These data support a model of acne pathogenesis in which the initiation of inflammatory events occurs early in the pathogenic process and before clinical detection of the acne lesion. […] That inflammation can occur in all stages of acne is now increasingly clear. […] The role of P. acnes in the etiology of inflammatory acne has been recognized for more than a century. […] Based on such evidence, P. acnes was identified as the causative agent of inflammation in acne, with inflammation accompanying P. acnes proliferation. […] P. acnes may trigger an innate immune reaction both in very early (microcomedogenic) and in late (inflammatory) acne lesions via the activation of TLR2. […] Although several early reports implicated P. acnes as the central causative factor in the development of inflammation in acne vulgaris, numerous observations are inconsistent with this notion.
  • #2 Editor’s Pick: The Role of Toll-Like Receptors and Antimicrobial Peptides in the Pathogenesis of Acne Vulgaris – European Medical Journal
    https://www.emjreviews.com/dermatology/article/editors-pick-the-role-of-toll-like-receptors-and-antimicrobial-peptides-in-the-pathogenesis-of-acne-vulgaris/
    Acne vulgaris (AV) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the pilosebaceous unit. AV has a multifactorial pathogenesis with specific roles played by the sebaceous glands, abnormal follicular hyperkeratinisation, inflammation, Propionibacterium acnes, hormonal factors, immune mediators, and genetic and environmental factors. […] It is well known that toll-like receptors and antimicrobial peptides play important roles in AV pathogenesis and further understanding of these will contribute to improvements in treatment. […] The studies investigating the roles of TLRs in AV are rather new. Kim et al. suggested that the local inflammatory response in acne results from the effects of cytokines released from the TLR2+ monocytes stimulated by P. acnes. […] TLR2 and TLR4 are associated with the inflammatory reaction and tissue destruction in acne.
  • #2 Frontiers | Macrophages in acne vulgaris: mediating phagocytosis, inflammation, scar formation, and therapeutic implications
    https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/immunology/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2024.1355455/full
    Macrophages serve as a pivotal nexus in the pathogenesis of acne vulgaris, orchestrating both the elimination of Cutibacterium acnes (C. acnes) and lipid metabolic regulation while also possessing the capacity to exacerbate inflammation and induce cutaneous scarring. […] The intricate pathogenesis of acne involves four key processes, including hyperkeratosis of the hair follicle, androgen-induced alterations in sebaceous products, C. acnes colonization, and associated inflammatory responses. […] Recent investigations delineate the multifaceted roles macrophages assume in acne formation: they contribute beneficially by clearing pathogens and regulating lipid metabolism, yet exert adverse impacts on inflammation and scarring. […] Macrophages embody a paradoxical role in acne development, serving as both sentinels and provocateurs. Their vital functions include the regulation of lipid concentrations and facilitating the elimination of C. acnes. However, an immoderate immune reaction can provoke inflammation and subsequent acne scarring.
  • #2 Researchers Identify Key Mechanisms in the Pathophysiology of Acne
    https://www.genengnews.com/topics/translational-medicine/researchers-identify-key-mechanisms-in-the-pathophysiology-of-acne/
    The first step of reactive adipogenesis is the release of antimicrobial peptides, also known as host defense peptides. This inflammatory immune response in acne is driven by an exposure to bacterial products, which explains the inflammatory presentation of acne in humans. […] The research showed that following the activation of TLR2, an induction of increased lipid synthesis and cathelicidin occurs. […] Importantly, this study reinforces the effectiveness of retinoids as a therapy in acne prevention and treatment. Retinoids induce cathelicidin and decrease lipid synthesis in the dermal preadipocyte—so the inhibition of reactive adipogenesis in dermal fibroblasts will hinder the development of acne in humans. […] This deeper understanding of the pathophysiology of acne may allow for the development of new therapies.
  • #2 Acne and diet: a review of pathogenic mechanisms
    http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1665-11462022000200083
    High GI and GL induce hyperinsulinemia, thus stimulating increased concentrations of IGF-1 and androgens, which can also activate the mTORC-1 receptor and SREBP, resulting in the amplification of pathways of acne pathogenesis. […] The Western diet is characterized by high GI foods, refined grains, red meat, milk and dairy products, egg protein, and saturated fats. This type of diet increases GL, insulin production, IGF-1, and leucine levels; in turn, upregulation of these factors decreases FOX O1 activity, thus losing the ability to inhibit androgen receptors and mTORC-1 activity. […] Hypotheses on the influence of diet on acne pathogenesis are supported by observing low incidence of acne in cultures with paleolithic diets composed of minimally processed foods, vegetables, low amounts of carbohydrates, and no dairy or its derivatives.
