Padaczka
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Padaczka to przewlekłe zaburzenie neurologiczne charakteryzujące się nawracającymi, nieprowokowanymi napadami wynikającymi z nadmiernej i hipersynchronicznej aktywności neuronów korowych. Kluczowe mechanizmy patofizjologiczne obejmują zaburzenie równowagi między pobudzeniem a hamowaniem w korze mózgowej, dysfunkcję kanałów jonowych (w tym mutacje kanałów sodowych, potasowych, wapniowych i HCN, np. wariant HCN1 M305L), zaburzenia neurotransmisji GABAergicznej i glutaminianowej, a także procesy zapalne i aktywację szlaku mTOR. Na poziomie komórkowym napad padaczkowy wiąże się z napadowym przesunięciem depolaryzacyjnym (PDS), a na poziomie molekularnym z dysregulacją plastyczności synaptycznej, homeostazy jonowej i metabolizmu energetycznego (m.in. regulacja w górę dehydrogenazy mleczanowej A, LDHA). Epileptogeneza i iktogeneza obejmują transformację sieci neuronalnej w nadpobudliwą oraz nagłe wyładowania neuronalne, co prowadzi do klinicznych napadów. W etiologii padaczki istotną rolę odgrywają także czynniki genetyczne i epigenetyczne, z ponad 500 loci genetycznych powiązanych z chorobą, a także dysfunkcje gleju i zmiany w mielinizacji, które mogą wpływać na progresję napadów.

Mechanizm Padaczki: Patogeneza i Procesy Epileptogenezy

Padaczka (epilepsja) to przewlekłe zaburzenie neurologiczne charakteryzujące się nawracającymi, nieprowokowanymi napadami, które wynikają z nieprawidłowej, nadmiernej i hipersynchronicznej aktywności elektrycznej populacji neuronów korowych. Napad padaczkowy (z łac. sacire – brać w posiadanie) stanowi kliniczną manifestację tej nieprawidłowej aktywności mózgu 1. Padaczka dotyka około 40 milionów ludzi na całym świecie, a około jedna trzecia pacjentów nie reaguje na dostępne obecnie metody leczenia 2.

Epileptogeneza i Iktogeneza: Dwa Kluczowe Procesy

Zrozumienie mechanizmu padaczki obejmuje dwa powiązane, ale odrębne zagadnienia: w jaki sposób mózg rozwija długotrwałą tendencję do generowania napadów (epileptogeneza) oraz jak poszczególne napady się rozpoczynają i rozprzestrzeniają (iktogeneza) 3. Epileptogeneza to sekwencja zdarzeń, która przekształca prawidłowo funkcjonującą sieć neuronalną w sieć nadpobudliwą 4. Podczas tego procesu mózg, który wcześniej nie wykazywał cech padaczkowych, przekształca się w mózg zdolny do wytwarzania spontanicznych napadów 5.

Iktogeneza opisuje przejście do stanu napadowego, w którym następuje zakłócenie normalnej równowagi między pobudzeniem a hamowaniem, prowadzące do nagłej i nadmiernej synchronizacji wyładowań neuronalnych. Lokalnie zlokalizowana grupa neuronów może zacząć wyładowywać się razem w nieprawidłowy i powtarzający się sposób, przełamując normalne mechanizmy hamujące 6. Proces ten obejmuje zmianę w dynamice sieci, zwykle rozpoczynając się od nadmiernej aktywności pobudzającej w podatnym obszarze kory znanym jako ognisko napadowe i niepowodzenie mechanizmów hamujących w jego powstrzymaniu 7.

Zaburzenia Równowagi Pobudzenia-Hamowania

Podstawowym mechanizmem leżącym u podłoża napadów padaczkowych jest zaburzenie równowagi między pobudzeniem a hamowaniem w korze mózgowej 89. Padaczka może wynikać z procesów, które zakłócają homeostazę jonów pozakomórkowych, zmieniają metabolizm energetyczny, modyfikują funkcję receptorów lub wpływają na wychwyt neuroprzekaźników 10.

Na poziomie komórkowym, aktywność epileptyczna składa się z przedłużonej depolaryzacji neuronu, co prowadzi do serii potencjałów czynnościowych, plateau depolaryzacji związanego z zakończeniem serii potencjałów czynnościowych, a następnie szybkiej repolaryzacji, po której następuje hiperpolaryzacja. Ta sekwencja nazywana jest napadowym przesunięciem depolaryzacyjnym (ang. paroxysmal depolarizing shift, PDS) 1112.

Mechanizmy Molekularne i Jonowe

Molekularne mechanizmy epileptogenezy są złożone i nie w pełni zrozumiane, ale uważa się, że obejmują zaburzenie równowagi między sygnalizacją pobudzającą a hamującą w mózgu, nieprawidłową plastyczność synaptyczną, nadmierną stabilność sieci neuronalnej, stan zapalny i dysregulację immunologiczną 13.

Kanały jonowe stanowią podstawę aktywności elektrycznej neuronów; ich dysfunkcja może wywoływać padaczkę poprzez inicjowanie nieprawidłowej aktywności w ośrodkowym układzie nerwowym 14. Kanały HCN (ang. hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channels) są silnie związane z padaczką, szczególnie izoforma HCN1, a wariant HCN1 M305L został wykryty u pacjentów z encefalopatią rozwojową i padaczką 15.

Mutacje kanałów jonowych stanowią większość genów odpowiedzialnych za padaczkę idiopatyczną 16. Kanały, które zostały zidentyfikowane jako przyczyna padaczki idiopatycznej u ludzi, obejmują napięciozależne kanały potasowe, sodowe i wapniowe, receptory GABA oraz receptory acetylocholinowe 17.

Rola Neurotransmiterów w Patogenezie Padaczki

Kluczową rolę w utrzymaniu normalnej fizjologii różnych neuronów odgrywają neuroprzekaźniki. Dysregulacje w neurotransmisji, spowodowane nieprawidłowymi poziomami przekaźników lub zmianami w ich receptorach, mogą prowadzić do napadów 18.

Napad padaczkowy pojawia się, gdy dochodzi do zmniejszenia sygnalizacji hamującej, takiej jak kwas gamma-aminomasłowy (GABA), lub zwiększenia sygnalizacji pobudzającej, takiej jak glutaminian 19. GABA jest głównym hamującym neuroprzekaźnikiem, który hamuje wyładowania neuronalne poprzez aktywację dwóch różnych klas receptorów, GABAA i GABAB, poprzez napływ Cl do ośrodkowego układu nerwowego. W związku z tym uszkodzenie interneuronów GABAergicznych spowoduje ciągłe nieregulowane wyładowania neuronalne, prowadzące do napadów 20.

Glutaminian jest głównym pobudzającym neuroprzekaźnikiem w mózgu. Wykazano, że aktywacja receptorów N-metylo-D-asparaginowych (NMDA) może powodować utratę neuronów w padaczce skroniowej 21. Dysfunkcja w interakcjach między neuronami a astrocytami może prowadzić do zaburzeń mechanizmów glutaminergicznych w padaczce 22.

Zaburzenia Metaboliczne i Zapalenie w Epileptogenezie

Zaburzenia Metabolizmu Energetycznego

Zaburzenia metabolizmu energetycznego w tkance mózgowej mogą prowadzić do dysfunkcji mitochondriów, dysfunkcji enzymów i zakłócenia międzykomórkowego cyklu kwasu glutaminowego-glutaminy 23. Odpowiedź na stres oksydacyjny w padaczce jest powiązana z czynnikiem zapalnym high mobility group box 1 24.

Oś jelitowo-mózgowa uczestniczy w fizjologicznych czynnościach układu nerwowego poprzez syntezę i wydzielanie neuroprzekaźników, syntezę metabolitów i stymulację produkcji różnych cytokin 25.

Padaczka jako choroba metabolizmu energetycznego jest nowym konceptem pomimo skutecznego stosowania diety ketogenicznej od lat 20. XX wieku. Badania wykazały, że napady wyczerpują zapasy energii neuronalnej i przeprogramowują neurony z aerobowego na glikolityczny fenotyp metaboliczny, charakteryzujący się regulacją w górę dehydrogenazy mleczanowej A (LDHA) 26.

Rola Zapalenia i Dysregulacji Immunologicznej

Zapalenie i dysregulacja immunologiczna mogą również odgrywać rolę w wywoływaniu napadów padaczkowych. Komórki zapalne uwalniają cząsteczki, które mogą zmieniać sygnalizację neuronalną, co może prowadzić do napadów 27.

Epileptogeneza jest związana z zapaleniem napędzanym przez cytokiny, takie jak IL-1 i czynnik martwicy nowotworów-α (TNF-α), co prowadzi do nadpobudliwości neuronalnej. Prozapalne cytokiny z aktywowanych mikrogleju i astrocytów w tkance padaczkowej inicjują kaskadę zapalną, zwiększając pobudliwość neuronalną i wywołując aktywność epileptokształtną 28.

Po napadach uwalniane są cytokiny, takie jak IL-1β, IL-6 i TNF-α, które modulują odpowiedzi zapalne w mózgu. Badania wskazują, że te cytokiny wpływają na receptory NMDA, plastyczność synaptyczną, neurotransmisję GABAergiczną i pobudliwość neuronalną, przyczyniając się do rozwoju i nawrotów napadów 29.

Rola Szlaku mTOR w Epileptogenezie

Nadmierna aktywacja szlaku mTOR (ang. mammalian target of rapamycin) bezpośrednio wpływa na progresję epileptogenezy i pobudliwość neuronalną 30. Szlak mTOR tworzy dwa oddzielne kompleksy białkowe: mTORC1, który jest wrażliwy na rapamycynę i promuje syntezę białek poprzez aktywację kaskad sygnałowych, oraz mTORC2, który działa jako regulator cytoszkieletu i jest niewrażliwy na rapamycynę 31.

Rozrost komórek i zaburzenia synaptogenezy występują przy mutacjach TSC1 lub TSC2 ze względu na nieprawidłową aktywację mTORC1, a mutacja TSC2 powoduje nadpobudliwość neuronów glutaminergicznych, co prowadzi do napadów 32.

Mechanizm Opis Implikacje w Padaczce
Zaburzenie równowagi pobudzenia-hamowania Nadmierna aktywność pobudzająca i/lub obniżona aktywność hamująca Podstawowy mechanizm prowadzący do napadów padaczkowych
Dysfunkcja kanałów jonowych Mutacje w kanałach sodowych, potasowych, wapniowych i HCN Channelopatie prowadzące do nadpobudliwości neuronalnej
Zaburzenia neurotransmisji Zmiany w systemach GABA (hamowanie) i glutaminianu (pobudzenie) Zaburzenie równowagi prowadzi do nadmiernej aktywności neuronalnej
Neuroinflammation Aktywacja mikrogleju, astrocytów i produkcja cytokin prozapalnych Zwiększa pobudliwość neuronalną i sprzyja epileptogenezie
Szlak mTOR Nieprawidłowa aktywacja szlaku mTOR Rozrost komórek, zaburzenia synaptogenezy i nadpobudliwość neuronalna
Zaburzenia metabolizmu energetycznego Dysfunkcja mitochondriów, zmiany w metabolizmie glukozy Zmiana fenotypu z tlenowego na glikolityczny, regulacja w górę LDHA
Dysregulacja połączeń międzykomórkowych Zmiany w komunikacji między neuronami a komórkami glejowymi Zaburzenia w regulacji homeostazy jonowej i neuroprzekaźnikowej

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Zmiany Strukturalne i Funkcjonalne w Epileptogenezie

Zmiany w Sieci Neuronalnej

W procesie epileptogenezy dochodzi do istotnych zmian w sieciach neuronalnych mózgu. Hiperpobudliwe neurony tworzą ognisko padaczkowe. Napady padaczkowe ogniskowe, które pochodzą z bardzo ograniczonego obszaru mózgu, różnią się od napadów uogólnionych, wynikających z serii potencjałów czynnościowych, które rozciągają się na cały mózg 33.

