Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Epilepsy – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsy

  The diagnosis of epilepsy typically requires at least two unprovoked seizures occurring more than 24 hours apart. […] In some cases, however, it may be diagnosed after a single unprovoked seizure if clinical evidence suggests a high risk of recurrence. […] Diagnosis involves ruling out other conditions that can resemble seizures, and may include neuroimaging, blood tests, and electroencephalography (EEG). […] The diagnosis of epilepsy is primarily clinical, based on a thorough evaluation of the person’s history, seizure features, and risk of recurrence. […] While diagnostic tests such as electroencephalograms and neuroimaging can support the diagnosis, there is no single test that can confirm or exclude epilepsy. […] According to the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), a diagnosis of epilepsy can be made when any one of the following criteria is met: At least two unprovoked (or reflex) seizures occurring more than 24 hours apart; One unprovoked (or reflex) seizure and a probability of further seizures similar to the general recurrence risk (at least 60%) after two unprovoked seizures, occurring over the next 10 years; Diagnosis of an epilepsy syndrome. […] The ILAE also introduced the concept of resolved epilepsy, which applies to individuals who are past the typical age range for an age-dependent syndrome, or who have remained seizure-free for at least 10 years, including the last 5 years without medication.

• #2 EPILEPSY CLASSIFICATION

  https://www.epilepsydiagnosis.org/epilepsy/epilepsy-classification-groupoverview.html

  Epilepsy is a disease of the brain defined by any of the following conditions: […] Diagnosis of an epilepsy syndrome. […] Epilepsy classification is undertaken after the criteria for diagnosing epilepsy are met (definition above). Classification is undertaken using a multi-level classification framework, involving classification at three levels – the seizure type, epilepsy type and epilepsy syndrome. Imaging, EEG and other investigations, where available, contribute to optimized classification at all three levels. Where possible, a diagnosis at all three levels should be established. The etiology of the epilepsy should be considered from the outset, and at each step along the diagnostic pathway. Knowing the etiology can inform optimized classification and has important treatment implications for the patient. […] Epilepsies are classified as: […] generalized epilepsy […] focal epilepsy […] combined generalized and focal epilepsy […] unknown epilepsy.

• #3 Diagnosis – Epilepsy Action

  https://www.epilepsy.org.uk/info/diagnosis

  Getting an epilepsy diagnosis can take time and your doctor may suggest having some tests. […] We explain how epilepsy is diagnosed and how to take care of yourself during this time. […] How is epilepsy diagnosed? […] There is no single test that can diagnose epilepsy. You will probably have a few medical tests. […] Your doctor will need to understand what your symptoms are and what happens when you have a seizure before they can diagnose epilepsy. […] Epilepsy should be diagnosed by a neurologist. […] Your doctor will refer you to a specialist if they think you have had an epileptic seizure. You will usually see a neurologist. This is someone who is an expert in conditions that affects the brain and nerves. Neurologists who specialise in epilepsy are also sometimes called epileptologists.

• #4 Diagnosing epilepsy | Epilepsy Society

  https://epilepsysociety.org.uk/diagnosis

  Diagnosing epilepsy is not simple. Doctors gather lots of different information to assess the causes of seizures. If you have had two or more seizures that started in the brain you may be diagnosed with epilepsy. […] You may be diagnosed with epilepsy if you have: two or more seizures that happen more than 24 hours apart; or a single seizure, with a high risk of having further seizures. […] Getting a diagnosis is not always easy because there is no single test that can diagnose epilepsy. Blood tests, an Electroencephalogram (EEG) and MRI scans are used to gather information for a diagnosis. Tests on their own cannot confirm or rule out epilepsy. […] If there is a possibility that you have epilepsy, NICE recommends that you are referred to a specialist (a doctor who is trained in diagnosing and treating epilepsy) and seen within two weeks. Your diagnosis is based on finding out what happened to you before, during, and after your seizures. […] Apart from the description of the seizure, there are other things that can help to explain why your seizures have happened. Your medical history and any other medical conditions will also be considered as part of your diagnosis.

• #5 Epilepsy: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17636-epilepsy

  Epilepsy is a brain disease where nerve cells dont signal properly, which causes seizures. […] Although epilepsy cant be cured, many treatment options are available. […] Diagnosis and Tests […] Technically, if you experience two or more seizures that werent caused by a known medical condition for example, from alcohol withdrawal or low blood sugar youre considered to have epilepsy. […] Before making a diagnosis, your healthcare provider (or epilepsy specialist) will perform a physical exam, take your medical history and may order blood work (to rule out other causes). […] Tests include: […] Electroencephalography (EEG): This test measures the electrical activity in your brain. Certain abnormal electrical patterns are related to seizures. […] Brain scans: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to look for such things as tumors, infections or blood vessel abnormalities.

• #6 Seizures – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/seizure/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20365730

  EEG records the electrical activity of the brain through electrodes put on the scalp. EEG results show changes in brain activity. This may help diagnose brain conditions such as epilepsy and other seizure conditions. […] After a seizure, your healthcare professional reviews your symptoms and medical history and does a physical exam. You may have tests to find the cause of your seizure. Tests also may show how likely it is that you’ll have another seizure. […] An electroencephalogram (EEG). In this test, electrodes are put on the scalp to record the electrical activity of the brain. The electrical activity shows up as wavy lines on an EEG recording. The EEG may show a pattern that tells whether a seizure is likely to happen again. EEG testing also may help rule out other conditions that have symptoms like those of epilepsy. This test may be done at a clinic, overnight at home or over a few nights in the hospital.

• #7 Epilepsy – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/epilepsy/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20350098

  Epilepsy is a syndrome diagnosis. It’s a symptom that describes brainwave abnormalities. There are underlying causes that need to be evaluated. MRI of the brain to look for structural abnormality, EEG to look at characteristics of the brainwave activity so the physician can categorize which type or types of seizure the patient has. […] To diagnose epilepsy, your healthcare professional reviews your symptoms and medical history. You may have several tests to diagnose epilepsy and to detect the cause of seizures. […] A neurological exam. This exam tests your behavior, movements, mental function and other areas. The exam helps diagnose epilepsy and determine the type of epilepsy you may have. […] Electroencephalogram (EEG). This is the most common test used to diagnose epilepsy. In this test, small metal discs called electrodes are attached to your scalp with an adhesive or cap. The electrodes record the electrical activity of your brain. […] Diagnosis of your seizure type and where seizures begin gives you the best chance for finding an effective treatment.