  • #2 p53: key conductor of all anti-acne therapies | Journal of Translational Medicine | Full Text
    https://translational-medicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12967-017-1297-2
    Acne is associated with increased activity of mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), which promotes the expression of two lipogenic transcription factors, sterol regulatory element binding protein-1c (SREBP1c) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor- (PPAR). […] It has been predicted that mTORC1 is activated in the skin of acne patients, which has been confirmed experimentally. […] SREBP1, which is upregulated via increased AKT/mTORC1 signalling plays a key role in sebaceous lipogenesis, and in addition induces sebum fatty acid monounsaturation, that plays a crucial role in comedogenesis and inflammation of acne. […] p53 has been identified as a negative regulator of the IGF1R gene, which mediates increased IGF-1/mTORC1 signalling of puberty and Western diet. […] p53-mediated inhibition of IGF-1 signalling will reduce survivin expression and its anti-apoptotic action in the pilosebaceous follicle. […] All these essential regulatory mechanisms are compromised in immortalized sebocytes via transfection with SV 40 large T antigen or HPV16-E6/7 oncoproteins.
  • #2 Researchers Identify Key Mechanisms in the Pathophysiology of Acne
    https://www.genengnews.com/topics/translational-medicine/researchers-identify-key-mechanisms-in-the-pathophysiology-of-acne/
    A new study conducted by researchers in the department of dermatology at the University of California, San Diego has found previously unknown components in the pathogenesis of acne. The team discovered that “reactive adipogenesis in perifollicular dermal fibroblasts actively contributes to the pathophysiology of acne. This observation offers mechanistic insight into this common disease.” […] The researchers believed that dermal fibroblasts in humans would display a response consistent with reactive adipogenesis (the formation of fat cells) which was modeled in human and mouse skin lesions with Cutabacterium acnes (C. acnes) development, which was then was modified by retinoid treatment. The results showed that dermal perifollicular fibroblasts, through their adipogenesis reaction, have a previously unknown role in the pathogenesis of acne.
  • #2 Vitamin B12 study hints at a molecular mechanism for acne pathogenesis – The Pharmaceutical Journal
    https://pharmaceutical-journal.com/article/news/vitamin-b12-study-hints-at-a-molecular-mechanism-for-acne-pathogenesis
    Study gives a molecular explanation for the link between vitamin B12 and acne. […] Taking vitamin B12 supplements affects the genes expressed by bacteria living on our skin, report researchers at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) in Science Translational Medicine on 24 June 2015. […] The pattern of gene expression — the transcriptome — was altered in ten out of ten healthy subjects studied, and triggered the development of acne in one subject. […] Acne was used as a disease model in order to look at the molecular response of the skin microbiota to host metabolite signalling in disease pathogenesis. […] By comparing the gene expression profiles of the skin microbiota in acne patients with the profiles from healthy individuals, the vitamin B12 biosynthesis pathway in the skin bacterium Propionibacterium acnes turned out to be significantly down-regulated in acne patients.
  • #2 Vitamin B12 study hints at a molecular mechanism for acne pathogenesis – The Pharmaceutical Journal
    https://pharmaceutical-journal.com/article/news/vitamin-b12-study-hints-at-a-molecular-mechanism-for-acne-pathogenesis
    Li’s team also grew P. acnes cultures and found that vitamin B12 supplementation promoted the production of porphyrins, which have been shown to induce inflammation in acne. […] The findings suggest a new bacterial pathogenesis pathway in acne and provide one molecular explanation for a long-standing clinical observation that vitamin B12 supplementation leads to acne development in a subset of individuals. […] Understanding these changes will help us further investigate the molecular mechanism of acne pathogenesis and identify potential new drug targets for acne treatment, Li says.
  • #2 Taking a More Holistic View of the Pathogenesis of Acne 
    https://practicaldermatology.com/topics/acne-rosacea/taking-more-holistic-view-pathogenesis-acne/26539/
    Stress is known to be correlated with acne flares and is now considered to be a systemic driver of acne. […] Diet is now recognized as an important contributing factor to acne. […] The role of the microbiome in the pathogenesis of acne continues to evolve. It is now understood that acne is not caused by an over proliferation of C. acnes per se, but instead results from dysbiosis caused by loss of diversity in C. acnes phylotypes. […] Finally, the compounding effects of these systemic drivers of acne leads to an aberrant or exaggerated immune response, that contributes to acne.