Nadpobudliwości towarzyszy podczas napadów hipersynchronizacja, gdy kilka grup neuronów jednocześnie generuje serie potencjałów czynnościowych w tym samym czasie i z tą samą częstotliwością, wzmacniając intensywność objawów 34.

Badania wskazują, że w padaczce skroniowej przyśrodkowej (MTLE) dochodzi do „wykładniczego” spadku tworzenia nowych komórek nerwowych, większego niż obserwowany w chorobie Alzheimera. Jednocześnie utrzymują się poziomy niedojrzałych astrogleji, które mogą odgrywać rolę w inicjowaniu aktywności mózgu prowadzącej do napadów padaczkowych 35.

Rola Komórek Glejowych

Dysregulacja funkcji gleju może powodować padaczkę lub sprzyjać wywoływaniu napadów. Glioza jest prawdopodobnie wszechobecna we wszystkich formach padaczki i odnosi się do niespecyficznej reakcji komórek glejowych, zwłaszcza mikrogleju i astrocytów, w odpowiedzi na różne rodzaje uszkodzeń i naprawy ośrodkowego układu nerwowego 36.

Najlepsze dowody na to, że glioza jest przyczyną padaczki, pochodzą z badań, w których wywołano gliozę przez warunkową delecję specyficznego dla astrocytów genu β1 integryny Itgb1 37. Coraz więcej dowodów potwierdza, że reaktywna astroglioza wydaje się występować w większości nabytych modeli zwierzęcych padaczki, a także w tkankach pacjentów z padaczką, co dodatkowo potwierdza, że reaktywna astroglioza jest ogólnie związana z padaczką 38.

Astrocyty pełnią istotną rolę w przekształcaniu pęcherzykowego glutaminianu i GABA. Należałoby oczekiwać, że ingerencja w cykl na dowolnym etapie szybko wpłynie na dostarczanie neuroprzekaźników i funkcję synaptyczną. Reaktywność astrogleju może być związana z epileptogenezą 39.

Zmiany w Mielinie i Istocie Białej

Rozwój napadów padaczkowych wiąże się z wieloma zmianami w mózgu; jedną z tych zmian są zmiany w istocie białej (głębokiej części mózgu) składającej się z aksonów pokrytych mieliną. Mielina jest substancją działającą jako izolator nerwów i ma krytyczne znaczenie dla komunikacji między neuronami 40.

Badania prowadzone przez dr Juliet Knowles z Uniwersytetu Stanforda wykazały, że nieprawidłowa aktywność neuronalna podczas napadów nieświadomości może prowadzić do zmian w mielinizacji. Zmiany w mielinie z kolei prowadzą do progresji napadów 41. To badanie jest pierwszym, które wyraźnie pokazuje, że nieprawidłowa aktywność neuronalna (w tym przypadku z powodu napadów nieświadomości) może prowadzić do szkodliwych zmian w mielinizacji, które przyczyniają się do ciągłej progresji padaczki 42.

Czynniki Genetyczne i Epigenetyczne w Patogenezie Padaczki

Genetyczne Podłoże Padaczki

Dziedziczenie i etiologia padaczki są złożone, obejmując wiele podstawowych mechanizmów genetycznych i epigenetycznych 43. Około 30% wszystkich zespołów padaczkowych jest dziedzicznych, a ponad 500 loci genetycznych zostało powiązanych z padaczką u ludzi i myszy 44.

Wysoka częstość występowania napadów w niektórych rasach psów sugeruje silny komponent genetyczny choroby, a w niektórych przypadkach wykazano wysoką odziedziczalność. U psów rasy Keeshond i Vizsla dowody sugerują autosomalny recesywny sposób dziedziczenia, podczas gdy inne rasy pasują do modelu wielogenowego, niektóre z silnym wpływem płci. Zmienność między rasami sugeruje, że różne geny mogą przyczyniać się do padaczki u różnych ras 45.

Najnowsze postępy w badaniach genetycznych ujawniły, że etiologia genetyczna stanowi ponad połowę przypadków. Dziedziczne formy padaczki są głównie przypisywane defektom pojedynczych genów 46.

Mechanizmy Genetyczne i Epigenetyczne

Mechanizmy genetyczne i epigenetyczne odgrywają kluczową rolę w patogenezie padaczki. Mutacje genów związanych z kanałami jonowymi mogą prowadzić do epilepsji przez zakłócenie prawidłowej funkcji tych kanałów 47.

Deficyt neuronów GABAergicznych jako mechanizm idiopatycznej padaczki uogólnionej został zaobserwowany w badaniach na modelu myszy. Haploinsufficiency genu Brd2 u myszy jest związane ze zmniejszoną liczbą neuronów GABAergicznych, co może być ważne dla kontroli aktywności napadowej, zwłaszcza w kluczowych strukturach mózgu 48.

Poza bezpośrednimi mutacjami w genach, na rozwój padaczki mogą wpływać także czynniki epigenetyczne, takie jak metylacja DNA czy modyfikacje histonów, które mogą zmieniać ekspresję genów bez zmiany samej sekwencji DNA 49. Dynamiczna ekspresja miR-211 może powodować padaczkę, co wskazuje na rolę mikroRNA w patogenezie 50.

Padaczka Wtórna i Nabyta: Specyficzne Mechanizmy

Padaczka Poudarowa

Udar jest najczęstszą przyczyną wtórnej padaczki u osób starszych 51. Dokładny mechanizm patofizjologiczny padaczki poudarowej nie został jeszcze w pełni wyjaśniony. Stwierdzono, że kanały jonowe, neuroprzekaźniki, proliferacja komórek glejowych, genetyka i inne czynniki są zaangażowane w występowanie i rozwój padaczki poudarowej 52.

Ostry niedokrwienie i hipoksja wywołane udarem mogą zmniejszyć stabilność błony komórkowej neuronów i powodować zaburzenia metaboliczne neuronu 53. Wczesne napady padaczkowe mogą być również spowodowane zakłóceniem dynamicznej równowagi neuroprzekaźników 54.

Badania wykazały, że odkładanie się hemosyderyny jest ściśle związane z występowaniem wczesnych napadów padaczkowych po krwotoku podpajęczynówkowym 55. W późniejszych stadiach udaru, ośrodkowy układ nerwowy ulega uszkodzeniu, ponieważ blizna glejowa utworzona przez reaktywne astrocyty może powodować nabyte padaczki 56.

Padaczka Pourazowa

Padaczka pourazowa (PTE) jest istotnym stanem neurodegeneracyjnym odpowiedzialnym za około 20% przypadków padaczki objawowej 57. Około 50% pacjentów, którzy doznali ciężkiego urazu głowy, rozwinie zaburzenia napadowe. Jednak u znacznej liczby tych pacjentów napady nie staną się klinicznie widoczne przez miesiące lub lata. Ten „cichy okres” po początkowym urazie wskazuje, że w niektórych przypadkach proces epileptogenny obejmuje stopniową transformację sieci neuronalnej w czasie 58.

Zmiany zachodzące w tym okresie mogą obejmować opóźnioną martwicę interneuronów hamujących (lub pobudzających interneuronów je napędzających) lub rozrastanie kolaterali aksonalnych prowadzące do tworzenia obwodów rewerberacyjnych lub samowzmacniających się 59.

Padaczka Związana z Guzami Mózgu

Padaczka związana z guzami mózgu (TAE) to słabo zrozumiała manifestacja wielu glejaków, oponiaków i przerzutowych guzów mózgu, która ma ważne implikacje kliniczne i społeczne 60.

Mechanizmy etiologiczne leżące u podstaw padaczki związanej z guzami obejmują teorie dotyczące zaburzeń aminokwasów okołoguzowych, lokalnych zaburzeń metabolicznych, obrzęku mózgu, nieprawidłowości pH, zmian morfologicznych w neuropilu, zmian w ekspresji enzymów i białek neuronalnych i glejowych oraz zmienionej aktywności immunologicznej 61.

Sugerowano również, że patologia obejmuje zaburzenia w dystrybucji i funkcji podklasy receptorów glutaminianowych NMDA 62. Często kapryśna odpowiedź zaburzenia napadowego po usunięciu przyczynowych nowotworów sugeruje, że zaangażowanych jest wiele czynników 63.

Przyszłe Kierunki Badań i Terapii

Nowe Cele Terapeutyczne

Obecne leczenie padaczki koncentruje się na zarządzaniu objawami i zatrzymywaniu napadów za pomocą leków przeciwpadaczkowych, które działają poprzez różne mechanizmy, takie jak blokowanie napięciowo-zależnych kanałów wapniowych i sodowych, wzmacnianie hamowania GABAergicznego i zmniejszanie przekazywania nadmiernych aminokwasów pobudzających 64.

Celowanie w procesy biologiczne zaangażowane w rozwój padaczki, znane jako epileptogeneza, jest obiecującą strategią zapobiegania padaczce 65. Jednym z potencjalnych nowych celów terapeutycznych jest szlak mTOR, który jest coraz częściej rozpoznawany w padaczce. Wcześniejsze badania wykazały, że zahamowanie kompleksu mTOR 2 (mTORC2) silnie hamuje napady w różnych modelach 66.

Badania wskazują, że utrata interneuronów hamujących w mózgu jest ściśle związana ze zmniejszoną aktywnością GABAergiczną w napadach padaczkowych. Przełomowe badanie oceniło potencjał terapii komórkowej interneuronów GABAergicznych w leczeniu padaczki 67.

Nowe Podejścia Terapeutyczne

Zindywidualizowane strategie terapeutyczne w padaczce mają na celu optymalizację podejść leczniczych w oparciu o indywidualne cechy pacjenta, etiologię napadów i odpowiedzi na leczenie 68.

Jednym z nowszych podejść jest stosowanie cannabidiolu (CBD), substancji znajdującej się w konopiach. Badania wykazały, że CBD blokuje dodatnie sprzężenie zwrotne, w którym napady zwiększają sygnalizację LPI-GPR55, co prawdopodobnie zachęca do większej liczby napadów, co z kolei zwiększa poziomy zarówno LPI, jak i GPR55 69.

Innym obiecującym lekiem jest cenobamat, niedawno zatwierdzony lek przeciwpadaczkowy o podwójnym mechanizmie działania – pozytywna modulacja GABA-A i inhibicja kanałów sodowych, który został oceniony jako leczenie wspomagające u dorosłych z niekontrolowanymi napadami o początku ogniskowym 70.

Ganaksolon, poprzez swój zwalidowany mechanizm GABAA, ma możliwości zastosowania w wskazaniach sierocych oraz w ostrych i przewlekłych warunkach opieki 71. Trwają badania nad opracowaniem terapii w stanie padaczkowym, stwardnieniu guzowatym i zaburzeniu deficytu CDKL5 72.

Perspektywy Badawcze

Przyszłe badania nad padaczką powinny skupić się na głębszym zrozumieniu molekularnych mechanizmów leżących u podstaw choroby. Identyfikacja konkretnych mutacji umożliwi lepsze dostosowanie terapii w oparciu o deficyt molekularny, a nie tylko objawy kliniczne 73.

Badania powinny również koncentrować się na roli gleju i neuronów w patogenezie padaczki. Jeśli przyszłe badania potwierdzą hipotezę, że nowopowstałe niedojrzałe komórki glejowe „mają rolę zarówno w inicjowaniu, jak i modulowaniu aktywności napadowej”, to stają się one potencjalnym celem zainteresowania w rozwoju nowych podejść terapeutycznych dla padaczki 74.

Zrozumienie złożonych interakcji między chorobami neurodegeneracyjnymi, padaczką i układem noradrenergicznym stanowi fascynujący obszar badań. Dalsze badania złożonych połączeń i szlaków sygnałowych są obiecujące dla postępu naszego zrozumienia tych neurologicznych i psychiatrycznych schorzeń i potencjalnie odkrycia nowych strategii terapeutycznych 75.

Kolejne rozdziały

Zapraszamy do dalszego czytania naszego leksykonu.

Wybierz kolejny rozdział z menu poniżej, aby otworzyć nową podstronę kompedium wiedzy i uzyskać szczegółowe informację o leku, substancji lub chorobie.