• #8 Diagnosing Epilepsy – Tests and Tools

  https://www.cureepilepsy.org/understanding-epilepsy/diagnosing-epilepsy/tests-tools/

  The electroencephalogram (EEG) is the most common diagnostic test in epilepsy. It is a non-invasive, painless test which monitors the electrical activity in your brain (brain waves). When a patient has a seizure during an EEG, their brain waves change, and the EEG can detect the abnormality. […] Neuropsychological tests are done by a neuropsychologist, a doctor who specializes in how the brain performs in functions of language, attention, and cognition. […] Computed tomography (CT) scans are a non-invasive diagnostic tool used to produce images of the brain. […] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) creates images or scans of your brain and is used to detect subtle malformations, scar tissue, or damage in the brain that could be contributing to the seizures. […] Genetic testing may be performed on a patient with epilepsy to determine if there is a genetic variation that could explain their epilepsy.

• #9 Optimal Use of the EEG in the Diagnosis and Management of Epilepsies – The Epilepsies – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2601/

  The EEG, which is entirely harmless and relatively inexpensive, is the most important investigation in the diagnosis and management of epilepsies providing that it is properly performed by experienced technicians and carefully studied and interpreted in the context of a well-described clinical setting by experienced physicians. […] The EEG is indispensable in the correct syndromic diagnosis of these patients. […] I use the EEG as an integral part of the diagnostic process. […] The role of the EEG is to help the physician to establish an accurate diagnosis. […] In most conditions (infantile spasms, myoclonic epilepsies, idiopathic generalised epilepsy (IGE), symptomatic generalised epilepsy, temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), LandauKleffner syndrome, benign childhood focal seizures and photosensitive and other reflex epilepsies) the EEG may specifically confirm or may specifically direct towards such a diagnosis if this is clinically uncertain.

• #10 EEG tests for epilepsy – Epilepsy Action

  https://www.epilepsy.org.uk/info/diagnosis/eeg-electroencephalogram

  An electroencephalogram (EEG) is a common test used to help diagnose epilepsy, and to find out more about someones seizures. […] A highly trained specialist, called a clinical neurophysiologist will look at your results. They can recognise if your EEG test shows a brainwave pattern that is unusual. Some of these patterns point to a strong possibility of epilepsy. […] The results of an EEG can help doctors to make the correct diagnosis and decide on the best treatment. […] The National Institute for Health Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines say that the first EEG should ideally be done within 72 hours of the first seizure. […] An EEG test gives information about the electrical activity that is happening in your brain at the time the test is carried out. […] Many people with epilepsy only have unusual electrical activity in their brain when they are having a seizure.

• #11 The Role of EEG in Epilepsy Diagnosis – BrainView

  https://www.brainview.com/s_science_eeg_epilepsy_diagnosis.html

  The Role of EEG in Epilepsy Diagnosis […] EEG in the diagnosis, classification, and management of patients with epilepsy. […] Epilepsy diagnosis relies on electrophysiological evidence-specifically, the detection of at least two independent epileptic events using an Electroencephalogram (EEG). EEG thus serves as an essential diagnostic cornerstone, enabling clinicians to confirm seizure activity and identify particular epilepsy syndromes. Accurate identification of the syndrome informs the choice of antiepileptic medications and helps predict patient prognosis. […] EEG provides direct evidence of abnormal brain activity, making it a cost-effective tool for confirming an epilepsy diagnosis. Simultaneously, neuroimaging methods like MRI can identify structural lesions when present. […] Once epilepsy is confirmed, EEG helps determine seizure type-focal or generalized-and location. This classification is crucial because different seizure types require distinct treatment strategies. Focal seizures originate in localized brain regions, whereas generalized seizures involve synchronous discharges across both hemispheres. Understanding the seizure type guides decisions about medications, dietary interventions, surgical options, or implanted devices.

• #12 EEG tests for epilepsy – Epilepsy Action

  https://www.epilepsy.org.uk/info/diagnosis/eeg-electroencephalogram

  So, if your EEG test doesnt show any unusual activity, it only means that there is no epileptic activity in your brain at the time the test is being done. […] This information is very helpful for doctors when they are making a diagnosis. […] A small number of people have unusual EEG test results, even though they never have seizures and they dont have epilepsy. […] An EEG test only gives information about the electrical activity in your brain. It can show if there is unusual electrical activity but it does not show if there are any physical abnormalities of the brain. […] There are several ways to do an EEG test. And there are several reasons why you might be asked to have more EEGs. […] If you have an EEG test that doesnt show any unusual electrical activity in your brain, your doctor might ask you to have another.

• #13 Optimal Use of the EEG in the Diagnosis and Management of Epilepsies – The Epilepsies – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2601/

  An EEG in chronic epilepsies or treated patients may be uninformative and misleading. […] A request for an EEG should describe the clinical problem well but, because this is rarely the reality, the EEG technologist should also obtain the relevant clinical information. […] EEG in epilepsies is overrated by some and undervalued by others. […] An EEG is the only available investigation for recording and evaluating the paroxysmal discharges of cerebral neurons causing seizures. […] The seizure and epileptic syndrome classifications are based on combined clinico-EEG manifestations. […] Focal and generalised epilepsies are often difficult to differentiate without an EEG even by the most experienced epileptologists. […] The EEG in neonatal seizures is the most powerful investigative tool.

• #14 EEG tests for epilepsy – Epilepsy Action

  https://www.epilepsy.org.uk/info/diagnosis/eeg-electroencephalogram

  An EEG test itself will not cause a seizure, but sometimes extra activities are carried out to learn more about your condition. […] Your doctor might ask you to have less sleep than usual before you have some types of EEG tests. […] If you hold a driving licence, having a seizure could mean that you have to stop driving until you have been seizure free for 12 months. […] A new type of EEG has been developed recently known as the 24/7 EEG SubQ (subcutaneous electroencephalography). This type of EEG is currently in the trial stages of research at several NHS trusts across the UK. […] The aim of the 24/7 EEG SubQ is to provide more detailed information about the seizures.