  • #2 Exploring Stress-Induced Mechanisms in Acne Pathogenesis | Scilit
    https://www.scilit.com/publications/ebe48e268bf25e9d81278c0d59b35f47
    Acne vulgaris affects millions worldwide, with psychological stress emerging as a significant contributor to its development. […] Stress influences acne via hormonal fluctuations, inflammation, immune modulation, altered skin barrier function, and lifestyle changes. […] Our investigation revealed multiple key mechanisms through which stress impacts acne development and exacerbation. Hormonal fluctuations, including increases in cortisol and androgens, stimulate sebaceous gland activity, leading to excess sebum production. […] Inflammation, triggered by stress-induced cytokine release, exacerbates acne lesions. […] Stress also impairs skin barrier function, alters immune responses, and influences lifestyle factors such as diet, sleep, and skincare habits, all of which contribute to acne severity.
  • #2 How to Get Rid of Acne: 14 Home Remedies for Pimples
    https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/13-acne-remedies
    Exfoliation is the process of removing the top layer of dead skin cells. It may improve acne by removing the skin cells that clog pores. […] Eating high GI foods causes a spike in insulin, which likely increases sebum production. As a result, high GI foods may directly affect the development and severity of acne. […] A 2019 study with people ages 10 to 24 found that drinking whole milk three or more days each week was linked to moderate or severe acne. […] According to 2017 research, the hormones released during periods of stress may increase sebum production and inflammation, making acne worse. […] A 2018 study noted that exercise can decrease stress and anxiety, both of which can contribute to the development of acne. […] According to a 2021 publication, a strain of brewers yeast called Hansen CBS may help decrease acne when taken orally. […] The relationship between milk and acne needs further study. […] The link between stress and acne is not fully understood.
  • #2 Expert Discusses the ‘Four Pillars of Acne Pathogenesis’
    https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/expert-discusses-four-pillars-acne-pathogenesis-2024a1000m0y
    In her wide-ranging presentation, Miranti described the four pillars of acne pathogenesis as increased sebum production caused by androgens, follicular hyperkeratinization in the pilosebaceous unit, colonization by Cutibacterium acnes (formerly Proprionibacterium acnes), and inflammation. […] Acne starts with androgens, but this is a cascade, so you have to find treatment options that hit as many of these four pillars as possible, Miranti explained. […] Regardless of which treatment is chosen for any pillar, Miranti emphasized that monotherapy with a single agent is often insufficient. Historically, we have combined therapies to treat the multiple causes of acne, she said. […] The only topical that targets excess sebum is clascoterone, she noted, and the only medication that hits all four pillars is isotretinoin.
  • #3 Acne Vulgaris – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459173/
    Acne vulgaris is a chronic inflammatory disorder affecting the pilosebaceous unit, typically following a prolonged course. […] The pathogenesis of acne vulgaris involves the interaction of multiple factors that ultimately lead to the formation of its primary lesion, which is known as „comedo.” […] Acne develops as a result of hypersensitivity of the sebaceous glands to normal levels of circulating androgens. This process is further exacerbated by the presence of Cutibacterium acnes, a bacterial species, and subsequent inflammation. […] The pathogenesis of acne vulgaris involves the interaction of several host factors, including the stimulation of sebaceous glands by circulating androgens, dysbiosis of the pilosebaceous follicle microbiome, and cellular immune responses. […] The microcomedo serves as the primary lesion and is the precursor for all clinical manifestations of acne vulgaris.
  • #3 Genome-wide meta-analysis identifies novel loci conferring risk of acne vulgaris | European Journal of Human Genetics
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41431-023-01326-8
    Acne vulgaris is a common chronic skin disorder presenting with comedones, cystic structures forming within the distal hair follicle, and in most cases additionally with inflammatory skin lesions on the face and upper torso. […] The pathogenesis of acne is multifactorial, involving an interplay of several factors. […] Last decade has set a focus on abnormal differentiation of progenitor cells of the hair follicle (HF) that generate the sebaceous glands (SG) and infundibulum: the comedo switch. […] The pathogenesis of acne inflammation is still not fully understood, although certain C. acnes phylotypes (IA1) or lack of microbial diversity might trigger the responses from immune system. […] Twin studies have shown that acne is highly heritable, with up to 85% of the population variance attributed to genetic factors.