  1. 09.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Basic Mechanisms Underlying Seizures and Epilepsy – An Introduction to Epilepsy – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2510/
    A seizure(from the Latinsacireto take possession of) is the clinical manifestation of an abnormal, excessive, hypersynchronous discharge of a population of cortical neurons. Epilepsyis a disorder of the central nervous system characterized by recurrent seizures unprovoked by an acute systemic or neurologic insult.Epileptogenesisis the sequence of events that turns a normal neuronal network into a hyperexcitable network. […] The hypersynchronous discharges that occur during a seizure may begin in a very discrete region of cortex and then spread to neighboring regions. Seizure initiation is characterized by two concurrent events: 1) high-frequency bursts of action potentials, and 2) hypersynchronization of a neuronal population. The synchronized bursts from a sufficient number of neurons result in a so-called spikedischarge on the EEG. At the level of single neurons, epileptiform activity consists of sustained neuronal depolarization resulting in a burst of action potentials, a plateau-like depolarization associated with completion of the action potential burst, and then a rapid repolarization followed by hyperpolarization. This sequence is called theparoxysmal depolarizing shift.
  • #2 International Online Course on Pathogenesis of Epilepsy
    https://4euplus.eu/4EU-415.html?newsID=23409)
    Epilepsy affects over 40 million people globally, and one-third of patients do not respond to current treatments. […] This course offers participants an opportunity to advance their understanding and contribute to innovative solutions in the field of epilepsy research. […] This 50-hour online course offers an in-depth look at the neurobiology of epilepsy, covering key areas such as: […] Cellular, molecular, and network mechanisms underlying epilepsy […] Understand the key mechanisms that lead to epilepsy and how these differ across various forms of the disorder. […] Recognize the challenges in developing new treatments and therapies for epilepsy.
  • #2
    https://journals.lww.com/nrronline/fulltext/2025/04000/pathogenesis,_diagnosis,_and_treatment_of.1.aspx
    Ion channels are the foundation of neuronal electrical activity; their dysfunction can trigger epilepsy by initiating abnormal activity in the central nervous system. […] The hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channels (hydrocyanic acid channels; HCN) are strongly associated with epilepsy. […] The HCN1 isoform is closely associated with epilepsy, and the HCN1 M305L variant has been detected in developmental and epileptic encephalopathy patients. […] The potassium two-pore domain channel subfamily K member 4 (KCNK4) is a member of the two-pore domain (K2P) KCNK4/two-p-domain in a weakly inwardly ratifying K+ channel (TWIK)-related K+ channel (TREK) subfamily of mechanosensitive ion channels. […] GABA receptors are G protein-coupled receptors of the class-C family. […] GABA receptors have been reported to mediate neuronal signaling in the developing brain and most of the rapid synaptic inhibition in the brains of mature animals.
  • #3 Epilepsy – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsy
    Understanding the mechanism of epilepsy involves two related but distinct questions: how the brain develops a long-term tendency to generate seizures (epileptogenesis), and how individual seizures begin and spread (ictogenesis). While these processes are not yet fully understood, research has identified a number of cellular, molecular, and network-level changes that contribute to each. […] During a seizure, this balance breaks down, leading to a sudden and excessive synchronization of neuronal firing. A localized group of neurons may begin firing together in an abnormal and repetitive pattern, overwhelming normal inhibitory controls. This abnormal activity can remain confined to a specific region of the brain or propagate to other areas. The process by which this transition occurs is known as ictogenesis. It involves a shift in network dynamics, typically beginning with excessive excitatory activity in a susceptible area of cortex known as a seizure focus and failure of inhibitory mechanisms to contain it. At the cellular level, ictogenesis is often marked by a paroxysmal depolarizing shift, a characteristic pattern of sustained neuronal depolarization followed by rapid repetitive firing.
  • #3 Biomolecular mechanisms of epileptic seizures and epilepsy: a review | Acta Epileptologica | Full Text
    https://aepi.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s42494-023-00137-0
    The biological processes, structural changes, and functional alterations play a crucial role in epileptogenesis. […] Epileptogenesis is influenced by factors including oxidative stress, neurochemical alterations in the brain due to neurotransmitters and ion channels, fluctuations in ion concentration, variations in cell surface receptors, and the presence of inflammation. […] The excessive activation of the mTOR signaling pathway directly influences the progression of epileptogenesis and neuronal excitability. […] The role of inflammation in epileptic seizure and epilepsy. […] The apoptotic pathway contribute to cell death through glutamate receptor-mediated excitotoxicity, involving pro-apoptotic proteins like p53 and mitochondrial dysfunction, leading to the activation of caspases and the disruption of calcium homeostasis.
  • #4 Basic Mechanisms Underlying Seizures and Epilepsy – An Introduction to Epilepsy – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2510/
    A seizure(from the Latinsacireto take possession of) is the clinical manifestation of an abnormal, excessive, hypersynchronous discharge of a population of cortical neurons. Epilepsyis a disorder of the central nervous system characterized by recurrent seizures unprovoked by an acute systemic or neurologic insult.Epileptogenesisis the sequence of events that turns a normal neuronal network into a hyperexcitable network. […] The hypersynchronous discharges that occur during a seizure may begin in a very discrete region of cortex and then spread to neighboring regions. Seizure initiation is characterized by two concurrent events: 1) high-frequency bursts of action potentials, and 2) hypersynchronization of a neuronal population. The synchronized bursts from a sufficient number of neurons result in a so-called spikedischarge on the EEG. At the level of single neurons, epileptiform activity consists of sustained neuronal depolarization resulting in a burst of action potentials, a plateau-like depolarization associated with completion of the action potential burst, and then a rapid repolarization followed by hyperpolarization. This sequence is called theparoxysmal depolarizing shift.
  • #4 Pathophysiology to Risk Factor and Therapeutics to Treatment Strategies on Epilepsy
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/14/1/71
    The progression to epilepsy is characterized by the presence of neuroinflammation, along with structural and molecular changes in the brain. These subsequent changes lead to increased neuronal hyperexcitability and a long-lasting propensity for recurrent spontaneous seizures. […] After seizures, cytokines such as IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α are released, modulating inflammatory responses in the brain. Studies indicate that these cytokines influence NMDA receptors, synaptic plasticity, GABAergic neurotransmission, and neuronal excitability, contributing to the development and recurrence of seizures. […] In addition to epileptogenesis, studies regarding genetic and lesion-induced epilepsies also indicate common pathologic mechanisms. The proposal of an imbalance between excitation and inhibition has been considered as a mechanism of ictogenesis and epileptogenesis.
  • #5 Epilepsy – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsy
    While ictogenesis explains how individual seizures arise, it does not account for why the brain develops a persistent tendency to generate them. This longer-term process is known as epileptogenesis the sequence of biological events that transforms a previously non-epileptic brain into one capable of producing spontaneous seizures. It can occur after a wide range of brain insults, including traumatic brain injury, stroke, central nervous system infections, brain tumors, or prolonged seizures (such as status epilepticus). In most cases, no clear cause is identified. Although not fully understood, it involves a range of biological changes, including neuronal loss, synaptic reorganization, gliosis, neuroinflammation, and disruption of the blood-brain barrier. […] Together, these changes contribute to the formation of hyperexcitable neural networks, often anchored around a seizure focus. Once established, this pathological network increases the brain’s susceptibility to seizures, even in the absence of ongoing injury. Although many of the processes underlying ictogenesis and epileptogenesis have been identified, the exact mechanisms by which the brain transitions into a seizure or becomes epileptic remain unknown. Research continues to explore how genetic, molecular, and network-level factors interact to produce the diverse manifestations of epilepsy.
  • #5 Understanding the Role of Glia-Neuron Communication in the Pathophysiology of Epilepsy: A Review
    https://www.imrpress.com/journal/JIN/21/4/10.31083/j.jin2104102/htm
    The main neuropathologic hallmark of epilepsy, in humans and non-human model animals is increased extracellular glutamate, which plays a key role in increasing the neuronal excitability of seizures. […] Astrocytes play a significant role in the transformation of vesicular glutamate and GABA. It would be expected that interfering with the cycle at any stage would rapidly impact neurotransmitter supply and synaptic function. Astroglial reactivity may be associated with epileptogenesis. […] Astrocytes fulfill key functions in the regulation of extracellular ion homeostasis essential for modulating synaptic transmission. […] The evidence provided does not agree with the concept of strict separation between “passive” homeostasis regulation and “active” neuron-glial cell communication. Disruption of glia-mediated changes in extracellular ionic and neurotransmitters, ECM, vascular tone and metabolite supply destroy the maintenance of lasting equilibrium. It will also have direct or indirect effects on the excitability of neurons. […] Glial activation is involved in the onset and progression of epilepsy through various pathways. […] Ferroptosis may play a role in the interaction between glia and neurons and thus modulate the pathogenetic process of epilepsy.
  • #6 Epilepsy – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsy
    Understanding the mechanism of epilepsy involves two related but distinct questions: how the brain develops a long-term tendency to generate seizures (epileptogenesis), and how individual seizures begin and spread (ictogenesis). While these processes are not yet fully understood, research has identified a number of cellular, molecular, and network-level changes that contribute to each. […] During a seizure, this balance breaks down, leading to a sudden and excessive synchronization of neuronal firing. A localized group of neurons may begin firing together in an abnormal and repetitive pattern, overwhelming normal inhibitory controls. This abnormal activity can remain confined to a specific region of the brain or propagate to other areas. The process by which this transition occurs is known as ictogenesis. It involves a shift in network dynamics, typically beginning with excessive excitatory activity in a susceptible area of cortex known as a seizure focus and failure of inhibitory mechanisms to contain it. At the cellular level, ictogenesis is often marked by a paroxysmal depolarizing shift, a characteristic pattern of sustained neuronal depolarization followed by rapid repetitive firing.
  • #7 Epilepsy – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsy
    Understanding the mechanism of epilepsy involves two related but distinct questions: how the brain develops a long-term tendency to generate seizures (epileptogenesis), and how individual seizures begin and spread (ictogenesis). While these processes are not yet fully understood, research has identified a number of cellular, molecular, and network-level changes that contribute to each. […] During a seizure, this balance breaks down, leading to a sudden and excessive synchronization of neuronal firing. A localized group of neurons may begin firing together in an abnormal and repetitive pattern, overwhelming normal inhibitory controls. This abnormal activity can remain confined to a specific region of the brain or propagate to other areas. The process by which this transition occurs is known as ictogenesis. It involves a shift in network dynamics, typically beginning with excessive excitatory activity in a susceptible area of cortex known as a seizure focus and failure of inhibitory mechanisms to contain it. At the cellular level, ictogenesis is often marked by a paroxysmal depolarizing shift, a characteristic pattern of sustained neuronal depolarization followed by rapid repetitive firing.
  • #8 Epilepsy and Seizures: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1184846-overview
    Seizures are paroxysmal manifestations of the electrical properties of the cerebral cortex. A seizure results when a sudden imbalance occurs between the excitatory and inhibitory forces within the network of cortical neurons in favor of a sudden-onset net excitation. […] The pathophysiology of focal-onset seizures differs from the mechanisms underlying generalized-onset seizures. Overall, cellular excitability is increased, but the mechanisms of synchronization appear to substantially differ between these 2 types of seizure and are therefore discussed separately. […] The electroencephalographic (EEG) hallmark of focal-onset seizures is the focal interictal epileptiform spike or sharp wave. The cellular neurophysiologic correlate of an interictal focal epileptiform discharge in single cortical neurons is the paroxysmal depolarization shift (PDS).
  • #9 Seizure – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seizure