• #15 Seizures – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/seizure/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20365730

  EEG records the electrical activity of the brain through electrodes put on the scalp. EEG results show changes in brain activity. This may help diagnose brain conditions such as epilepsy and other seizure conditions. […] After a seizure, your healthcare professional reviews your symptoms and medical history and does a physical exam. You may have tests to find the cause of your seizure. Tests also may show how likely it is that you’ll have another seizure. […] An electroencephalogram (EEG). In this test, electrodes are put on the scalp to record the electrical activity of the brain. The electrical activity shows up as wavy lines on an EEG recording. The EEG may show a pattern that tells whether a seizure is likely to happen again. EEG testing also may help rule out other conditions that have symptoms like those of epilepsy. This test may be done at a clinic, overnight at home or over a few nights in the hospital.

• #16 Diagnosing Epilepsy & Seizure Disorders | NYU Langone Health

  https://nyulangone.org/conditions/epilepsy-seizure-disorders/diagnosis

  Sometimes the results of a routine EEG are normal or reveal only minor, nonspecific findings. […] Video EEG monitoring allows the doctor to view your behavior and brain activity. […] A doctor may order an MRI scanin which a magnetic field and radio waves create computerized two- or three-dimensional imagesto better view the structure of the brain. […] A CT scan is a type of X-ray that creates detailed images of tissue and internal organs. CT scans can help doctors identify any brain abnormalities that might be causing seizures, such as scar tissue, tumors, or malformed blood vessels. […] Single-photon emission CT (SPECT) is an imaging tool that reveals blood flow in the brain. […] A PET scan uses small amounts of radioactive glucose, or sugar, is injected intravenously to create a detailed image of the brain.

• #17 Epilepsy Exams and Tests: How is Epilepsy Diagnosed?

  https://www.webmd.com/epilepsy/diagnosing-epilepsy

  Computerized tomography (CT) scan. It uses X-rays to create images of your brain. This can help your doctor rule out other seizure causes, like tumors, bleeding, and cysts. […] Blood tests. They also help discount other reasons for seizures, like genetic conditions or infections. […] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). It lets your doctor see the structure of your brain. It may show damaged tissue that leads to seizures. […] Functional MRI (fMRI). This type of MRI shows which part of your brain uses more oxygen when you speak, move, or do certain tasks. That helps your doctor avoid those areas if they need to operate on your brain. […] Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS). Like the MRI, an MRS creates an image. It helps the doctor compare how different parts of your brain work. […] Positron emission tomography (PET scan). For this test, the doctor injects a radioactive material into a vein in your arm. It then collects in your brain. This helps check for damage by showing which parts of your brain use more or less glucose.

• #18 Diagnosing Epilepsy & Seizure Disorders | NYU Langone Health

  https://nyulangone.org/conditions/epilepsy-seizure-disorders/diagnosis

  Sometimes the results of a routine EEG are normal or reveal only minor, nonspecific findings. […] Video EEG monitoring allows the doctor to view your behavior and brain activity. […] A doctor may order an MRI scanin which a magnetic field and radio waves create computerized two- or three-dimensional imagesto better view the structure of the brain. […] A CT scan is a type of X-ray that creates detailed images of tissue and internal organs. CT scans can help doctors identify any brain abnormalities that might be causing seizures, such as scar tissue, tumors, or malformed blood vessels. […] Single-photon emission CT (SPECT) is an imaging tool that reveals blood flow in the brain. […] A PET scan uses small amounts of radioactive glucose, or sugar, is injected intravenously to create a detailed image of the brain.

• #19 Epilepsy Exams and Tests: How is Epilepsy Diagnosed?

  https://www.webmd.com/epilepsy/diagnosing-epilepsy

  Computerized tomography (CT) scan. It uses X-rays to create images of your brain. This can help your doctor rule out other seizure causes, like tumors, bleeding, and cysts. […] Blood tests. They also help discount other reasons for seizures, like genetic conditions or infections. […] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). It lets your doctor see the structure of your brain. It may show damaged tissue that leads to seizures. […] Functional MRI (fMRI). This type of MRI shows which part of your brain uses more oxygen when you speak, move, or do certain tasks. That helps your doctor avoid those areas if they need to operate on your brain. […] Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS). Like the MRI, an MRS creates an image. It helps the doctor compare how different parts of your brain work. […] Positron emission tomography (PET scan). For this test, the doctor injects a radioactive material into a vein in your arm. It then collects in your brain. This helps check for damage by showing which parts of your brain use more or less glucose.

• #20 Diagnosing Epilepsy & Seizure Disorders | NYU Langone Health

  https://nyulangone.org/conditions/epilepsy-seizure-disorders/diagnosis

  Magnetic resonance spectroscopy uses an MRI machine to analyze the molecular components of tissue in a particular area of the brain. […] Functional MRI uses a standard MRI machine to measure changes in oxygen and blood flow to a particular area of the brain while a person performs specific tasks. […] Magnetoencephalography is an imaging technique used to identify and analyze brain activity.

• #21 Epilepsy Exams and Tests: How is Epilepsy Diagnosed?

  https://www.webmd.com/epilepsy/diagnosing-epilepsy

  Computerized tomography (CT) scan. It uses X-rays to create images of your brain. This can help your doctor rule out other seizure causes, like tumors, bleeding, and cysts. […] Blood tests. They also help discount other reasons for seizures, like genetic conditions or infections. […] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). It lets your doctor see the structure of your brain. It may show damaged tissue that leads to seizures. […] Functional MRI (fMRI). This type of MRI shows which part of your brain uses more oxygen when you speak, move, or do certain tasks. That helps your doctor avoid those areas if they need to operate on your brain. […] Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS). Like the MRI, an MRS creates an image. It helps the doctor compare how different parts of your brain work. […] Positron emission tomography (PET scan). For this test, the doctor injects a radioactive material into a vein in your arm. It then collects in your brain. This helps check for damage by showing which parts of your brain use more or less glucose.

