Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Diabetes Mellitus and Pregnancy: Practice Essentials, Gestational Diabetes, Maternal-Fetal Metabolism in Normal Pregnancy

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/127547-overview

  Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is defined as glucose intolerance of variable degree with onset or first recognition during pregnancy. […] A study by Stuebe et al found this condition to be associated with persistent metabolic dysfunction in women at 3 years after delivery, separate from other clinical risk factors. […] Gestational diabetes mellitus accounts for 90% of cases of diabetes mellitus in pregnancy, while preexisting type 2 diabetes accounts for 8% of such cases. […] A study by OReilly et al concluded that gestational insulin use, non-European ethnicity, a family history of type 2 diabetes mellitus, and an elevated body mass index (BMI) were factors associated with persistent dysglycemia in women who have had gestational diabetes mellitus. […] Medical interventions during pregnancy may increase the likelihood of developing gestational diabetes. A study reported in 2007 demonstrated an increased incidence of gestational diabetes mellitus in women receiving prophylactic 17 alpha-hydroxyprogesterone caproate for the prevention of recurrent preterm delivery (from 4.9% in controls to 12.9% in treated patients).

• #2 Gestational diabetes mellitus | Causes, Symptoms & Treatment | Britannica

  https://www.britannica.com/science/gestational-diabetes-mellitus

  gestational diabetes mellitus, temporary condition in which blood sugar (glucose) levels increase during pregnancy and return to normal after delivery. […] If insulin secretion does not increase sufficiently to counter the insulin resistance imposed by these changes, gestational diabetes occurs. […] The frequency worldwide of gestational diabetes varies from about 1 to 15 percent of pregnant women. […] However, no matter how it is defined, it is more common among obese women and African American and Asian women than among women of European descent. […] Risk factors for gestational diabetes include older age, obesity, previous delivery of a large baby, and a family history of diabetes mellitus. […] While gestational diabetes is by definition transient, affected women have an increased risk of developing type II diabetes later in life.

• #3 Gestational Diabetes: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://www.healthday.com/a-to-z-health/pregnancy/gestational-diabetes-2662300662.html

  Each year, gestational diabetes affects between 2% and 10% of pregnancies in the United States, according to federal government figures. […] Understanding its causes, symptoms and treatment is key to a healthy experience for the pregnant woman and her fetus. […] Gestational diabetes, however, is often treated through diet and exercise. […] A lack of insulin does not cause gestational diabetes, according to Johns Hopkins Medicine. Instead, it stems from hormones produced during pregnancy that make insulin less effective, a condition called insulin resistance. […] Although the specific causes of gestational diabetes are unknown, certain risk factors put women at risk: Being overweight or obese, a family history of diabetes, having given birth previously to an infant weighing greater than 9 pounds, age over 25, race (women who are American Indian, Asian American, African-American, Hispanic or Latino, or Pacific Islander have a higher risk), having prediabetes, also known as impaired glucose tolerance. […] About 50% of women diagnosed with gestational diabetes are at risk of developing type 2 diabetes later on, according to the CDC.

• #4 Diabetes Mellitus and Pregnancy: Practice Essentials, Gestational Diabetes, Maternal-Fetal Metabolism in Normal Pregnancy

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/127547-overview

  Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is defined as glucose intolerance of variable degree with onset or first recognition during pregnancy. […] A study by Stuebe et al found this condition to be associated with persistent metabolic dysfunction in women at 3 years after delivery, separate from other clinical risk factors. […] Gestational diabetes mellitus accounts for 90% of cases of diabetes mellitus in pregnancy, while preexisting type 2 diabetes accounts for 8% of such cases. […] A study by OReilly et al concluded that gestational insulin use, non-European ethnicity, a family history of type 2 diabetes mellitus, and an elevated body mass index (BMI) were factors associated with persistent dysglycemia in women who have had gestational diabetes mellitus. […] Medical interventions during pregnancy may increase the likelihood of developing gestational diabetes. A study reported in 2007 demonstrated an increased incidence of gestational diabetes mellitus in women receiving prophylactic 17 alpha-hydroxyprogesterone caproate for the prevention of recurrent preterm delivery (from 4.9% in controls to 12.9% in treated patients).