    Seizures are the result of abnormal, excessive, and hypersynchronous neuronal activity in the brain. […] At a cellular level, they reflect a disruption of the normal balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission. […] An excess of excitation or a failure of inhibition can tip this balance, promoting hypersynchronous neuronal firing characteristic of seizures. […] The generation of a seizure—the transition from an interictal to an ictal state—is known as ictogenesis. […] This process involves a cascade of physiological and network-level changes that lead to the sudden onset of pathological activity. […] In provoked seizures (e.g., due to trauma, metabolic insults, or infections), acute disturbances in ionic gradients, neurotransmitter release, and neuronal membrane stability may transiently lower the threshold for seizure activity.
  • #10 Basic Mechanisms Underlying Seizures and Epilepsy – An Introduction to Epilepsy – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2510/
    Our understanding of the CNS abnormalities causing patients to have recurrent seizures remains limited. It is important to understand that seizures and epilepsy can result from many different pathologic processes that upset the balance between excitation and inhibition. Epilepsy can result from processes which disturb extracellular ion homeostasis, alter energy metabolism, change receptor function, or alter transmitter uptake. […] Clinical observations suggest that certain forms of epilepsy are caused by particular events. For example, approximately 50% of patients who suffer a severe head injury will develop a seizure disorder. However, in a significant number of these patients, the seizures will not become clinically evident for months or years. This „silent period” after the initial injury indicates that in some cases the epileptogenic process involves a gradual transformation of the neural network over time. Changes occurring during this period could include delayed necrosis of inhibitory interneurons (or the excitatory interneurons driving them), or sprouting of axonal collaterals leading to reverberating, or self-reinforcing, circuits.
  • #11 Basic Mechanisms Underlying Seizures and Epilepsy – An Introduction to Epilepsy – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2510/
    A seizure(from the Latinsacireto take possession of) is the clinical manifestation of an abnormal, excessive, hypersynchronous discharge of a population of cortical neurons. Epilepsyis a disorder of the central nervous system characterized by recurrent seizures unprovoked by an acute systemic or neurologic insult.Epileptogenesisis the sequence of events that turns a normal neuronal network into a hyperexcitable network. […] The hypersynchronous discharges that occur during a seizure may begin in a very discrete region of cortex and then spread to neighboring regions. Seizure initiation is characterized by two concurrent events: 1) high-frequency bursts of action potentials, and 2) hypersynchronization of a neuronal population. The synchronized bursts from a sufficient number of neurons result in a so-called spikedischarge on the EEG. At the level of single neurons, epileptiform activity consists of sustained neuronal depolarization resulting in a burst of action potentials, a plateau-like depolarization associated with completion of the action potential burst, and then a rapid repolarization followed by hyperpolarization. This sequence is called theparoxysmal depolarizing shift.
  • #12 Epilepsy and Seizures: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1184846-overview
    Seizures are paroxysmal manifestations of the electrical properties of the cerebral cortex. A seizure results when a sudden imbalance occurs between the excitatory and inhibitory forces within the network of cortical neurons in favor of a sudden-onset net excitation. […] The pathophysiology of focal-onset seizures differs from the mechanisms underlying generalized-onset seizures. Overall, cellular excitability is increased, but the mechanisms of synchronization appear to substantially differ between these 2 types of seizure and are therefore discussed separately. […] The electroencephalographic (EEG) hallmark of focal-onset seizures is the focal interictal epileptiform spike or sharp wave. The cellular neurophysiologic correlate of an interictal focal epileptiform discharge in single cortical neurons is the paroxysmal depolarization shift (PDS).
  • #13 Advances in understanding the pathogenesis of epilepsy: Unraveling the molecular mechanisms: A cross‐sectional study
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10867297/
    Understanding epileptogenesis at a molecular and genetic level aids in developing new antiepileptic pharmacotherapy. The aim is to develop therapies that could prevent seizures or modify disease course, decreasing the severity and avoiding drug resistance. […] Molecular mechanisms of epileptogenesis are complex and not fully understood, but they are thought to involve an imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory signaling in the brain, abnormal synaptic plasticity network hyperstability, inflammation, and immune dysregulation. Therefore, the primary endpoint of this study is to analyze how these factors can lead to epilepsy. […] A seizure happens when there is a decrease in inhibitory signaling such as gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) or an increase in excitatory signaling such as Glutamate.
  • #14
    https://journals.lww.com/nrronline/fulltext/2025/04000/pathogenesis,_diagnosis,_and_treatment_of.1.aspx
    Ion channels are the foundation of neuronal electrical activity; their dysfunction can trigger epilepsy by initiating abnormal activity in the central nervous system. […] The hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channels (hydrocyanic acid channels; HCN) are strongly associated with epilepsy. […] The HCN1 isoform is closely associated with epilepsy, and the HCN1 M305L variant has been detected in developmental and epileptic encephalopathy patients. […] The potassium two-pore domain channel subfamily K member 4 (KCNK4) is a member of the two-pore domain (K2P) KCNK4/two-p-domain in a weakly inwardly ratifying K+ channel (TWIK)-related K+ channel (TREK) subfamily of mechanosensitive ion channels. […] GABA receptors are G protein-coupled receptors of the class-C family. […] GABA receptors have been reported to mediate neuronal signaling in the developing brain and most of the rapid synaptic inhibition in the brains of mature animals.
  • #15
    https://journals.lww.com/nrronline/fulltext/2025/04000/pathogenesis,_diagnosis,_and_treatment_of.1.aspx
    Ion channels are the foundation of neuronal electrical activity; their dysfunction can trigger epilepsy by initiating abnormal activity in the central nervous system. […] The hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channels (hydrocyanic acid channels; HCN) are strongly associated with epilepsy. […] The HCN1 isoform is closely associated with epilepsy, and the HCN1 M305L variant has been detected in developmental and epileptic encephalopathy patients. […] The potassium two-pore domain channel subfamily K member 4 (KCNK4) is a member of the two-pore domain (K2P) KCNK4/two-p-domain in a weakly inwardly ratifying K+ channel (TWIK)-related K+ channel (TREK) subfamily of mechanosensitive ion channels. […] GABA receptors are G protein-coupled receptors of the class-C family. […] GABA receptors have been reported to mediate neuronal signaling in the developing brain and most of the rapid synaptic inhibition in the brains of mature animals.
  • #16 Canine idiopathic epilepsy: pathogenesis and clinical characteristics
    https://www.dvm360.com/view/canine-idiopathic-epilepsy-pathogenesis-and-clinical-characteristics?date=&id=&pageID=2&sk=
    Ion channel mutations compromise most of these idiopathic epilepsy genes (Mulley 2003). This is not surprising given the important role of ion channels in controlling neuronal excitability. Ion channel mutations have been found in other neurologic diseases such as hereditary ataxias and hyperkalemic periodic paralysis, and the term „channelopathies” is sometimes used to describe mutations in ion channels, which lead to disease (Terwindt 1998). Channels that have been found that cause idiopathic epilepsy in people include voltage gated potassium channels, voltage-gated sodium channels, voltage gated calcium channels, GABA receptors, and Acetylcholine receptors. […] The past dogma has been that idiopathic epilepsy in dogs is associated with generalized seizures, and that focal onset seizures usually indicate symptomatic epilepsy caused by focal brain lesion. As in human medicine, veterinary studies now are providing evidence that focal onset seizures also might have a genetic basis. […] Thus, although focal onset seizures should still stimulate an extensive search for an acquired lesion, it does not rule out a potentially hereditary condition.
  • #17 Canine idiopathic epilepsy: pathogenesis and clinical characteristics
    https://www.dvm360.com/view/canine-idiopathic-epilepsy-pathogenesis-and-clinical-characteristics?date=&id=&pageID=2&sk=
    Ion channel mutations compromise most of these idiopathic epilepsy genes (Mulley 2003). This is not surprising given the important role of ion channels in controlling neuronal excitability. Ion channel mutations have been found in other neurologic diseases such as hereditary ataxias and hyperkalemic periodic paralysis, and the term „channelopathies” is sometimes used to describe mutations in ion channels, which lead to disease (Terwindt 1998). Channels that have been found that cause idiopathic epilepsy in people include voltage gated potassium channels, voltage-gated sodium channels, voltage gated calcium channels, GABA receptors, and Acetylcholine receptors. […] The past dogma has been that idiopathic epilepsy in dogs is associated with generalized seizures, and that focal onset seizures usually indicate symptomatic epilepsy caused by focal brain lesion. As in human medicine, veterinary studies now are providing evidence that focal onset seizures also might have a genetic basis. […] Thus, although focal onset seizures should still stimulate an extensive search for an acquired lesion, it does not rule out a potentially hereditary condition.
  • #18 Pathophysiology to Risk Factor and Therapeutics to Treatment Strategies on Epilepsy
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/14/1/71
    Epilepsy represents a condition in which abnormal neuronal discharges or the hyperexcitability of neurons occur with synchronicity, presenting a significant public health challenge. […] The inheritance and etiology of epilepsy are complex, involving multiple underlying genetic and epigenetic mechanisms. Different neurotransmitters play crucial roles in maintaining the normal physiology of different neurons. Dysregulations in neurotransmission, due to abnormal transmitter levels or changes in their receptors, can result in seizures. […] This pathology is also divided into three etiological categories: idiopathic, acquired, and cryptogenic. […] An extensive combination of genetic polymorphisms, epigenetic modifications, and environmental factors, such as pollutants, diet composition, and brain injuries, emerge as key factors in the reconfiguration of brain circuits, culminating in the emergence of epileptic disorders.
  • #19 Advances in understanding the pathogenesis of epilepsy: Unraveling the molecular mechanisms: A cross‐sectional study
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10867297/
    Understanding epileptogenesis at a molecular and genetic level aids in developing new antiepileptic pharmacotherapy. The aim is to develop therapies that could prevent seizures or modify disease course, decreasing the severity and avoiding drug resistance. […] Molecular mechanisms of epileptogenesis are complex and not fully understood, but they are thought to involve an imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory signaling in the brain, abnormal synaptic plasticity network hyperstability, inflammation, and immune dysregulation. Therefore, the primary endpoint of this study is to analyze how these factors can lead to epilepsy. […] A seizure happens when there is a decrease in inhibitory signaling such as gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) or an increase in excitatory signaling such as Glutamate.
  • #20 Temporal Lobe Epilepsy – Pathophysiology and Mechanisms – touchNEUROLOGY
    https://touchneurology.com/epilepsy/journal-articles/temporal-lobe-epilepsy-pathophysiology-and-mechanisms/
    Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is a disorder of the nervous system due to unprovoked seizures originating from the temporal lobe. The main cause of TLE is neuronal hyperexcitability due to the presence of pathological changes in the temporal lobe of the brain such as neuronal loss, mutation, granule cell dispersion and malformations of cortical development. […] The ILAE defines HS as severe segmental loss of pyramidal neurons in the CA1 region, and less prominent neuronal loss can be seen in the areas CA3 and CA4. […] Experimental models show that activation of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors can produce neuronal loss in TLE. […] Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter that inhibits neuronal firing by activating two different classes of receptors, GABAA and GABAB, through Cl-influx into the central nervous system. Therefore, damage of GABAergic interneurons will cause continuous unregulated neuronal firing, which will lead to seizures.
  • #21 Temporal Lobe Epilepsy – Pathophysiology and Mechanisms – touchNEUROLOGY
    https://touchneurology.com/epilepsy/journal-articles/temporal-lobe-epilepsy-pathophysiology-and-mechanisms/
    Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is a disorder of the nervous system due to unprovoked seizures originating from the temporal lobe. The main cause of TLE is neuronal hyperexcitability due to the presence of pathological changes in the temporal lobe of the brain such as neuronal loss, mutation, granule cell dispersion and malformations of cortical development. […] The ILAE defines HS as severe segmental loss of pyramidal neurons in the CA1 region, and less prominent neuronal loss can be seen in the areas CA3 and CA4. […] Experimental models show that activation of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors can produce neuronal loss in TLE. […] Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter that inhibits neuronal firing by activating two different classes of receptors, GABAA and GABAB, through Cl-influx into the central nervous system. Therefore, damage of GABAergic interneurons will cause continuous unregulated neuronal firing, which will lead to seizures.