• #22 Epilepsy – Diagnosis, Evaluation and Treatment

  https://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info/epilepsy

  The term epilepsy describes brain disorders that involve repeated seizures. […] Your doctor may use a physical exam, electroencephalogram (EEG), head CT, head MRI or lumbar puncture to diagnose you. […] Your doctor will do a physical exam and check the electrical activity of your brain with an EEG (electroencephalogram). […] The doctor may also order imaging tests, such as: CT imaging of the head: Computed tomography (CT) uses x-ray equipment and computers to create a series of images, each showing a part of your skull and brain. […] MRI of the head: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses a powerful magnetic field, radio frequency signals and a computer to produce detailed pictures. This is the best available exam to assess your brain’s structure and function. […] Lumbar puncture (spinal tap): This test analyzes a small amount of cerebrospinal fluid after removing it from the lumbar (lower) region of the spinal column.

• #23 Epilepsy Diagnosis – Initial & Surgical Evaluation, Second Opinions

  https://www.dukehealth.org/treatments/neurological-disorders/epilepsy-diagnosis

  Neurogenetic Testing recent research has shown that epilepsy can have a genetic component. […] If your initial evaluation results indicate that you may be a candidate for epilepsy surgery, you will need to undergo some additional testing or surgical procedures to pinpoint your seizure focus. […] Functional MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) detects brain areas involved in particular functions and detects changes in blood flow in the brain. […] DTI (Diffusion Tensor Imaging) is a very specialized MRI that focuses on brain anatomy. […] PET (Positron Emission Tomography) investigates chemical activity and shows brain metabolism. […] SPECT (Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography) shows blood flow and brain function. […] High-Density EEG and ESI (Electrical Source Imaging) gives doctors even more information about where the seizures start and how they spread.

• #24 Diagnosing Epilepsy & Seizure Disorders in Children | NYU Langone Health

  https://nyulangone.org/conditions/epilepsy-seizure-disorders-in-children/diagnosis

  Video EEG monitoring allows the doctor to view your childs behavior and brain activity at the same time. […] Doctors use a variety of different imaging tests to help pinpoint the cause of your childs epilepsy. […] Genetic testing can help our doctors determine the cause of your childs epilepsy. Information from genetic testing may determine what anti-seizure medications to prescribe. It can also help doctors better understand the long-term outcome of a diagnosis.

• #25 Diagnosing Pediatric Epilepsy: Diagnostic Tests

  https://www.aap.org/en/patient-care/epilepsy/diagnosing-pediatric-epilepsy/diagnosing-pediatric-epilepsy-diagnostic-tests/?srsltid=AfmBOopaJiy99UzL8PC3-fA5j0UxqSWtW1ldhXTuwArN_pDQYab3VKjr

  Epilepsy can be diagnosed when an individual has had two seizures without a clear provoking cause or one seizure with a high risk of having more seizures. A physician taking care of an individual who had an event concerning for a seizure will use information from the individuals medical history as well as the results of diagnostic tests to determine what type of seizures and what type of epilepsy that individual has. Early identification of the type of seizures and the type of epilepsy is important as it often influences treatment decisions and long-term prognosis. […] An electroencephalogram (EEG) is a test that measures the electrical activity in the brain. It can help determine what type of seizures or epilepsy a person has and if seizures are coming from one area of the brain. […] Neuroimaging refers to tests that take pictures of the brain to identify any changes in the brains structure that could explain why a person may have had a seizure. […] Genetic tests look for changes in how a persons body was programmed to develop that could make them more likely to have epilepsy.

• #26 Epilepsy Exams and Tests: How is Epilepsy Diagnosed?

  https://www.webmd.com/epilepsy/diagnosing-epilepsy

  An epilepsy diagnosis takes patience. It isnt something that happens in one office visit. But if you stick with the process, your doctor can figure out if the disease is causing your seizures and treat it. […] Whether you have epilepsy depends on your symptoms before, during, and after a seizure. Since the doctor probably wont be there when you have one, theyll run a number of tests and ask many questions to reach a diagnosis. […] To figure out if you have epilepsy and what type you have, your doctor will do some or all of these tests: […] Electroencephalogram (EEG). This is the most common test. Your doctor places sensors on your scalp that record electrical activity in your brain. If they see changes in your normal brain wave pattern, thats a symptom. Many people with epilepsy have abnormal EEGs.

• #27 Epilepsy – Diagnosis, Evaluation and Treatment

  https://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info/epilepsy

  The term epilepsy describes brain disorders that involve repeated seizures. […] Your doctor may use a physical exam, electroencephalogram (EEG), head CT, head MRI or lumbar puncture to diagnose you. […] Your doctor will do a physical exam and check the electrical activity of your brain with an EEG (electroencephalogram). […] The doctor may also order imaging tests, such as: CT imaging of the head: Computed tomography (CT) uses x-ray equipment and computers to create a series of images, each showing a part of your skull and brain. […] MRI of the head: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses a powerful magnetic field, radio frequency signals and a computer to produce detailed pictures. This is the best available exam to assess your brain’s structure and function. […] Lumbar puncture (spinal tap): This test analyzes a small amount of cerebrospinal fluid after removing it from the lumbar (lower) region of the spinal column.

• #28 Diagnosing Epilepsy – Tests and Tools

  https://www.cureepilepsy.org/understanding-epilepsy/diagnosing-epilepsy/tests-tools/

  The electroencephalogram (EEG) is the most common diagnostic test in epilepsy. It is a non-invasive, painless test which monitors the electrical activity in your brain (brain waves). When a patient has a seizure during an EEG, their brain waves change, and the EEG can detect the abnormality. […] Neuropsychological tests are done by a neuropsychologist, a doctor who specializes in how the brain performs in functions of language, attention, and cognition. […] Computed tomography (CT) scans are a non-invasive diagnostic tool used to produce images of the brain. […] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) creates images or scans of your brain and is used to detect subtle malformations, scar tissue, or damage in the brain that could be contributing to the seizures. […] Genetic testing may be performed on a patient with epilepsy to determine if there is a genetic variation that could explain their epilepsy.