• #5 Diabetes Mellitus and Pregnancy: Practice Essentials, Gestational Diabetes, Maternal-Fetal Metabolism in Normal Pregnancy

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/127547-overview

  The prevalence of gestational diabetes is strongly related to the patient’s race and culture. […] In these high-risk populations, the recurrence risk with future pregnancies has been reported to be as high as 68%. […] The excessive fetal and neonatal morbidity attributable to diabetes in pregnancy should be considered preventable with early diagnosis and effective treatment therapies. […] Studies indicate that the risk of these morbidities is directly proportional to the degree of maternal hyperglycemia.

• #6 Gestational Diabetes – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545196/

  The pathophysiology of GDM is similar to type 2 diabetes, caused by increased insulin resistance and a deficiency in insulin hormone. Maternal pancreatic -cell dysfunction resulting in decreased insulin secretion is the primary mechanism that results in the inability to control maternal insulin resistance and increased glucose levels, which leads to reduced glucose uptake, increased hepatic gluconeogenesis, and maternal hyperglycemia. […] Proper control of maternal glucose levels significantly reduces GDM risks, including macrosomia and neonatal hypoglycemia.

• #7 Content – Health Encyclopedia – University of Rochester Medical Center

  https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content?contenttypeid=85&contentid=P00337

  Gestational diabetes is a type of diabetes that happens during pregnancy. […] Healthcare providers don’t know what causes gestational diabetes. But they do know what happens. […] These hormones can affect how your body uses insulin (contra-insulin effect). This often begins about 20 to 24 weeks into your pregnancy and could lead to gestational diabetes. […] During pregnancy, more fat is stored in your body, you take in more calories, and you may get less exercise. All of these things can make your blood sugar (glucose) levels higher than normal and possibly lead to gestational diabetes. […] As the placenta grows, it makes more of the hormones. The risk for insulin resistance becomes greater. Normally your pancreas is able to make more insulin to overcome insulin resistance. But if it can’t make enough to overcome the effects of the placentas hormones, you can develop gestational diabetes. […] It may be caused by the hormones made by your placenta. These hormones can make insulin in your body not work as well as it should.

• #8 Gestational Diabetes: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment | UW MedicineStethascopeHeart

  https://www.uwmedicine.org/conditions-symptoms/pregnancy-postpartum/gestational-diabetes

  Gestational diabetes is a type of diabetes that happens during pregnancy. […] It may be caused by the hormones made by your placenta. These hormones can make insulin in your body not work as well as it should. […] Healthcare providers don’t know what causes gestational diabetes. But they do know what happens. The placenta gives your growing baby nutrients and water. The placenta also makes several hormones to keep the pregnancy healthy. These hormones can affect how your body uses insulin (contra-insulin effect). This often begins about 20 to 24 weeks into your pregnancy and could lead to gestational diabetes. […] During pregnancy, more fat is stored in your body, you take in more calories, and you may get less exercise. All of these things can make your blood sugar (glucose) levels higher than normal and possibly lead to gestational diabetes.

• #9 Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Causes, Symptoms, Risks Factors PACE Hospitals – Best Hospitals in Hitech City, Hyderabad, India | Near Madhapur, Kukatpally, KPHB, Kondapur, Gachibowli, Jubilee Hills, Banjara HillsPACE Hospitals Contact Num

  https://www.pacehospital.com/gestational-diabetes-mellitus-gdm-causes-symptoms-risks-factors

  Gestational diabetes causes […] In a normal pregnancy, insulin resistance develops around the middle of the pregnancy and worsens during the third trimester. Hormones and adipokines released by the placenta, such as tumour necrosis factor (TNF), human placental lactogen, and human placental growth hormone, could be the causative factors for insulin resistance. In addition to this, when a woman is pregnant, her oestrogen, progesterone, and cortisol levels rise, leading to an imbalance between glucose and insulin. […] To compensate the peripheral insulin resistance that occurs during pregnancy, a woman’s pancreas secretes more insulin. Gestational diabetes develops when a woman’s pancreas secretes insufficient insulin to keep up with the metabolic burden of insulin resistance. […] In addition to the above, obesity and a high BMI are linked to chronic low-grade inflammation, according to several studies. Chronic inflammation leads to the synthesis of xanthurenic acid. This acid has been linked to the occurrence of prediabetes and gestational diabetes mellitus.