  • #22 Pathophysiology to Risk Factor and Therapeutics to Treatment Strategies on Epilepsy
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/14/1/71
    Dysregulation in the glutamatergic mechanisms in epilepsy involves dysfunctions in the interactions between the neurons, the astrocytes, or both of these. […] The mechanisms of action of most commercially available AEDs are proposed to target, individually or simultaneously, the GABA system, the voltage-gated channels, the synaptic vesicle protein 2A or the α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) glutamate receptor, or the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor. […] Epilepsy is a complex symptomatic disease with several risk factors, often associated with a strong genetic predisposition, rather than a single expression and cause. Advances in genomic technology have revealed the complex genetic architecture behind epilepsies.
  • #23
    https://journals.lww.com/nrronline/fulltext/2025/04000/pathogenesis,_diagnosis,_and_treatment_of.1.aspx
    Energy metabolism disorders in brain tissue can lead to mitochondrial dysfunction, enzyme dysfunction, and disruption of the interstitial glutamic acid-glutamine cycle. […] The oxidative stress response in epilepsy is linked to the inflammatory factor high mobility group box 1. […] The gut-brain-gut axis participates in the physiological activities of the nervous system by synthesizing and secreting neurotransmitters, synthesizing metabolites, and stimulating the production of various cytokines. […] The causes of epilepsy were expounded from seven aspects with high reliability, including miRNAs, genetic abnormalities, protein abnormalities, ion channels, the neurotransmitter GABA, oxidation and reduction, and the brain-gut axis. […] The presence of granular granulocytes in the dentate gyrus plays a crucial role in the development of epilepsy and the occurrence of spontaneous recurrent seizures.
  • #24
    https://journals.lww.com/nrronline/fulltext/2025/04000/pathogenesis,_diagnosis,_and_treatment_of.1.aspx
    Energy metabolism disorders in brain tissue can lead to mitochondrial dysfunction, enzyme dysfunction, and disruption of the interstitial glutamic acid-glutamine cycle. […] The oxidative stress response in epilepsy is linked to the inflammatory factor high mobility group box 1. […] The gut-brain-gut axis participates in the physiological activities of the nervous system by synthesizing and secreting neurotransmitters, synthesizing metabolites, and stimulating the production of various cytokines. […] The causes of epilepsy were expounded from seven aspects with high reliability, including miRNAs, genetic abnormalities, protein abnormalities, ion channels, the neurotransmitter GABA, oxidation and reduction, and the brain-gut axis. […] The presence of granular granulocytes in the dentate gyrus plays a crucial role in the development of epilepsy and the occurrence of spontaneous recurrent seizures.
  • #25
    https://journals.lww.com/nrronline/fulltext/2025/04000/pathogenesis,_diagnosis,_and_treatment_of.1.aspx
    Energy metabolism disorders in brain tissue can lead to mitochondrial dysfunction, enzyme dysfunction, and disruption of the interstitial glutamic acid-glutamine cycle. […] The oxidative stress response in epilepsy is linked to the inflammatory factor high mobility group box 1. […] The gut-brain-gut axis participates in the physiological activities of the nervous system by synthesizing and secreting neurotransmitters, synthesizing metabolites, and stimulating the production of various cytokines. […] The causes of epilepsy were expounded from seven aspects with high reliability, including miRNAs, genetic abnormalities, protein abnormalities, ion channels, the neurotransmitter GABA, oxidation and reduction, and the brain-gut axis. […] The presence of granular granulocytes in the dentate gyrus plays a crucial role in the development of epilepsy and the occurrence of spontaneous recurrent seizures.
  • #26
    https://aesnet.org/abstractslisting/a-feedforward-mechanism-for-epilepsy-regulated-by-lactate-dehydrogenase-a
    Rationale: Despite the ketogenic diet’s successful use since the 1920’s, epilepsy as a disease of energy metabolism is a novel concept. We previously established that seizures deplete neuronal energy stores and reprogram neurons from an aerobic to glycolytic metabolic phenotype, marked by upregulation of lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA). LDHA has recently been shown to play a role in neuronal membrane depolarization and epileptogenesis. We show here that LDHA upregulation through HIF1a leads to seizure formation. […] Overall, our data show that LDHA, regulated by HIF1a, can contribute to seizure development. These data suggest a novel molecular mechanism for the pathogenesis of epilepsy where seizures cause LDHA upregulation which then further drives seizures, leading to a cycle of epileptogenesis.
  • #27 Advances in understanding the pathogenesis of epilepsy: Unraveling the molecular mechanisms: A cross‐sectional study
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10867297/
    Inflammation and immune deregulation can also play a role in triggering an epileptic seizure. Inflammatory cells release molecules that can alter neuronal signaling, which can lead to seizures. […] The current treatment for epilepsy focuses on managing symptoms and stopping seizures using antiseizure medications, which act through various mechanisms, such as blocking voltage-gated calcium and sodium channels, enhancing the inhibition of GABAergic, and reducing transmission of excessive excitatory amino acid. […] Targeting the biological processes involved in developing epilepsy, known as epileptogenesis, is a promising strategy for preventing epilepsy. […] Recent advances in genetic testing have revealed a genetic etiology is accounting for over half of the cases. Inherited forms of epilepsy are predominantly attributed to single gene defects. […] While inflammation in the brain has been shown to contribute to epileptogenesis, there are also immune responses that are protective and stimulate neuronal repair.
  • #28 Biomolecular mechanisms of epileptic seizures and epilepsy: a review | Acta Epileptologica | Full Text
    https://aepi.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s42494-023-00137-0
    Epilepsy is a recurring neurological disease caused by the abnormal electrical activity in the brain. […] Epileptogenesis is the process by which a normally functioning brain undergoes alterations leading to the development of epilepsy, involving various factors. This is related to the inflammation which is driven by cytokines like IL-1 and tumor necrosis factor- (TNF-) leads to neuronal hyperexcitability. Pro-inflammatory cytokines from activated microglia and astrocytes in epileptic tissue initiate an inflammatory cascade, heightening neuronal excitability and triggering epileptiform activity. […] The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathways excessive activation influences epileptogenesis, impacting neuronal excitability, and synapse formation, with genetic mutations contributing to epilepsy syndromes and the modulation of autophagy playing a role in seizure onset.
  • #29 Pathophysiology to Risk Factor and Therapeutics to Treatment Strategies on Epilepsy
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/14/1/71
    The progression to epilepsy is characterized by the presence of neuroinflammation, along with structural and molecular changes in the brain. These subsequent changes lead to increased neuronal hyperexcitability and a long-lasting propensity for recurrent spontaneous seizures. […] After seizures, cytokines such as IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α are released, modulating inflammatory responses in the brain. Studies indicate that these cytokines influence NMDA receptors, synaptic plasticity, GABAergic neurotransmission, and neuronal excitability, contributing to the development and recurrence of seizures. […] In addition to epileptogenesis, studies regarding genetic and lesion-induced epilepsies also indicate common pathologic mechanisms. The proposal of an imbalance between excitation and inhibition has been considered as a mechanism of ictogenesis and epileptogenesis.
  • #30 Biomolecular mechanisms of epileptic seizures and epilepsy: a review | Acta Epileptologica | Full Text
    https://aepi.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s42494-023-00137-0
    The biological processes, structural changes, and functional alterations play a crucial role in epileptogenesis. […] Epileptogenesis is influenced by factors including oxidative stress, neurochemical alterations in the brain due to neurotransmitters and ion channels, fluctuations in ion concentration, variations in cell surface receptors, and the presence of inflammation. […] The excessive activation of the mTOR signaling pathway directly influences the progression of epileptogenesis and neuronal excitability. […] The role of inflammation in epileptic seizure and epilepsy. […] The apoptotic pathway contribute to cell death through glutamate receptor-mediated excitotoxicity, involving pro-apoptotic proteins like p53 and mitochondrial dysfunction, leading to the activation of caspases and the disruption of calcium homeostasis.
  • #31 Temporal Lobe Epilepsy – Pathophysiology and Mechanisms – touchNEUROLOGY
    https://touchneurology.com/epilepsy/journal-articles/temporal-lobe-epilepsy-pathophysiology-and-mechanisms/
    Mutation of the neuron-specific type 2 K+/Cl cotransporter (KCC2) in some of the subicular pyramidal cells, which leads to loss of function, is one of the causes of HS-associated MTLE. […] Granule cell dispersion (GCD) in the dentate gyrus is observed in HS, which may be a consequence of enhanced proliferation of granule cell precursors as a result of seizures. […] Malformations of cortical development (MCD) represent abnormalities in the development of the cortex which involves processes such as regionalisation, cell proliferation, neuronal migration and cortical organisation. […] Focal cortical dysplasia (FCD) is a subtype of MCD which causes chronic medically refractory epilepsy in the paediatric population, and is a frequent cause of epilepsy in adults. […] The mTOR pathway forms two distinct protein complexes, mTORC1 which is rapamycin-sensitive and promotes protein synthesis by activating downstream signalling cascades, and mTORC2 which acts as a cytoskeletal regulator and is rapamycin-insensitive.
  • #32 Temporal Lobe Epilepsy – Pathophysiology and Mechanisms – touchNEUROLOGY
    https://touchneurology.com/epilepsy/journal-articles/temporal-lobe-epilepsy-pathophysiology-and-mechanisms/
    Cell overgrowth and synaptogenesis disruptions occur with TSC1 or TSC2 mutations due to abnormal activation of mTORC1, and TSC2 mutation causes hyperexcitability of glutamate-mediated neurons which will lead to seizures. […] In conclusion, the pathophysiology of TLE is complex and not well-understood; to-date there are several pathological findings in TLE. However, thorough understanding of the mechanism of the disease is crucial in developing new pharmacological therapies.
  • #33 What are the biological mechanisms of epilepsy? | Paris Brain Institute
    https://parisbraininstitute.org/disease-files/epilepsy/what-are-biological-mechanisms-epilepsy
    This neuronal hyperexcitability is explained in idiopathic epilepsies by mutations in ion channels, located on the neuron membrane, which allow ion exchange and thus depolarization and repolarization. In general, the membrane becomes too permeable to return to a resting potential. […] Hyperexcitable neurons form the epileptic focus. Focal epileptic seizures, which originate in a highly delimited region of the brain, are distinguished from generalized seizures resulting from a train of action potentials that extends throughout the brain. […] Hyperexcitability is very often accompanied during seizures by hypersynchrony, with several groups of neurons simultaneously generating action potential trains at the same time and at the same rate, amplifying the intensity of symptoms. […] The goal of Jaime de Juan-Sanzs team is to understand and identify the essential molecular mechanisms involved in maintaining synapse bioenergetics under normal conditions and to show a relationship between energy dysfunction and seizure.
  • #34 What are the biological mechanisms of epilepsy? | Paris Brain Institute
    https://parisbraininstitute.org/disease-files/epilepsy/what-are-biological-mechanisms-epilepsy
    This neuronal hyperexcitability is explained in idiopathic epilepsies by mutations in ion channels, located on the neuron membrane, which allow ion exchange and thus depolarization and repolarization. In general, the membrane becomes too permeable to return to a resting potential. […] Hyperexcitable neurons form the epileptic focus. Focal epileptic seizures, which originate in a highly delimited region of the brain, are distinguished from generalized seizures resulting from a train of action potentials that extends throughout the brain. […] Hyperexcitability is very often accompanied during seizures by hypersynchrony, with several groups of neurons simultaneously generating action potential trains at the same time and at the same rate, amplifying the intensity of symptoms. […] The goal of Jaime de Juan-Sanzs team is to understand and identify the essential molecular mechanisms involved in maintaining synapse bioenergetics under normal conditions and to show a relationship between energy dysfunction and seizure.
  • #35 New Insights About Epilepsy Mechanism Suggest a Potential Treatment Target | Brain & Behavior Research Foundation
    https://bbrfoundation.org/content/new-insights-about-epilepsy-mechanism-suggest-potential-treatment-target
    As they explain in a paper appearing in Nature Neuroscience, he and his team explored another potential source of neuronal hyperactivity in epilepsy, a class of brain cells called astroglia: ubiquitous, star-shaped members of a class of brain cells called glia which perform a wide variety of activities supporting the function of neurons. […] The decline in new nerve-cell generation in MTLE was described by the team as „exponential,” greater than that seen in Alzheimer’s disease. […] But the researchers could not say the same for astroglia. In their human sample, the team saw „persistent levels of immature [i.e., recently born] glia” throughout the duration of MTLE. Yet immature astroglia were not seen in the hippocampus of control individuals. This led the team to conclude that „immature astroglia observed in [MTLE patients] in this study likely represent a pathological manifestation of epilepsy.”