• #29 Epilepsy Diagnosis – Initial & Surgical Evaluation, Second Opinions

  https://www.dukehealth.org/treatments/neurological-disorders/epilepsy-diagnosis

  Neuropsychological Testing helps doctors determine which parts of your brain might not be functioning normally. […] Robot-Assisted Stereoelectroencephalography (SEEG) is used to pinpoint where a seizure starts. […] Subdural Electrodes are surgically placed on the surface of the brain and are used when the seizure focus is difficult to pinpoint. […] Brain Mapping identifies vital areas in your brain responsible for movement, sensation, language, and vision. […] Wada Test is used to determine vital brain functions on the left versus right side of the brain. […] As a Level 4 Epilepsy Center, Duke Health provides the highest level of diagnosis, medical, and surgical treatments for people with epilepsy.

• #30 Epilepsy Diagnosis – How, where and who diagnoses Epilepsy

  https://www.cureepilepsy.org/understanding-epilepsy/diagnosing-epilepsy/how-is-epilepsy-diagnosed/

  Neuropsychological tests assess cognitive and memory functions. […] Epilepsy can be diagnosed by a variety of medical professionals in various medical settings, ranging from doctors in the emergency room to epileptologists in an epilepsy monitoring unit (EMU). […] If a persons seizures are not controlled after three months of treatment by a PCP, or after 12 months of treatment by a neurologist, they should be referred to an Epilepsy Center. […] An Epilepsy Monitoring Unit (EMU) is a type of inpatient service at a hospital where a team of professionals works together to diagnose a persons epilepsy. […] The two monitoring techniques typically used at an EMU to diagnose epilepsy are: Electroencephalogram (EEG): to capture and understand electrical activity in the brain […] A typical EMU stay is for 7 or fewer days. […] Epilepsy Centers are specialized medical centers with a team of experts to help diagnose and treat epilepsy. […] Getting an accurate diagnosis will guide treatment options and provide insight into the patients long-term prognosis.

• #31 Epilepsy Diagnosis

  https://www.froedtert.com/epilepsy/diagnostics

  Froedtert MCW specialists have played a pioneering role in the development and innovative use of advanced diagnostic techniques to map the functional areas in the brain prior to surgery. […] These highly specialized tests are performed by interventional radiologists, epileptologists and neuropsychologists. […] Routine EEG as opposed to long-term video-EEG monitoring described below can be a useful tool in classifying patients’ seizure syndrome. […] Video-EEG monitoring provides much more information about patients’ seizures and helps physicians determine whether surgery is likely to help. […] The simultaneous use of video and EEG monitoring is needed to verify the presence of epileptic seizures and the localization of the seizure origin. […] Long-term monitoring helps verify the diagnosis of epilepsy, distinguish different types of seizures, identify the brain region in which seizures begin and quantifies seizures’ frequency.

• #32 Epilepsy Diagnosis

  https://www.froedtert.com/epilepsy/diagnostics

  Froedtert MCW specialists have played a pioneering role in the development and innovative use of advanced diagnostic techniques to map the functional areas in the brain prior to surgery. […] These highly specialized tests are performed by interventional radiologists, epileptologists and neuropsychologists. […] Routine EEG as opposed to long-term video-EEG monitoring described below can be a useful tool in classifying patients’ seizure syndrome. […] Video-EEG monitoring provides much more information about patients’ seizures and helps physicians determine whether surgery is likely to help. […] The simultaneous use of video and EEG monitoring is needed to verify the presence of epileptic seizures and the localization of the seizure origin. […] Long-term monitoring helps verify the diagnosis of epilepsy, distinguish different types of seizures, identify the brain region in which seizures begin and quantifies seizures’ frequency.

• #33 Diagnosis | Epilepsy Ireland

  https://www.epilepsy.ie/content/diagnosis

  The main test for epilepsy is the EEG or Electroencephalogram. This test measures electrical activity, or brainwaves, in your brain to see if it is normal. […] Often an EEG is normal as the person is not having seizure activity at the time. This does not mean they dont have epilepsy. […] If you have a normal routine EEG or seizures in sleep your doctor may want you to have an EEG done while you are asleep. […] For a sleep deprived EEG you may need to get up very early on the morning of the test, or not sleep at all. […] Most people only have the routine or sleep EEGs unless the doctor needs more information. […] The doctor will usually order a brain scan to look for or rule out structural faults in the brain. […] The MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) scan uses strong magnetic force to take images in sections across the brain and build up a 3-D picture. […] In order to tell epileptic and NEAD attacks apart a person may need to be admitted for video EEG monitoring in hospital.

• #34 Epilepsy Diagnosis | NewYork-Presbyterian

  https://www.nyp.org/neuro/epilepsy/diagnosis

  If your doctor decides you may benefit from epilepsy surgery, but it is not clear exactly where in the brain your seizures are coming from. Intracranial monitoring may involve the placement of electrodes onto your brain through a larger operation (subdural monitoring) or placement of many electrodes into the brain through small (2 millimeter) holes in the skull (stereo-EEG monitoring), depending on the specifics of your epilepsy. „Stereo -EEG” has changed how we approach many people with complex epilepsy, making it easier to study deep areas of the brain and, when necessary, both sides of the brain. In addition, stereo-EEG is better tolerated then subdural monitoring. […] We also use neuropsychological testing to identify your areas of strength and weakness in language, memory, concentration, and other cognitive functions.

• #35 Epilepsy Diagnosis and Evaluation Services – Brigham and Women’s Hospital

  https://www.brighamandwomens.org/neurosciences-center/epilepsy-and-seizure-disorders/diagnosis-evaluation-presurgical-planning?TRILIBIS_EMULATOR_UA=nsclpd

  EEG with polysomnography: This is a complete EEG conducted along with a simultaneous sleep study that provides overnight epilepsy monitoring and measures various parameters of sleep cycles and stages of sleep. […] Intracranial EEG monitoring: This is an invasive procedure that provides the most precise information available regarding seizure location, when routine scalp EEG monitoring is unable to localize the seizure focus for those patients interested in pursuing surgery as treatment for epilepsy. […] At BWH, we use advanced functional neurosurgical techniques and advanced brain mapping techniques when planning and performing surgery. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), diffusion, diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), magnetoencephalography (MEG) and ictal SPECT, are used together to noninvasively localize seizure activity and identify areas of the cortex of the brain that are related to critical function, including language, motor skills and memory.