  • #3 The Role of Inflammation in the Pathology of Acne | JCAD – The Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology
    https://jcadonline.com/the-role-of-inflammation-in-the-pathology-of-acne/
    This review presents evidence to support the notion that acne is primarily an inflammatory disease, challenging the current nomenclature of noninflammatory versus inflammatory acne lesions and suggesting that the nomenclature is outdated and incorrect. […] Evidence for an early inflammatory response in the formation of acne lesions was provided by Norris and Cunliffe, who conducted a histological examination of early acne lesions, including lesions 6 to 72 hours old. […] This demonstration that inflammatory foci develop in early, apparently noninflamed, microcomedonal lesions before overt spongiosis or rupture of the pilosebaceous follicle wall, provides compelling evidence for the involvement of early inflammatory events in the development of acne lesions. […] Clinical evidence for inflammation during early acne development is derived from an investigation by Do et al, who conducted a serial photographic study of 25 acne patients.
  • #3 Efficacy of FRO on Acne Vulgaris Pathogenesis
    https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4923/15/7/1885
    Acne vulgaris is a common skin disease characterized by increased sebum production, inflammation, and Cutibacterium acnes (CA: formerly Propionibacterium acnes) hyperproliferation in pilosebaceous follicles. […] Acne vulgaris, a chronic inflammatory disease, is among the top three skin disorders treated by dermatologists and affects more than 80% of young adolescents. The main characteristics involved in the pathogenesis of acne include excess sebum production, follicular hyperkeratinization in the sebaceous glands and follicular infundibulum, hyperproliferation of acne-causative microorganisms, and inflammation. […] Excess sebum production is considered the first step in acne pathogenesis because of the corresponding increase in dihydrotestosterone (DHT) and insulin growth factor-1 (IGF-1) activity. Increased sebum production creates an ideal microenvironment for sustaining the colonization of the causative microorganisms of acne, leading to follicular hyperkeratinization and inflammation.
  • #3 Acne Vulgaris: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1069804-overview
    Activation of the toll-like receptor 2 then leads to the production of multiple proinflammatory cytokines, including interleukins 12 and 8 and tumor necrosis factor. Hypersensitivity to C acnes (formerly P acnes) may also explain why some individuals develop inflammatory acne vulgaris while others do not. […] Excess sebum is another key factor in the development of acne vulgaris. Sebum production and excretion are regulated by a number of different hormones and mediators. In particular, androgen hormones promote sebum production and release. […] The degree of comedonal acne in prepubertal girls correlates with circulating levels of the adrenal androgen dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS). […] Numerous other mediators and receptors, including growth hormone and insulinlike growth factor, as well as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors also regulate the sebaceous gland and may contribute to the development of acne. […] Furthermore, the sebaceous gland acts a neuroendocrine-inflammatory organ that is activated via corticotrophin-releasing hormones in response to stress and normal functions.
  • #3 A Roadmap for Clear Skin: Pathways to Put Acne in the Rearview Mirror – European Medical Journal
    https://www.emjreviews.com/dermatology/symposium/a-roadmap-for-clear-skin-pathways-to-put-acne-in-the-rearview-mirror-s240125/
    Yet, as Del Rosso explained, the pivotal role that androgen hormones play in acne pathogenesis has previously been overlooked. […] We now know that the skin itself is an endocrine organ, capable of producing androgens, and that these hormones are implicated early on in the clinical cascade of acne pathogenesis. […] Notably, androgens stimulate sebum production by sebocytes within sebaceous glands in the skin, which creates a highly favorable microenvironment for growth of C. acnes bacteria within the pilosebaceous follicle. […] If there are no androgens, there’s no sebum, and if there’s no sebum, there’s no acne; and that’s practically universally true, Del Rosso remarked. […] Androgens also stimulate cytokines and other inflammatory pathways, leading to downstream effects that further promote lesion development.