  • #36 Understanding the Role of Glia-Neuron Communication in the Pathophysiology of Epilepsy: A Review
    https://www.imrpress.com/journal/JIN/21/4/10.31083/j.jin2104102/htm
    Dysregulation of glial functions may cause epilepsy or promote the triggering of seizures, and although the disease process has been illuminated, an additional examination is warranted. […] Gliosis is probably omnipresent in all forms of epilepsy. Gliosis refers to a nonspecific reactive change of glial cells, especially microglia and astrocytes, in response to various types of damage and repair of the CNS. […] The best evidence for gliosis being causative of epilepsy comes from studies in which gliosis was induced by the conditional astrocyte-specific deletion of the β1 integrin gene Itgb1. […] A growing body of evidence has confirmed that reactive astrogliosis seems to be found in most acquired epilepsy animal models, as well as in the tissues of patients with epilepsy, further supporting that reactive astrogliosis is generally related to epilepsy.
  • #37 Understanding the Role of Glia-Neuron Communication in the Pathophysiology of Epilepsy: A Review
    https://www.imrpress.com/journal/JIN/21/4/10.31083/j.jin2104102/htm
    Dysregulation of glial functions may cause epilepsy or promote the triggering of seizures, and although the disease process has been illuminated, an additional examination is warranted. […] Gliosis is probably omnipresent in all forms of epilepsy. Gliosis refers to a nonspecific reactive change of glial cells, especially microglia and astrocytes, in response to various types of damage and repair of the CNS. […] The best evidence for gliosis being causative of epilepsy comes from studies in which gliosis was induced by the conditional astrocyte-specific deletion of the β1 integrin gene Itgb1. […] A growing body of evidence has confirmed that reactive astrogliosis seems to be found in most acquired epilepsy animal models, as well as in the tissues of patients with epilepsy, further supporting that reactive astrogliosis is generally related to epilepsy.
  • #38 Understanding the Role of Glia-Neuron Communication in the Pathophysiology of Epilepsy: A Review
    https://www.imrpress.com/journal/JIN/21/4/10.31083/j.jin2104102/htm
    Dysregulation of glial functions may cause epilepsy or promote the triggering of seizures, and although the disease process has been illuminated, an additional examination is warranted. […] Gliosis is probably omnipresent in all forms of epilepsy. Gliosis refers to a nonspecific reactive change of glial cells, especially microglia and astrocytes, in response to various types of damage and repair of the CNS. […] The best evidence for gliosis being causative of epilepsy comes from studies in which gliosis was induced by the conditional astrocyte-specific deletion of the β1 integrin gene Itgb1. […] A growing body of evidence has confirmed that reactive astrogliosis seems to be found in most acquired epilepsy animal models, as well as in the tissues of patients with epilepsy, further supporting that reactive astrogliosis is generally related to epilepsy.
  • #39 Understanding the Role of Glia-Neuron Communication in the Pathophysiology of Epilepsy: A Review
    https://www.imrpress.com/journal/JIN/21/4/10.31083/j.jin2104102/htm
    The main neuropathologic hallmark of epilepsy, in humans and non-human model animals is increased extracellular glutamate, which plays a key role in increasing the neuronal excitability of seizures. […] Astrocytes play a significant role in the transformation of vesicular glutamate and GABA. It would be expected that interfering with the cycle at any stage would rapidly impact neurotransmitter supply and synaptic function. Astroglial reactivity may be associated with epileptogenesis. […] Astrocytes fulfill key functions in the regulation of extracellular ion homeostasis essential for modulating synaptic transmission. […] The evidence provided does not agree with the concept of strict separation between “passive” homeostasis regulation and “active” neuron-glial cell communication. Disruption of glia-mediated changes in extracellular ionic and neurotransmitters, ECM, vascular tone and metabolite supply destroy the maintenance of lasting equilibrium. It will also have direct or indirect effects on the excitability of neurons. […] Glial activation is involved in the onset and progression of epilepsy through various pathways. […] Ferroptosis may play a role in the interaction between glia and neurons and thus modulate the pathogenetic process of epilepsy.
  • #40 CURE Epilepsy Discovery: Investigating Mechanism of the Progression of Epilepsy – CURE Epilepsy
    https://www.cureepilepsy.org/research-discoveries/investigating-mechanism-of-the-progression-of-epilepsy/
    The development of seizures is associated with many changes in the brain; one of these changes is alterations in the white matter (the deep part of the brain) composed of axons covered in myelin. Myelin is a substance that acts as a nerve insulator and is critical for communication between neurons. […] Dr. Juliet Knowles at Stanford University was granted both a CURE Epilepsy Taking Flight and a CURE Epilepsy Research Continuity Fund award to investigate whether changes in myelin might play a role in the development of epilepsy. Through her research, the team discovered that abnormal neuronal activity during absence seizures may lead to changes in myelination. The changes in myelin, in turn, lead to seizure progression. […] The current study by Dr. Knowles group is the first that clearly shows that abnormal neuronal activity (in this case, due to absence seizures) can lead to harmful changes in myelination, which contribute to the continued progression of epilepsy.
  • #41 CURE Epilepsy Discovery: Investigating Mechanism of the Progression of Epilepsy – CURE Epilepsy
    https://www.cureepilepsy.org/research-discoveries/investigating-mechanism-of-the-progression-of-epilepsy/
    The development of seizures is associated with many changes in the brain; one of these changes is alterations in the white matter (the deep part of the brain) composed of axons covered in myelin. Myelin is a substance that acts as a nerve insulator and is critical for communication between neurons. […] Dr. Juliet Knowles at Stanford University was granted both a CURE Epilepsy Taking Flight and a CURE Epilepsy Research Continuity Fund award to investigate whether changes in myelin might play a role in the development of epilepsy. Through her research, the team discovered that abnormal neuronal activity during absence seizures may lead to changes in myelination. The changes in myelin, in turn, lead to seizure progression. […] The current study by Dr. Knowles group is the first that clearly shows that abnormal neuronal activity (in this case, due to absence seizures) can lead to harmful changes in myelination, which contribute to the continued progression of epilepsy.
  • #42 CURE Epilepsy Discovery: Investigating Mechanism of the Progression of Epilepsy – CURE Epilepsy
    https://www.cureepilepsy.org/research-discoveries/investigating-mechanism-of-the-progression-of-epilepsy/
    The development of seizures is associated with many changes in the brain; one of these changes is alterations in the white matter (the deep part of the brain) composed of axons covered in myelin. Myelin is a substance that acts as a nerve insulator and is critical for communication between neurons. […] Dr. Juliet Knowles at Stanford University was granted both a CURE Epilepsy Taking Flight and a CURE Epilepsy Research Continuity Fund award to investigate whether changes in myelin might play a role in the development of epilepsy. Through her research, the team discovered that abnormal neuronal activity during absence seizures may lead to changes in myelination. The changes in myelin, in turn, lead to seizure progression. […] The current study by Dr. Knowles group is the first that clearly shows that abnormal neuronal activity (in this case, due to absence seizures) can lead to harmful changes in myelination, which contribute to the continued progression of epilepsy.
  • #43 Pathophysiology to Risk Factor and Therapeutics to Treatment Strategies on Epilepsy
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/14/1/71
    Epilepsy represents a condition in which abnormal neuronal discharges or the hyperexcitability of neurons occur with synchronicity, presenting a significant public health challenge. […] The inheritance and etiology of epilepsy are complex, involving multiple underlying genetic and epigenetic mechanisms. Different neurotransmitters play crucial roles in maintaining the normal physiology of different neurons. Dysregulations in neurotransmission, due to abnormal transmitter levels or changes in their receptors, can result in seizures. […] This pathology is also divided into three etiological categories: idiopathic, acquired, and cryptogenic. […] An extensive combination of genetic polymorphisms, epigenetic modifications, and environmental factors, such as pollutants, diet composition, and brain injuries, emerge as key factors in the reconfiguration of brain circuits, culminating in the emergence of epileptic disorders.
  • #44 Pathogenesis of seizures and epilepsy after stroke | Acta Epileptologica | Full Text
    https://aepi.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s42494-021-00068-8
    About 30% of all epileptic syndromes are hereditary, and more than 500 genetic loci have been revealed to be associated with epilepsy in humans and mice. […] In particular, the changes of brain network structure in patients with epilepsy after stroke are receiving more and more attention, and further studies are needed to determine the independent predictors of post-stroke seizures and different types of seizures.
  • #45 Canine idiopathic epilepsy: pathogenesis and clinical characteristics
    https://www.dvm360.com/view/canine-idiopathic-epilepsy-pathogenesis-and-clinical-characteristics?date=&id=&pageID=2&sk=
    The high incidence of seizures in some breeds suggests a strong genetic component to the disease… […] Modern molecular techniques are beginning to clarify the role of genetics in epilepsy as in many other diseases (O’Brien 2003). […] Idiopathic epilepsy can be defined as repeated epileptic seizures where no underlying cause is identified, and in dogs, it is likely to have an inherited basis in most instances. […] Studies in humans and rodents conclusively have demonstrated genetic causes of idiopathic epilepsy. The high incidence of seizures in some breeds suggests a strong genetic component to the disease, and in some, a high heritability has been demonstrated. In Keeshonds and Vizslas evidence suggests an autosomal recessive mode of inheritance, while other breeds fit a polygenic mode, some with a strong sex influence. The variability between breeds suggests that different genes might contribute to epilepsy in different breeds.
  • #46 Advances in understanding the pathogenesis of epilepsy: Unraveling the molecular mechanisms: A cross‐sectional study
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10867297/
    Inflammation and immune deregulation can also play a role in triggering an epileptic seizure. Inflammatory cells release molecules that can alter neuronal signaling, which can lead to seizures. […] The current treatment for epilepsy focuses on managing symptoms and stopping seizures using antiseizure medications, which act through various mechanisms, such as blocking voltage-gated calcium and sodium channels, enhancing the inhibition of GABAergic, and reducing transmission of excessive excitatory amino acid. […] Targeting the biological processes involved in developing epilepsy, known as epileptogenesis, is a promising strategy for preventing epilepsy. […] Recent advances in genetic testing have revealed a genetic etiology is accounting for over half of the cases. Inherited forms of epilepsy are predominantly attributed to single gene defects. […] While inflammation in the brain has been shown to contribute to epileptogenesis, there are also immune responses that are protective and stimulate neuronal repair.
  • #47 Epilepsy and It’s Driving Forces: Understanding the Significance Behind Epileptical Pathogenesis
    https://arxiv.org/html/2502.16144v1
    Epilepsy is a neurological disorder characterized by seizures and epileptic events intertwined with religious and personal beliefs since prehistoric times. […] In addition, this review paper focuses on the mechanisms and etiologies of epileptogenesis, categorizing them by mechanisms and the underlying causes of the disorder. […] Epileptogenesis involves alterations in the balance between excitatory and inhibitory signals, leading to hyperexcitability and an increased risk of seizures. Changes in ion channels, neurotransmitter systems, and neural circuit connectivity contribute to this imbalance, making the brain more susceptible to seizures. […] Ion channels are critical regulators of neuronal excitability and play a significant role in epilepsy development. Dysregulation or mutations in ion channels can lead to abnormal electrical signaling, promoting seizure generation. Understanding the role of ion channels is vital for identifying potential therapeutic targets and developing more effective antiepileptic drugs.
  • #48 GABAergic Neuron Deficit As An Idiopathic Generalized Epilepsy Mechanism: The Role Of BRD2 Haploinsufficiency In Juvenile Myoclonic Epilepsy | PLOS One
    https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0023656
    GABAergic neuron deficit as an idiopathic generalized epilepsy mechanism: The role of BRD2 haploinsufficiency in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Idiopathic generalized epilepsy (IGE) is mostly genetic in origin and represents about 30% of all epilepsies. IGE comprises several sub-syndromes including Juvenile Myoclonic Epilepsy (JME) and Juvenile Absence Epilepsy (JAE). Our data show that the non-channel-encoding, developmentally critical Brd2 gene is associated with i) sex-specific increases in seizure susceptibility, ii) the development of spontaneous seizures, and iii) seizure-related anatomical changes in the GABA system, supporting BRD2’s involvement in human IGE. This is the first demonstration of a developmentally-related mechanism for seizure susceptibility of common forms of epilepsy. That mechanism involves a deficit of GABAergic neurons caused by haplo-insufficiency of the mouse Brd2 gene. This significant deficit of inhibitory GABAergic neurons was observed along the basal ganglia seizure-controlling pathway, but not in regions of the brain outside this pathway. This decrease in inhibitory neurons and their GABA-synthesizing enzyme expression (GAD67) presages increased seizure susceptibility and spontaneous seizure development.