• #36 Epilepsy: symptoms and diagnosis – The Pharmaceutical Journal

  https://pharmaceutical-journal.com/article/ld/epilepsy-symptoms-and-diagnosis

  Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures (PNES), also called dissociative seizures, non-epileptic attacks or psychogenic seizures, are commonly misdiagnosed as epilepsy in adults and older children. […] It is important to stress that these are real seizures, but they are not generated by abnormal electrical activity in the brain. […] Video-EEG telemetry can distinguish between PNES and epileptic seizures if seizures are captured during recording. […] Diagnostic uncertainty can arise, as a high percentage of syncopal episodes feature some form of jerking of the body. […] Some ASMs are used to treat both conditions (e.g. topiramate).

• #37 Epilepsy Diagnosis: Tests, Scans, and Medical History

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/epilepsy/diagnosis/

  For a person to be diagnosed with epilepsy, they must have one of these: […] An unprovoked seizure is one in which there is no cause identified aside from abnormal electrical activity in the brain. […] To determine whether symptoms are caused by epilepsy, other potential causes of seizures must be ruled out. […] A wide variety of tests can help to rule out other causes for seizures and find out what part of the brain is seizing. With a more detailed diagnosis, better treatment choices can be made. […] The EEG is a standard test to assess the abnormal electrical brain activity that causes epilepsy. […] If the EEG, MRI, and lab work are all negative for epilepsy, the seizures could be nonepileptic, which means they are not accompanied by abnormal electrical activity in the brain, according to the Epileptic Society in the United Kingdom.

• #38 Epilepsy and Seizures Differential Diagnoses

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1184846-differential

  The diagnosis of seizures is based on the patients clinical history. The history as related by a witness is of high importance, because many types of seizures are associated with impairment of consciousness, and patients are unaware of their occurrence. […] The clinical diagnosis can be confirmed by abnormalities on the interictal electroencephalogram (EEG). However, these abnormalities can be present in otherwise healthy individuals, and their absence does not exclude the diagnosis of epilepsy. […] Not all spells are seizures.

• #39 Epilepsy Diagnosis: Tests, Scans, and Medical History

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/epilepsy/diagnosis/

  A persons medical history can provide a lot of insight into the kind of seizures he or she is having and whether theyre due to epilepsy. […] Because older people often have multiple health issues, it is important to rule out possible other causes for seizures rather than assume theyre caused by epilepsy.

• #40 Childhood Epilepsy: Diagnosis

  https://www.massgeneral.org/children/epilepsy/education/diagnosis

  A seizure is caused by an abnormal and excessive discharge of electrical activity in the brain usually accompanied by a change in behavior, sensation, or consciousness. […] Epilepsy is defined as the occurrence of two or more seizures that are not brought on by preventable causes, such as fever or low blood sugar. […] The process of diagnosing epilepsy can be very complex due to the variation in seizure types and their severity. […] Distinguishing between seizures and episodes that are not seizures is the first task of diagnosis because it guides the specific course of treatment. […] Diagnosing epilepsy relies on a variety of tools, techniques, and observations. […] Observations of the events, behaviors, and movements that lead up to, accompany, and follow a possible seizure are critical in determining whether or not the event is a seizure and, if so, the specific seizure type.

• #41 Childhood Epilepsy: Diagnosis

  https://www.massgeneral.org/children/epilepsy/education/diagnosis

  Physicians typically ask individuals and their families a series of detailed questions about a seizure episode and the events leading up to it. […] The diagnosis of a single seizure would seem to suggest a potential course of evaluation and treatment. […] In practice, doctors often do not treat a single seizure because approximately 60 to 70 percent of individuals who have one seizure will never have a second. […] For children who experience recurrent seizures, the diagnostic and treatment protocol is aimed at providing complete seizure control. […] Importantly, certain types of anticonvulsant medications and other treatments are most effective on particular seizure types. […] Accurate diagnosis is a critical step both in epilepsy treatment and in the prevention of developmental delays.

• #42 Diagnosis – Epilepsy Ontario

  https://epilepsyontario.org/about-epilepsy/diagnosis/

  If you have completed two trial medication periods and are still unable to obtain good control of your seizures, it is important to ask your physician to refer you to an epilepsy specialist. […] An initial diagnosis of epilepsy will probably come from your family doctor or pediatrician. […] Doctors need to determine the type of seizures your child has before they can prescribe the right medication or other treatment. […] With appropriate medication, the majority of seizures can be controlled. […] If your child continues to have seizures despite good medical treatment, your doctor may wish to refer him/her to a centre, which specializes in the treatment of drug-resistant epilepsy. […] It is sometimes difficult for physicians to make a definitive diagnosis in young children. […] An early diagnosis is crucial for early intervention. […] Studies have shown that people with epilepsy are at a greater risk for mental health problems during their lifetime. […] Tuberous sclerosis is the largest known genetic cause of epilepsy.

• #43 Childhood Epilepsy: Diagnosis

  https://www.massgeneral.org/children/epilepsy/education/diagnosis

  Eyewitness accounts of seizure events provide information that is critical to developing an accurate diagnosis. […] The most important and commonly used tools are the electroencephalogram (EEG), computed tomography (CT) scans, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). […] The EEG is a safe and painless procedure that provides direct evidence of abnormalities associated with epilepsy. […] By assessing these patterns, doctors can in most cases identify specific seizure types and can locate the seizure origin, or focus, in partial seizures. […] Early diagnosis and treatment can make a tremendous difference in the developmental outcome for a child with epilepsy. […] Accurate diagnosis of an individual’s seizure type is critical to identifying an appropriate course of treatment. […] Seizure diagnosis can be a complex process.