  • #3 Genome-wide meta-analysis identifies novel loci conferring risk of acne vulgaris | European Journal of Human Genetics
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41431-023-01326-8
    Activation of Wnt signaling in JZ LRIG1+cells results in expansion of the upper HF and downregulation of Wnt signaling promotes keratin 15-expressing bulge cells to migrate and differentiate into sebocytes. […] Thus, comedones are most likely formed by abnormal differentiation of infundibular keratinocytes, which may become hyperproliferative. […] Three novel acne associated genes are also involved in the Wnt signaling pathway: ZNRF3 and KREMEN1 from 22q12.1 and LGR5 from 12q21.1. […] ZNRF3 and ring finger protein 43 (RNF43) are negative regulators of Wnt/-catenin signaling cascade, mediating the ubiquitination, endocytosis, and subsequent degradation of frizzled (FZD) Wnt receptor complex components, resulting in the inhibition of canonical and non-canonical Wnt/catenin signaling pathways.
  • #3 p53: key conductor of all anti-acne therapies | Journal of Translational Medicine | Full Text
    https://translational-medicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12967-017-1297-2
    Acne is associated with increased activity of mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), which promotes the expression of two lipogenic transcription factors, sterol regulatory element binding protein-1c (SREBP1c) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor- (PPAR). […] It has been predicted that mTORC1 is activated in the skin of acne patients, which has been confirmed experimentally. […] SREBP1, which is upregulated via increased AKT/mTORC1 signalling plays a key role in sebaceous lipogenesis, and in addition induces sebum fatty acid monounsaturation, that plays a crucial role in comedogenesis and inflammation of acne. […] p53 has been identified as a negative regulator of the IGF1R gene, which mediates increased IGF-1/mTORC1 signalling of puberty and Western diet. […] p53-mediated inhibition of IGF-1 signalling will reduce survivin expression and its anti-apoptotic action in the pilosebaceous follicle. […] All these essential regulatory mechanisms are compromised in immortalized sebocytes via transfection with SV 40 large T antigen or HPV16-E6/7 oncoproteins.
  • #3 Acne Transcriptomics: Fundamentals of Acne Pathogenesis and Isotretinoin Treatment
    https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4409/12/22/2600
    Various growth factors induce the pathogenesis of acne. Their input signals converge in the activation of the kinase AKT (protein kinase B), which modifies the activity and expression of important transcription factors promoting the disease. […] After the binding of IGF-1 to its receptor, phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) is activated, resulting in the activation of the kinase AKT (also known as protein kinase B), a key checkpoint of growth network regulation. […] Thus, increased IGF-1 signaling via the AKT-mediated suppression of FoxO1 enhances the transcriptional activity of AR, SREBF1, PPARγ and STAT3, crucial transcription factors which promote sebaceous lipogenesis. […] The AKT-mediated phosphorylation of the p53-binding protein MDM2 promotes the degradation of p53. In contrast, isotretinoin enhances the expression of p53, FoxO1 and FoxO3 in the sebaceous glands of acne patients.
  • #3 Acne Vulgaris: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1069804-overview
    Research has shown that inflammatory responses actually occur before hyperkeratinization. Cytokines produced by CD4+ T cells and macrophages activate local endothelial cells to up-regulate inflammatory mediators such as vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), and human leukocyte antigen (HLA)DR in the vessels around the pilosebaceous follicle. […] Follicular hyperkeratinization involves increased keratinocyte proliferation and decreased desquamation, leading to sebum- and keratin-filled microcomedones. […] C acnes (formerly P acnes) is an anaerobic organism present in acne lesions. The presence of C acnes (formerly P acnes) promotes inflammation through a variety of mechanisms. C acnes (formerly P acnes) stimulates inflammation by producing proinflammatory mediators that diffuse through the follicle wall. Studies have shown that C acnes (formerly P acnes) activates the toll-like receptor 2 on monocytes and neutrophils.
  • #3 Acne – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acne
    C. acnes’ ability to bind and activate a class of immune system receptors known as toll-like receptors (TLRs), especially TLR2 and TLR4, is a core mechanism of acne-related skin inflammation. […] This inflammatory cascade typically leads to the formation of inflammatory acne lesions, including papules, infected pustules, or nodules. […] The involvement of AP-1 in the aforementioned inflammatory cascade activates matrix metalloproteinases, which contribute to local tissue destruction and scar formation. […] Along with the bacteria C. acnes, the bacterial species Staphylococcus epidermidis (S. epidermidis) also takes a part in the physiopathology of acne vulgaris.