  • #49 Pathophysiology to Risk Factor and Therapeutics to Treatment Strategies on Epilepsy
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/14/1/71
    Epilepsy represents a condition in which abnormal neuronal discharges or the hyperexcitability of neurons occur with synchronicity, presenting a significant public health challenge. […] The inheritance and etiology of epilepsy are complex, involving multiple underlying genetic and epigenetic mechanisms. Different neurotransmitters play crucial roles in maintaining the normal physiology of different neurons. Dysregulations in neurotransmission, due to abnormal transmitter levels or changes in their receptors, can result in seizures. […] This pathology is also divided into three etiological categories: idiopathic, acquired, and cryptogenic. […] An extensive combination of genetic polymorphisms, epigenetic modifications, and environmental factors, such as pollutants, diet composition, and brain injuries, emerge as key factors in the reconfiguration of brain circuits, culminating in the emergence of epileptic disorders.
  • #50
    https://journals.lww.com/nrronline/fulltext/2025/04000/pathogenesis,_diagnosis,_and_treatment_of.1.aspx
    The dynamic expression of miR-211 could cause epilepsy. […] Numerous studies have shown that electromagnetic stimulation-mediated neuromodulation therapy can markedly improve neurological function and reduce the frequency of epileptic seizures. […] Current research is mainly focused on analyzing patients’ clinical manifestations and exploring relevant diagnostic and treatment methods to study the pathogenesis at a molecular level, which has led to a lack of consensus regarding the mechanisms related to the disease.
  • #51 Pathogenesis of seizures and epilepsy after stroke | Acta Epileptologica | Full Text
    https://aepi.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s42494-021-00068-8
    Stroke is the most frequent cause of secondary epilepsy in the elderly. […] The exact pathophysiologic mechanism has not yet formed a unified conclusion. It has been found that ion channels, neurotransmitters, proliferation of glial cells, genetics and other factors are involved in the occurrence and development of PSE. […] A comprehensive understanding of the pathogenesis of PSE is of great significance for the treatment and prevention of this disease. […] The stroke-induced acute ischemia and hypoxia can reduce the stability of nerve cell membrane and cause metabolic disorders of neuron. […] The early-onset epileptic seizures can also be caused by the disruption of the dynamic balance of neurotransmitters. […] In conclusion, in the early stage of acute stroke, the high serum level of cortisol is an important contributor to the onset of convulsion.
  • #52 Pathogenesis of seizures and epilepsy after stroke | Acta Epileptologica | Full Text
    https://aepi.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s42494-021-00068-8
    Stroke is the most frequent cause of secondary epilepsy in the elderly. […] The exact pathophysiologic mechanism has not yet formed a unified conclusion. It has been found that ion channels, neurotransmitters, proliferation of glial cells, genetics and other factors are involved in the occurrence and development of PSE. […] A comprehensive understanding of the pathogenesis of PSE is of great significance for the treatment and prevention of this disease. […] The stroke-induced acute ischemia and hypoxia can reduce the stability of nerve cell membrane and cause metabolic disorders of neuron. […] The early-onset epileptic seizures can also be caused by the disruption of the dynamic balance of neurotransmitters. […] In conclusion, in the early stage of acute stroke, the high serum level of cortisol is an important contributor to the onset of convulsion.
  • #53 Pathogenesis of seizures and epilepsy after stroke | Acta Epileptologica | Full Text
    https://aepi.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s42494-021-00068-8
    Stroke is the most frequent cause of secondary epilepsy in the elderly. […] The exact pathophysiologic mechanism has not yet formed a unified conclusion. It has been found that ion channels, neurotransmitters, proliferation of glial cells, genetics and other factors are involved in the occurrence and development of PSE. […] A comprehensive understanding of the pathogenesis of PSE is of great significance for the treatment and prevention of this disease. […] The stroke-induced acute ischemia and hypoxia can reduce the stability of nerve cell membrane and cause metabolic disorders of neuron. […] The early-onset epileptic seizures can also be caused by the disruption of the dynamic balance of neurotransmitters. […] In conclusion, in the early stage of acute stroke, the high serum level of cortisol is an important contributor to the onset of convulsion.
  • #54 Pathogenesis of seizures and epilepsy after stroke | Acta Epileptologica | Full Text
    https://aepi.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s42494-021-00068-8
    Stroke is the most frequent cause of secondary epilepsy in the elderly. […] The exact pathophysiologic mechanism has not yet formed a unified conclusion. It has been found that ion channels, neurotransmitters, proliferation of glial cells, genetics and other factors are involved in the occurrence and development of PSE. […] A comprehensive understanding of the pathogenesis of PSE is of great significance for the treatment and prevention of this disease. […] The stroke-induced acute ischemia and hypoxia can reduce the stability of nerve cell membrane and cause metabolic disorders of neuron. […] The early-onset epileptic seizures can also be caused by the disruption of the dynamic balance of neurotransmitters. […] In conclusion, in the early stage of acute stroke, the high serum level of cortisol is an important contributor to the onset of convulsion.
  • #55 Pathogenesis of seizures and epilepsy after stroke | Acta Epileptologica | Full Text
    https://aepi.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s42494-021-00068-8
    Studies have shown that hemosiderin deposition is closely related to the occurrence of early epileptic seizures after subarachnoid hemorrhage. […] In addition to the above mechanisms of early epileptic seizures, several other potential pathogenic mechanisms have been proposed, such as acute electrolyte disturbances (such as increased intracellular calcium and sodium concentrations) in the ischemic penumbra surrounding the stroke lesion, which lead to depolarization of neuronal membrane. […] In the later stages of stroke, the CNS is damaged, because the glial scar formed by reactive astrocytes can cause acquired epilepsies. […] BBB injury causes a flow of a large amount of blood-derived fluid to the extravascular space. […] The increased expression of NMDAR can promote the formation of axons and the formation of new synapses.
  • #56 Pathogenesis of seizures and epilepsy after stroke | Acta Epileptologica | Full Text
    https://aepi.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s42494-021-00068-8
    Studies have shown that hemosiderin deposition is closely related to the occurrence of early epileptic seizures after subarachnoid hemorrhage. […] In addition to the above mechanisms of early epileptic seizures, several other potential pathogenic mechanisms have been proposed, such as acute electrolyte disturbances (such as increased intracellular calcium and sodium concentrations) in the ischemic penumbra surrounding the stroke lesion, which lead to depolarization of neuronal membrane. […] In the later stages of stroke, the CNS is damaged, because the glial scar formed by reactive astrocytes can cause acquired epilepsies. […] BBB injury causes a flow of a large amount of blood-derived fluid to the extravascular space. […] The increased expression of NMDAR can promote the formation of axons and the formation of new synapses.
  • #57 Epilepsy and It’s Driving Forces: Understanding the Significance Behind Epileptical Pathogenesis
    https://arxiv.org/html/2502.16144v1
    Posttraumatic epilepsy (PTE) is a significant neurodegenerative condition responsible for approximately 20% of symptomatic epilepsy cases. […] Both epilepsy and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) are common neurological disorders that become more prevalent with age. Evidence suggests an intriguing interaction between these two conditions, as patients with AD face an increased risk of developing seizures and epilepsy. […] Diagnosing epilepsy can be intricate, especially when the cause is not apparent, as seen in idiopathic and cryptogenic epilepsies. […] Personalized therapeutic strategies in epilepsy aim to optimize treatment approaches based on individual patient characteristics, seizure etiology, and treatment responses. […] Understanding the intricate interactions between neurodegenerative disorders, epilepsy, and the noradrenergic nervous system presents a fascinating area of research. Further investigations into the complex connections and signaling pathways hold promise for advancing our comprehension of these neurological and psychiatric conditions and potentially unveiling new therapeutic strategies.
  • #58 Basic Mechanisms Underlying Seizures and Epilepsy – An Introduction to Epilepsy – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2510/
    Our understanding of the CNS abnormalities causing patients to have recurrent seizures remains limited. It is important to understand that seizures and epilepsy can result from many different pathologic processes that upset the balance between excitation and inhibition. Epilepsy can result from processes which disturb extracellular ion homeostasis, alter energy metabolism, change receptor function, or alter transmitter uptake. […] Clinical observations suggest that certain forms of epilepsy are caused by particular events. For example, approximately 50% of patients who suffer a severe head injury will develop a seizure disorder. However, in a significant number of these patients, the seizures will not become clinically evident for months or years. This „silent period” after the initial injury indicates that in some cases the epileptogenic process involves a gradual transformation of the neural network over time. Changes occurring during this period could include delayed necrosis of inhibitory interneurons (or the excitatory interneurons driving them), or sprouting of axonal collaterals leading to reverberating, or self-reinforcing, circuits.
  • #59 Basic Mechanisms Underlying Seizures and Epilepsy – An Introduction to Epilepsy – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2510/
    Our understanding of the CNS abnormalities causing patients to have recurrent seizures remains limited. It is important to understand that seizures and epilepsy can result from many different pathologic processes that upset the balance between excitation and inhibition. Epilepsy can result from processes which disturb extracellular ion homeostasis, alter energy metabolism, change receptor function, or alter transmitter uptake. […] Clinical observations suggest that certain forms of epilepsy are caused by particular events. For example, approximately 50% of patients who suffer a severe head injury will develop a seizure disorder. However, in a significant number of these patients, the seizures will not become clinically evident for months or years. This „silent period” after the initial injury indicates that in some cases the epileptogenic process involves a gradual transformation of the neural network over time. Changes occurring during this period could include delayed necrosis of inhibitory interneurons (or the excitatory interneurons driving them), or sprouting of axonal collaterals leading to reverberating, or self-reinforcing, circuits.
  • #60
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s007010050001
    Tumour associated epilepsy (TAE) is a poorly understood manifestation of many gliomas, meningiomas and metastatic brain tumours that has important clinical and social implications. Etiological mechanisms underlying tumour associated epilepsy include theories invoking peritumoural amino acid disturbances, local metabolic imbalances, cerebral oedema, pH abnormalities, morphological changes in the neuropil, changes in neuronal and glial enzyme and protein expression and altered immunological activity. […] It has also been suggested that the pathology involves perturbations in distribution and function of the NMDA subclass of glutamate receptors. The often capricious response of the seizure disorder following removal of the causative neoplasms suggests multiple factors are involved. Further understanding about the pathogenesis of TAE will await the development and characterisation of suitable animal models that demonstrate the clinical manifestations and physiological changes comparable to those seen in human cerebral tumours. With such a model it is hoped that progress may one day be made in understanding and subsequently treating this debilitating clinical problem.
  • #61
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s007010050001
    Tumour associated epilepsy (TAE) is a poorly understood manifestation of many gliomas, meningiomas and metastatic brain tumours that has important clinical and social implications. Etiological mechanisms underlying tumour associated epilepsy include theories invoking peritumoural amino acid disturbances, local metabolic imbalances, cerebral oedema, pH abnormalities, morphological changes in the neuropil, changes in neuronal and glial enzyme and protein expression and altered immunological activity. […] It has also been suggested that the pathology involves perturbations in distribution and function of the NMDA subclass of glutamate receptors. The often capricious response of the seizure disorder following removal of the causative neoplasms suggests multiple factors are involved. Further understanding about the pathogenesis of TAE will await the development and characterisation of suitable animal models that demonstrate the clinical manifestations and physiological changes comparable to those seen in human cerebral tumours. With such a model it is hoped that progress may one day be made in understanding and subsequently treating this debilitating clinical problem.