• #44 Diagnosis and Treatment | Epilepsy FoundationFacebookInstagramTwitterPhoneEmailFacebookInstagramTwitter

  https://epilepsyfoundation.org.au/managing-epilepsy/later-years-and-epilepsy/diagnosis-and-treatment/

  It is quite common for people in their later years to experience seizure symptoms that are not always recognised as being epileptic in nature. Misdiagnosis can happen when behavioural changes are assumed to be related to another condition or the ageing process and not to epilepsy. This makes it hard to diagnose epilepsy in people in their later years. […] Medical history, any eyewitness accounts, and medical tests are needed to make a diagnosis of epilepsy by a specialist. Medical tests may include blood tests, an EEG (electroencephalogram), a CT scan (computerized tomography) or an MRI (magnetic resonance imaging). […] The treatment of epilepsy in older people follows many of the same procedures as for the general population, although there are also some special considerations. […] Like the general population, the first line of treatment is the use of anti-epileptic drugs (ASMs), which generally work well once the right ASM and dose are found. However, it is more likely that doctors and specialists will have to assess how these ASMs interact with current medications, as many people in their later years take medications for other conditions. Seizures can usually be controlled in older adults with low doses of ASMs.

• #45 Diagnosis and Treatment | Epilepsy FoundationFacebookInstagramTwitterPhoneEmailFacebookInstagramTwitter

  https://epilepsyfoundation.org.au/managing-epilepsy/later-years-and-epilepsy/diagnosis-and-treatment/

  It is quite common for people in their later years to experience seizure symptoms that are not always recognised as being epileptic in nature. Misdiagnosis can happen when behavioural changes are assumed to be related to another condition or the ageing process and not to epilepsy. This makes it hard to diagnose epilepsy in people in their later years. […] Medical history, any eyewitness accounts, and medical tests are needed to make a diagnosis of epilepsy by a specialist. Medical tests may include blood tests, an EEG (electroencephalogram), a CT scan (computerized tomography) or an MRI (magnetic resonance imaging). […] The treatment of epilepsy in older people follows many of the same procedures as for the general population, although there are also some special considerations. […] Like the general population, the first line of treatment is the use of anti-epileptic drugs (ASMs), which generally work well once the right ASM and dose are found. However, it is more likely that doctors and specialists will have to assess how these ASMs interact with current medications, as many people in their later years take medications for other conditions. Seizures can usually be controlled in older adults with low doses of ASMs.

• #46 Epilepsy Diagnosis: Tests, Scans, and Medical History

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/epilepsy/diagnosis/

  A persons medical history can provide a lot of insight into the kind of seizures he or she is having and whether theyre due to epilepsy. […] Because older people often have multiple health issues, it is important to rule out possible other causes for seizures rather than assume theyre caused by epilepsy.

• #47 Improving epilepsy diagnosis across the lifespan: approaches and innovations – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38631767/

  Recent technological advances, including smartphone videography and genetic testing, are increasingly used in routine practice. […] Innovations in technology, such as artificial intelligence, could provide new possibilities for directly and indirectly detecting epilepsy and might make valuable contributions to diagnostic algorithms in the future.

• #48 Improving epilepsy diagnosis across the lifespan: approaches and innovations – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38631767/

  Recent technological advances, including smartphone videography and genetic testing, are increasingly used in routine practice. […] Innovations in technology, such as artificial intelligence, could provide new possibilities for directly and indirectly detecting epilepsy and might make valuable contributions to diagnostic algorithms in the future.

• #49 Epilepsy – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/epilepsy/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20350098

  Epilepsy is a syndrome diagnosis. It’s a symptom that describes brainwave abnormalities. There are underlying causes that need to be evaluated. MRI of the brain to look for structural abnormality, EEG to look at characteristics of the brainwave activity so the physician can categorize which type or types of seizure the patient has. […] To diagnose epilepsy, your healthcare professional reviews your symptoms and medical history. You may have several tests to diagnose epilepsy and to detect the cause of seizures. […] A neurological exam. This exam tests your behavior, movements, mental function and other areas. The exam helps diagnose epilepsy and determine the type of epilepsy you may have. […] Electroencephalogram (EEG). This is the most common test used to diagnose epilepsy. In this test, small metal discs called electrodes are attached to your scalp with an adhesive or cap. The electrodes record the electrical activity of your brain. […] Diagnosis of your seizure type and where seizures begin gives you the best chance for finding an effective treatment.

• #50 Seizures – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/seizure/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20365730

  MRI may show changes in the brain that could lead to seizures. […] A healthcare professional also may do a type of SPECT test called subtraction ictal SPECT coregistered with MRI (SISCOM). The test may give results with even more detail. This test is usually done in a hospital with overnight EEG recording. […] The goal in seizure treatment is to find the best therapy that stops seizures with the fewest side effects. […] Finding the right medicine and dosage can be hard. Some people try several medicines before finding the right one in the right dosage. […] If treatment with at least two antiseizure medicines doesn’t work, you might have surgery to stop the seizures. […] If surgeons can’t remove or separate the area of the brain where seizures start, devices that provide electrical stimulation may help.

• #51 Epilepsy: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17636-epilepsy

  How is epilepsy treated? […] Treatments to control epilepsy include anti-seizure medications, special diets (usually in addition to anti-seizure medications) and surgery. […] Anti-seizure medications can control seizures in about 60% to 70% of people with epilepsy. […] If anti-seizure medications dont control your seizures, your healthcare provider will discuss other treatment options, including special diets, medical devices or surgery. […] Your healthcare provider will consider surgery if anti-seizure medications dont control your seizures, and if your seizures are severe and debilitating. […] Is there a cure for epilepsy? […] Theres no cure for epilepsy. But there are many options to treat epilepsy. […] About 70% of people become seizure-free with proper treatment within a few years.

• #52 Seizures – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/seizure/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20365730

  MRI may show changes in the brain that could lead to seizures. […] A healthcare professional also may do a type of SPECT test called subtraction ictal SPECT coregistered with MRI (SISCOM). The test may give results with even more detail. This test is usually done in a hospital with overnight EEG recording. […] The goal in seizure treatment is to find the best therapy that stops seizures with the fewest side effects. […] Finding the right medicine and dosage can be hard. Some people try several medicines before finding the right one in the right dosage. […] If treatment with at least two antiseizure medicines doesn’t work, you might have surgery to stop the seizures. […] If surgeons can’t remove or separate the area of the brain where seizures start, devices that provide electrical stimulation may help.