  • #3 Emodin exhibits anti-acne potential by inhibiting cell growth, lipogenesis, and inflammation in human SZ95 sebocytes | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-48709-x
    The activation of NLRP3 inflammasome by C. acnes leads to the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines in various immune cells. […] Our results provide evidence that emodin possesses anti-inflammatory activity against the immune response induced by C. acnes in SZ95 sebocytes. […] In conclusion, our results initially demonstrated that emodin can suppress proliferation, induce cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, inhibit lipogenesis and inflammation in human SZ95 sebocytes. We found that IGF-1 promoted lipid production, whereas emodin significantly inhibited this effect by inactivating the PI3K/Akt/FoxO1 pathway. Moreover, emodin alleviated C. acnes-stimulated pro-inflammatory cytokines production and inactivated the NLRP3 inflammasome. Hence, our present study provides a novel perspective into the therapeutic potential involved in the emodin treatment for acne.
  • #3 Vitamin B12 study hints at a molecular mechanism for acne pathogenesis – The Pharmaceutical Journal
    https://pharmaceutical-journal.com/article/news/vitamin-b12-study-hints-at-a-molecular-mechanism-for-acne-pathogenesis
    Li’s team also grew P. acnes cultures and found that vitamin B12 supplementation promoted the production of porphyrins, which have been shown to induce inflammation in acne. […] The findings suggest a new bacterial pathogenesis pathway in acne and provide one molecular explanation for a long-standing clinical observation that vitamin B12 supplementation leads to acne development in a subset of individuals. […] Understanding these changes will help us further investigate the molecular mechanism of acne pathogenesis and identify potential new drug targets for acne treatment, Li says.
  • #3 Exploring Stress-Induced Mechanisms in Acne Pathogenesis | Scilit
    https://www.scilit.com/publications/ebe48e268bf25e9d81278c0d59b35f47
    Acne vulgaris affects millions worldwide, with psychological stress emerging as a significant contributor to its development. […] Stress influences acne via hormonal fluctuations, inflammation, immune modulation, altered skin barrier function, and lifestyle changes. […] Our investigation revealed multiple key mechanisms through which stress impacts acne development and exacerbation. Hormonal fluctuations, including increases in cortisol and androgens, stimulate sebaceous gland activity, leading to excess sebum production. […] Inflammation, triggered by stress-induced cytokine release, exacerbates acne lesions. […] Stress also impairs skin barrier function, alters immune responses, and influences lifestyle factors such as diet, sleep, and skincare habits, all of which contribute to acne severity.
  • #3 Acne and diet: a review of pathogenic mechanisms
    http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1665-11462022000200083
    High GI and GL induce hyperinsulinemia, thus stimulating increased concentrations of IGF-1 and androgens, which can also activate the mTORC-1 receptor and SREBP, resulting in the amplification of pathways of acne pathogenesis. […] The Western diet is characterized by high GI foods, refined grains, red meat, milk and dairy products, egg protein, and saturated fats. This type of diet increases GL, insulin production, IGF-1, and leucine levels; in turn, upregulation of these factors decreases FOX O1 activity, thus losing the ability to inhibit androgen receptors and mTORC-1 activity. […] Hypotheses on the influence of diet on acne pathogenesis are supported by observing low incidence of acne in cultures with paleolithic diets composed of minimally processed foods, vegetables, low amounts of carbohydrates, and no dairy or its derivatives.
  • #3 A Roadmap for Clear Skin: Pathways to Put Acne in the Rearview Mirror – European Medical Journal
    https://www.emjreviews.com/dermatology/symposium/a-roadmap-for-clear-skin-pathways-to-put-acne-in-the-rearview-mirror-s240125/
    The skin has, therefore, emerged as a primary target for androgen inhibition and sebum modulation in acne management. […] Clascoterone 1% cream is a novel topical androgen receptor inhibitor approved for the treatment of acne vulgaris in patients 12 years of age and older. […] It directly targets and inhibits androgens in the skin by competing with androgens, primarily dihydrotestosterone (DHT), for binding to the androgen receptor within the cytoplasm of sebocytes, thereby inhibiting sebum production and reducing inflammatory cytokines. […] Combining treatments with different mechanisms can help to address the four major pillars of acne pathogenesis, and the introduction of clascoterone means we can now also target and inhibit androgens in the skin with topical therapy, Del Rosso remarked. […] Comprehensive topical therapy, which is able to address the four major pathophysiologic pillars of acne, is now available, and optimal selection of therapy may also be correlated with acne lesion types.