  • #62
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s007010050001
    Tumour associated epilepsy (TAE) is a poorly understood manifestation of many gliomas, meningiomas and metastatic brain tumours that has important clinical and social implications. Etiological mechanisms underlying tumour associated epilepsy include theories invoking peritumoural amino acid disturbances, local metabolic imbalances, cerebral oedema, pH abnormalities, morphological changes in the neuropil, changes in neuronal and glial enzyme and protein expression and altered immunological activity. […] It has also been suggested that the pathology involves perturbations in distribution and function of the NMDA subclass of glutamate receptors. The often capricious response of the seizure disorder following removal of the causative neoplasms suggests multiple factors are involved. Further understanding about the pathogenesis of TAE will await the development and characterisation of suitable animal models that demonstrate the clinical manifestations and physiological changes comparable to those seen in human cerebral tumours. With such a model it is hoped that progress may one day be made in understanding and subsequently treating this debilitating clinical problem.
  • #63
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s007010050001
    Tumour associated epilepsy (TAE) is a poorly understood manifestation of many gliomas, meningiomas and metastatic brain tumours that has important clinical and social implications. Etiological mechanisms underlying tumour associated epilepsy include theories invoking peritumoural amino acid disturbances, local metabolic imbalances, cerebral oedema, pH abnormalities, morphological changes in the neuropil, changes in neuronal and glial enzyme and protein expression and altered immunological activity. […] It has also been suggested that the pathology involves perturbations in distribution and function of the NMDA subclass of glutamate receptors. The often capricious response of the seizure disorder following removal of the causative neoplasms suggests multiple factors are involved. Further understanding about the pathogenesis of TAE will await the development and characterisation of suitable animal models that demonstrate the clinical manifestations and physiological changes comparable to those seen in human cerebral tumours. With such a model it is hoped that progress may one day be made in understanding and subsequently treating this debilitating clinical problem.
  • #64 Advances in understanding the pathogenesis of epilepsy: Unraveling the molecular mechanisms: A cross‐sectional study
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10867297/
    Inflammation and immune deregulation can also play a role in triggering an epileptic seizure. Inflammatory cells release molecules that can alter neuronal signaling, which can lead to seizures. […] The current treatment for epilepsy focuses on managing symptoms and stopping seizures using antiseizure medications, which act through various mechanisms, such as blocking voltage-gated calcium and sodium channels, enhancing the inhibition of GABAergic, and reducing transmission of excessive excitatory amino acid. […] Targeting the biological processes involved in developing epilepsy, known as epileptogenesis, is a promising strategy for preventing epilepsy. […] Recent advances in genetic testing have revealed a genetic etiology is accounting for over half of the cases. Inherited forms of epilepsy are predominantly attributed to single gene defects. […] While inflammation in the brain has been shown to contribute to epileptogenesis, there are also immune responses that are protective and stimulate neuronal repair.
  • #65 Advances in understanding the pathogenesis of epilepsy: Unraveling the molecular mechanisms: A cross‐sectional study
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10867297/
    Inflammation and immune deregulation can also play a role in triggering an epileptic seizure. Inflammatory cells release molecules that can alter neuronal signaling, which can lead to seizures. […] The current treatment for epilepsy focuses on managing symptoms and stopping seizures using antiseizure medications, which act through various mechanisms, such as blocking voltage-gated calcium and sodium channels, enhancing the inhibition of GABAergic, and reducing transmission of excessive excitatory amino acid. […] Targeting the biological processes involved in developing epilepsy, known as epileptogenesis, is a promising strategy for preventing epilepsy. […] Recent advances in genetic testing have revealed a genetic etiology is accounting for over half of the cases. Inherited forms of epilepsy are predominantly attributed to single gene defects. […] While inflammation in the brain has been shown to contribute to epileptogenesis, there are also immune responses that are protective and stimulate neuronal repair.
  • #66
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12264-024-01215-0
    Neuroinflammation has been recognized as a key pathological factor in the development of epilepsy. Pro- and anti-inflammatory interleukins have been implicated in ictogenesis and epileptogenesis, according to cumulative evidences. […] The importance of the mammalian target of the rapamycin (mTOR) pathway has been gradually recognized in epilepsy. A previous study has reported that suppression of mTOR complex 2 (mTORC2) robustly inhibits seizures in different models. The enormous potential of mTORC2 as a target for broader control of epileptic seizures is highlighted by Xu and colleagues. […] Secondary epileptogenesis, characterized by increased epileptic susceptibility and a tendency to generate epileptiform activities outside the primary focus, is one of the major resultants of pharmacoresistant epilepsy.
  • #67
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12264-024-01215-0
    Evidence suggests that the loss of inhibitory interneurons in the brain is intimately linked to reduced GABAergic activities in epileptic seizures. A recent ground-breaking study assessed the GABAergic interneuron cell therapy’s potential for treating epilepsy. […] To sum up, this special issue presented here will promote the understanding of the mechanisms of epilepsy, and provide substantial evidence to drive further translational studies based on these novel targets and therapies for epilepsy.
  • #68 Epilepsy and It’s Driving Forces: Understanding the Significance Behind Epileptical Pathogenesis
    https://arxiv.org/html/2502.16144v1
    Posttraumatic epilepsy (PTE) is a significant neurodegenerative condition responsible for approximately 20% of symptomatic epilepsy cases. […] Both epilepsy and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) are common neurological disorders that become more prevalent with age. Evidence suggests an intriguing interaction between these two conditions, as patients with AD face an increased risk of developing seizures and epilepsy. […] Diagnosing epilepsy can be intricate, especially when the cause is not apparent, as seen in idiopathic and cryptogenic epilepsies. […] Personalized therapeutic strategies in epilepsy aim to optimize treatment approaches based on individual patient characteristics, seizure etiology, and treatment responses. […] Understanding the intricate interactions between neurodegenerative disorders, epilepsy, and the noradrenergic nervous system presents a fascinating area of research. Further investigations into the complex connections and signaling pathways hold promise for advancing our comprehension of these neurological and psychiatric conditions and potentially unveiling new therapeutic strategies.
  • #69 Study Reveals How Cannabidiol Counters Epileptic Seizures | NYU Langone News
    https://nyulangone.org/news/study-reveals-how-cannabidiol-counters-epileptic-seizures
    A study reveals a previously unknown way in which cannabidiol (CBD), a substance found in cannabis, reduces seizures in many treatment-resistant forms of pediatric epilepsy. […] The current findings argue for the first time that LPI also weakens signals that counter seizures, further explaining the value of CBD treatment. […] Our results deepen the fields understanding of a central seizure-inducing mechanism, with many implications for the pursuit of new treatment approaches, says corresponding author Richard W. Tsien, PhD, chair of the Department of Physiology and Neuroscience at NYU Langone Health. […] The authors propose that CBD blocks a positive feedback loop in which seizures increase LPIGPR55 signaling, which likely encourages more seizures, which in turn increases levels of both LPI and GPR55. The proposed vicious cycle provides one process that could explain repeated epileptic seizures, although future studies are needed to confirm this.
  • #70 Cenobamate for Drug-Resistant Epilepsy May Reduce Seizures, Improve Retention – Clinical Advisor
    https://www.clinicaladvisor.com/news/cenobamate-drug-resistant-epilepsy-reduce-seizures-improve-retention/
    Cenobamate, a recently approved ASM with dual mechanisms, positive GABA-A modulation and sodium channel inhibition, was evaluated as an adjunctive treatment in adults with uncontrolled focal-onset seizures (FOS). […] Our study evidenced that CNB can be considered generally well tolerated and effective in highly refractory focal or combined generalized and focal epilepsy. […] Our study evidenced that CNB [cenobamate] can be considered generally well tolerated and effective in highly refractory focal or combined generalized and focal epilepsy, the researchers concluded.
  • #71 Home – Marinus Pharmaceuticals
    https://marinuspharma.com/
    We are committed to developing treatments for patients with severe, rare forms of epilepsy, implementing a clinical trial and commercial strategy that is guided by our strong scientific rationale, and unlocking new possibilities across a range of seizure disorders. […] Ganaxolone, through its validated GABAA mechanism, has opportunities in orphan indications and in chronic and acute care settings. […] We are developing breakthrough therapies in status epilepticus, tuberous sclerosis complex, and CDKL5 deficiency disorder. […] Developing therapies with the potential to provide rapid cessation of status epilepticus and prevent escalation of treatment. […] Developing treatment options with the potential to safely decrease seizure frequency in children with refractory epilepsy.
  • #72 Home – Marinus Pharmaceuticals
    https://marinuspharma.com/
    We are committed to developing treatments for patients with severe, rare forms of epilepsy, implementing a clinical trial and commercial strategy that is guided by our strong scientific rationale, and unlocking new possibilities across a range of seizure disorders. […] Ganaxolone, through its validated GABAA mechanism, has opportunities in orphan indications and in chronic and acute care settings. […] We are developing breakthrough therapies in status epilepticus, tuberous sclerosis complex, and CDKL5 deficiency disorder. […] Developing therapies with the potential to provide rapid cessation of status epilepticus and prevent escalation of treatment. […] Developing treatment options with the potential to safely decrease seizure frequency in children with refractory epilepsy.
  • #73 Canine idiopathic epilepsy: pathogenesis and clinical characteristics
    https://www.dvm360.com/view/canine-idiopathic-epilepsy-pathogenesis-and-clinical-characteristics
    Channels that have been found that cause idiopathic epilepsy in people include voltage gated potassium channels, voltage-gated sodium channels, voltage gated calcium channels, GABA receptors, and Acetylcholine receptors. […] The past dogma has been that idiopathic epilepsy in dogs is associated with generalized seizures, and that focal onset seizures usually indicate symptomatic epilepsy caused by focal brain lesion. […] As in human medicine, veterinary studies now are providing evidence that focal onset seizures also might have a genetic basis. […] Thus, although focal onset seizures should still stimulate an extensive search for an acquired lesion, it does not rule out a potentially hereditary condition. […] Identifying specific mutations will also allow better tailoring of therapy based upon the molecular deficit rather than just the clinical signs.
  • #74 New Insights About Epilepsy Mechanism Suggest a Potential Treatment Target | Brain & Behavior Research Foundation
    https://bbrfoundation.org/content/new-insights-about-epilepsy-mechanism-suggest-potential-treatment-target
    Through a complex process still not well understood, immature astroglia (rather than immature neurons) may have a role in the initiation of brain activity leading to epileptic seizures, the team suggested. […] If future research confirms the team’s hypothesis that newborn immature glial cells „have a role in both initiating and modulating seizure activity,” then they become a potential target of interest in the development of new therapeutic approaches for epilepsy.
  • #75 Epilepsy and It’s Driving Forces: Understanding the Significance Behind Epileptical Pathogenesis
    https://arxiv.org/html/2502.16144v1
    Posttraumatic epilepsy (PTE) is a significant neurodegenerative condition responsible for approximately 20% of symptomatic epilepsy cases. […] Both epilepsy and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) are common neurological disorders that become more prevalent with age. Evidence suggests an intriguing interaction between these two conditions, as patients with AD face an increased risk of developing seizures and epilepsy. […] Diagnosing epilepsy can be intricate, especially when the cause is not apparent, as seen in idiopathic and cryptogenic epilepsies. […] Personalized therapeutic strategies in epilepsy aim to optimize treatment approaches based on individual patient characteristics, seizure etiology, and treatment responses. […] Understanding the intricate interactions between neurodegenerative disorders, epilepsy, and the noradrenergic nervous system presents a fascinating area of research. Further investigations into the complex connections and signaling pathways hold promise for advancing our comprehension of these neurological and psychiatric conditions and potentially unveiling new therapeutic strategies.