• #53 Epilepsy: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17636-epilepsy

  How is epilepsy treated? […] Treatments to control epilepsy include anti-seizure medications, special diets (usually in addition to anti-seizure medications) and surgery. […] Anti-seizure medications can control seizures in about 60% to 70% of people with epilepsy. […] If anti-seizure medications dont control your seizures, your healthcare provider will discuss other treatment options, including special diets, medical devices or surgery. […] Your healthcare provider will consider surgery if anti-seizure medications dont control your seizures, and if your seizures are severe and debilitating. […] Is there a cure for epilepsy? […] Theres no cure for epilepsy. But there are many options to treat epilepsy. […] About 70% of people become seizure-free with proper treatment within a few years.

• #54 Seizures – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/seizure/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20365730

  MRI may show changes in the brain that could lead to seizures. […] A healthcare professional also may do a type of SPECT test called subtraction ictal SPECT coregistered with MRI (SISCOM). The test may give results with even more detail. This test is usually done in a hospital with overnight EEG recording. […] The goal in seizure treatment is to find the best therapy that stops seizures with the fewest side effects. […] Finding the right medicine and dosage can be hard. Some people try several medicines before finding the right one in the right dosage. […] If treatment with at least two antiseizure medicines doesn’t work, you might have surgery to stop the seizures. […] If surgeons can’t remove or separate the area of the brain where seizures start, devices that provide electrical stimulation may help.

• #55 Epilepsy: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17636-epilepsy

  How is epilepsy treated? […] Treatments to control epilepsy include anti-seizure medications, special diets (usually in addition to anti-seizure medications) and surgery. […] Anti-seizure medications can control seizures in about 60% to 70% of people with epilepsy. […] If anti-seizure medications dont control your seizures, your healthcare provider will discuss other treatment options, including special diets, medical devices or surgery. […] Your healthcare provider will consider surgery if anti-seizure medications dont control your seizures, and if your seizures are severe and debilitating. […] Is there a cure for epilepsy? […] Theres no cure for epilepsy. But there are many options to treat epilepsy. […] About 70% of people become seizure-free with proper treatment within a few years.

• #56 Diagnosing epilepsy | Epilepsy Society

  https://epilepsysociety.org.uk/diagnosis

  Diagnosing epilepsy is not simple. Doctors gather lots of different information to assess the causes of seizures. If you have had two or more seizures that started in the brain you may be diagnosed with epilepsy. […] You may be diagnosed with epilepsy if you have: two or more seizures that happen more than 24 hours apart; or a single seizure, with a high risk of having further seizures. […] Getting a diagnosis is not always easy because there is no single test that can diagnose epilepsy. Blood tests, an Electroencephalogram (EEG) and MRI scans are used to gather information for a diagnosis. Tests on their own cannot confirm or rule out epilepsy. […] If there is a possibility that you have epilepsy, NICE recommends that you are referred to a specialist (a doctor who is trained in diagnosing and treating epilepsy) and seen within two weeks. Your diagnosis is based on finding out what happened to you before, during, and after your seizures. […] Apart from the description of the seizure, there are other things that can help to explain why your seizures have happened. Your medical history and any other medical conditions will also be considered as part of your diagnosis.

• #57 Diagnosis – Epilepsy Action

  https://www.epilepsy.org.uk/info/diagnosis

  Your specialist will want to know as much as possible about what happens to you during seizures. […] There are lots of tests that can help diagnose epilepsy. […] If these tests do not show anything, its still possible you have epilepsy. Some people may be diagnosed with the condition based on their symptoms alone. […] About 20 in 100 people (20%) diagnosed with epilepsy are wrongly diagnosed. […] There is no single test that can confirm epilepsy. […] If you think your symptoms have been misdiagnosed, it may be worth asking your specialist to go through your diagnosis with you.

• #58 Diagnosing epilepsy | Epilepsy Society

  https://epilepsysociety.org.uk/diagnosis

  Diagnosing epilepsy is not simple. Doctors gather lots of different information to assess the causes of seizures. If you have had two or more seizures that started in the brain you may be diagnosed with epilepsy. […] You may be diagnosed with epilepsy if you have: two or more seizures that happen more than 24 hours apart; or a single seizure, with a high risk of having further seizures. […] Getting a diagnosis is not always easy because there is no single test that can diagnose epilepsy. Blood tests, an Electroencephalogram (EEG) and MRI scans are used to gather information for a diagnosis. Tests on their own cannot confirm or rule out epilepsy. […] If there is a possibility that you have epilepsy, NICE recommends that you are referred to a specialist (a doctor who is trained in diagnosing and treating epilepsy) and seen within two weeks. Your diagnosis is based on finding out what happened to you before, during, and after your seizures. […] Apart from the description of the seizure, there are other things that can help to explain why your seizures have happened. Your medical history and any other medical conditions will also be considered as part of your diagnosis.

• #59

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/epilepsy

  Epilepsy is a chronic noncommunicable disease of the brain that affects people of all ages. […] It is estimated that up to 70% of people living with epilepsy could live seizure-free if properly diagnosed and treated. […] One seizure does not signify epilepsy (up to 10% of people worldwide have one seizure during their lifetime). Epilepsy is defined as having two or more unprovoked seizures. […] Seizures can be controlled. Up to 70% of people living with epilepsy could become seizure free with appropriate use of antiseizure medicines. […] It is possible to diagnose and treat most people with epilepsy at the primary health-care level without the use of sophisticated equipment. […] WHO pilot projects have indicated that training primary health-care providers to diagnose and treat epilepsy can effectively reduce the epilepsy treatment gap.

• #60 Improving epilepsy diagnosis across the lifespan: approaches and innovations – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38631767/

  Recent technological advances, including smartphone videography and genetic testing, are increasingly used in routine practice. […] Innovations in technology, such as artificial intelligence, could provide new possibilities for directly and indirectly detecting epilepsy and might make valuable contributions to diagnostic algorithms in the future.

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