  • #3 Emodin exhibits anti-acne potential by inhibiting cell growth, lipogenesis, and inflammation in human SZ95 sebocytes | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-48709-x
    In adipose tissue, emodin reduces lipid accumulation by lowering insulin levels and inhibiting the SREBP pathway. Also, this compound has therapeutic efficacy in many cutaneous inflammatory disorders such as psoriasis and atopic dermatitis, while its pharmacological effects on regulating lipogenesis and inflammation in sebaceous cells remain largely unknown. […] The present study aimed to elucidate the possible mechanisms by which emodin exerted anti-acne potential in vitro. Specifically, we investigated the effects of emodin on proliferation, cell cycle, apoptosis, IGF-1-induced lipogenesis and C. acnes-induced inflammation in human SZ95 sebocytes. […] Emodin inhibits the activation of the PI3K/Akt/FoxO1 signaling pathway induced by IGF-1, which demonstrated the specific inhibitory effect of emodin on the PI3K transduction.
  • #4 Taking a More Holistic View of the Pathogenesis of Acne 
    https://practicaldermatology.com/topics/acne-rosacea/taking-more-holistic-view-pathogenesis-acne/26539/
    Although the full pathophysiology is still evolving, the development of acne is conventionally viewed as the result of four pathogenic factors that occur locally at the pilosebaceous unit (PSU): follicular hyperkeratinization, excess sebum production, Cutibacterium acnes (C. acnes) colonization, and a local immune response. Current therapeutics, therefore, have targeted these mechanisms. […] Although these are the established mechanisms for the development of acne, more recent studies have demonstrated there are other factors that drive or exacerbate acne in our patients. These factors are now being discussed as part of a broader picture as they influence the pathogenesis of acne by affecting the whole patient and not just the microenvironment of the PSU. […] Almost all acne has an underlying hormonal component, with a consensus that androgens are the main player. The onset of acne is linked to an increase in the production of androgens that occurs in both sexes at puberty.
  • #4 Genome-wide meta-analysis identifies novel loci conferring risk of acne vulgaris | European Journal of Human Genetics
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41431-023-01326-8
    Concordant with current knowledge of the pathogenesis of acne, genetic studies have outlined biological pathways with overlapping functions, such as stem cell homeostasis, tissue remodeling, cell adhesion, and androgen metabolism. […] Genome-wide association studies (GWASs) have led to the identification of 46 susceptibility loci in European populations, highlighting genes with established roles in the determination of hair follicle development, morphology, and activity and underscoring the importance of TGF-mediated signaling pathways. […] In recent years acne has been reframed as a disorder of SG progenitor differentiation and migration. […] SG development is coupled to HF morphogenesis, which relies on an extensive epithelial-mesenchymal crosstalk, involving Wnt, EDAR, Bmp, Hedgehog and FGF signaling pathways.
  • #4 Fucoxanthin ameliorates Propionibacterium acnes-induced ear inflammation in mice by modulating the IκBα/NF-κB signaling pathway and inhibiting NF-κB nuclear translocation | PLOS One
    https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0322950
    The NF-B signaling pathway plays a crucial role in the inflammatory process by regulating the release of inflammatory mediators, and fucoxanthin, as a natural compound, is believed to have potential anti-inflammatory effects. […] Fucoxanthin, as a natural compound, is believed to intervene in the IB/NF-B signaling pathway. […] The research findings suggest that fucoxanthin inhibits the nuclear translocation of NF-B, preventing NF-B from entering the nucleus, thereby inhibiting the excessive release of inflammatory mediators and alleviating the severity of the inflammatory response. […] Fucoxanthin exhibits significant anti-inflammatory effects by regulating the IB/NF-B signaling pathway and inhibiting NF-B nuclear translocation, offering a new research direction for the treatment of acne.
  • #4 Emodin exhibits anti-acne potential by inhibiting cell growth, lipogenesis, and inflammation in human SZ95 sebocytes | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-48709-x
    The activation of NLRP3 inflammasome by C. acnes leads to the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines in various immune cells. […] Our results provide evidence that emodin possesses anti-inflammatory activity against the immune response induced by C. acnes in SZ95 sebocytes. […] In conclusion, our results initially demonstrated that emodin can suppress proliferation, induce cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, inhibit lipogenesis and inflammation in human SZ95 sebocytes. We found that IGF-1 promoted lipid production, whereas emodin significantly inhibited this effect by inactivating the PI3K/Akt/FoxO1 pathway. Moreover, emodin alleviated C. acnes-stimulated pro-inflammatory cytokines production and inactivated the NLRP3 inflammasome. Hence, our present study provides a novel perspective into the therapeutic potential involved in the emodin treatment for acne.
  • #4 Frontiers | Macrophages in acne vulgaris: mediating phagocytosis, inflammation, scar formation, and therapeutic implications
    https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/immunology/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2024.1355455/full
    Macrophages serve as a pivotal nexus in the pathogenesis of acne vulgaris, orchestrating both the elimination of Cutibacterium acnes (C. acnes) and lipid metabolic regulation while also possessing the capacity to exacerbate inflammation and induce cutaneous scarring. […] The intricate pathogenesis of acne involves four key processes, including hyperkeratosis of the hair follicle, androgen-induced alterations in sebaceous products, C. acnes colonization, and associated inflammatory responses. […] Recent investigations delineate the multifaceted roles macrophages assume in acne formation: they contribute beneficially by clearing pathogens and regulating lipid metabolism, yet exert adverse impacts on inflammation and scarring. […] Macrophages embody a paradoxical role in acne development, serving as both sentinels and provocateurs. Their vital functions include the regulation of lipid concentrations and facilitating the elimination of C. acnes. However, an immoderate immune reaction can provoke inflammation and subsequent acne scarring.
  • #4 Expert Discusses the ‘Four Pillars of Acne Pathogenesis’
    https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/expert-discusses-four-pillars-acne-pathogenesis-2024a1000m0y
    In her wide-ranging presentation, Miranti described the four pillars of acne pathogenesis as increased sebum production caused by androgens, follicular hyperkeratinization in the pilosebaceous unit, colonization by Cutibacterium acnes (formerly Proprionibacterium acnes), and inflammation. […] Acne starts with androgens, but this is a cascade, so you have to find treatment options that hit as many of these four pillars as possible, Miranti explained. […] Regardless of which treatment is chosen for any pillar, Miranti emphasized that monotherapy with a single agent is often insufficient. Historically, we have combined therapies to treat the multiple causes of acne, she said. […] The only topical that targets excess sebum is clascoterone, she noted, and the only medication that hits all four pillars is isotretinoin.
  • #5 Acne Transcriptomics: Fundamentals of Acne Pathogenesis and Isotretinoin Treatment
    https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4409/12/22/2600
    This review on acne transcriptomics allows for deeper insights into the pathogenesis of acne and isotretinoin’s mode of action. […] Acne vulgaris is a very common chronic, inflammatory skin disorder with a complex pathogenesis. Four factors play vital roles in the pathophysiology of acne: hyperseborrhea and dysseborrhea, the altered keratinization of the pilosebaceous duct (comedogenesis), effects mediated by Cutibacterium acnes (C. acnes) and Th17-cell-driven inflammation. […] Isotretinoin is the most efficient anti-acne drug, improving all major factors of the pathogenesis of acne. […] This review focuses on three key transcription factors, p53, FoxO1 and FoxO3, whose suppression plays an important role in the pathogenesis of acne, whereas their upregulation via isotretinoin explains isotretinoin’s beneficial and adverse effects in the treatment of acne.
  • #5 Editor’s Pick: The Role of Toll-Like Receptors and Antimicrobial Peptides in the Pathogenesis of Acne Vulgaris – European Medical Journal
    https://www.emjreviews.com/dermatology/article/editors-pick-the-role-of-toll-like-receptors-and-antimicrobial-peptides-in-the-pathogenesis-of-acne-vulgaris/
    Acne vulgaris (AV) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the pilosebaceous unit. AV has a multifactorial pathogenesis with specific roles played by the sebaceous glands, abnormal follicular hyperkeratinisation, inflammation, Propionibacterium acnes, hormonal factors, immune mediators, and genetic and environmental factors. […] It is well known that toll-like receptors and antimicrobial peptides play important roles in AV pathogenesis and further understanding of these will contribute to improvements in treatment. […] The studies investigating the roles of TLRs in AV are rather new. Kim et al. suggested that the local inflammatory response in acne results from the effects of cytokines released from the TLR2+ monocytes stimulated by P. acnes. […] TLR2 and TLR4 are associated with the inflammatory reaction and tissue destruction in acne.