• #10 Causes of Gestational Diabetes: Key Risk Factors & Prevention for Healthcare Teams

  https://www.diabetesincontrol.com/causes-of-gestational-diabetes-key-risk-factors-prevention-for-healthcare-teams/

  Gestational diabetes is one of the most common pregnancy complications, affecting up to 10% of pregnancies in the U.S. every year. While the exact causes of gestational diabetes vary, one thing is clear early identification and intervention are crucial for reducing risks for both mother and baby. […] Pregnancy triggers hormonal changes that can cause insulin resistance, leading to high blood sugar levels. But some women are more at risk than others. Obesity, genetics, poor diet, and even stress levels all contribute to the condition. […] Gestational diabetes develops when pregnancy hormones interfere with insulin function, leading to high blood sugar levels. […] During pregnancy, the placenta produces hormones that help support fetal development. However, these hormones human placental lactogen (hPL), cortisol, and estrogen also reduce insulin sensitivity, making it harder for the body to regulate glucose levels.

• #11 Gestational Diabetes – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545196/

  Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a form of hyperglycemia that develops during pregnancy and poses risks to both mother and fetus. […] Placental hormone release causes marked insulin resistance. Human placental lactogen is the primary hormone associated with increased insulin resistance; however, this hormone also increases insulin secretion and -cell proliferation to regulate maternal hyperglycemia in normal pregnancies. Conversely, in patients with GDM, conditions or factors are present that cause maternal pancreatic -cell dysfunction or the delayed response of the cells, resulting in decreased insulin secretion and ultimately leading to maternal hyperglycemia. […] Evidence of a genetic etiology has also been found in some GDM studies. […] Several studies have found genetic polymorphisms, including MTNR1B, TCF7L2, HKDC1, GCKR, PPP1R3B, and IRS1, involved in functions such as insulin secretion, glucose metabolism, and insulin resistance in patients with type 2 diabetes that were also associated with GDM.

• #12 Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Causes, Symptoms, Risks Factors PACE Hospitals – Best Hospitals in Hitech City, Hyderabad, India | Near Madhapur, Kukatpally, KPHB, Kondapur, Gachibowli, Jubilee Hills, Banjara HillsPACE Hospitals Contact Num

  https://www.pacehospital.com/gestational-diabetes-mellitus-gdm-causes-symptoms-risks-factors

  Gestational diabetes causes […] In a normal pregnancy, insulin resistance develops around the middle of the pregnancy and worsens during the third trimester. Hormones and adipokines released by the placenta, such as tumour necrosis factor (TNF), human placental lactogen, and human placental growth hormone, could be the causative factors for insulin resistance. In addition to this, when a woman is pregnant, her oestrogen, progesterone, and cortisol levels rise, leading to an imbalance between glucose and insulin. […] To compensate the peripheral insulin resistance that occurs during pregnancy, a woman’s pancreas secretes more insulin. Gestational diabetes develops when a woman’s pancreas secretes insufficient insulin to keep up with the metabolic burden of insulin resistance. […] In addition to the above, obesity and a high BMI are linked to chronic low-grade inflammation, according to several studies. Chronic inflammation leads to the synthesis of xanthurenic acid. This acid has been linked to the occurrence of prediabetes and gestational diabetes mellitus.

• #13 Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Causes, Symptoms, Risks Factors PACE Hospitals – Best Hospitals in Hitech City, Hyderabad, India | Near Madhapur, Kukatpally, KPHB, Kondapur, Gachibowli, Jubilee Hills, Banjara HillsPACE Hospitals Contact Num

  https://www.pacehospital.com/gestational-diabetes-mellitus-gdm-causes-symptoms-risks-factors

  Gestational diabetes causes […] In a normal pregnancy, insulin resistance develops around the middle of the pregnancy and worsens during the third trimester. Hormones and adipokines released by the placenta, such as tumour necrosis factor (TNF), human placental lactogen, and human placental growth hormone, could be the causative factors for insulin resistance. In addition to this, when a woman is pregnant, her oestrogen, progesterone, and cortisol levels rise, leading to an imbalance between glucose and insulin. […] To compensate the peripheral insulin resistance that occurs during pregnancy, a woman’s pancreas secretes more insulin. Gestational diabetes develops when a woman’s pancreas secretes insufficient insulin to keep up with the metabolic burden of insulin resistance. […] In addition to the above, obesity and a high BMI are linked to chronic low-grade inflammation, according to several studies. Chronic inflammation leads to the synthesis of xanthurenic acid. This acid has been linked to the occurrence of prediabetes and gestational diabetes mellitus.

• #14 What Is Gestational Diabetes? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/gestational-diabetes/guide/

  Diabetes mellitus is a group of diseases marked by high blood sugar, and gestational diabetes is one type of diabetes that develops during pregnancy due to hormonal changes. Women who develop gestational diabetes did not have the disease prior to pregnancy. […] Similar to type 2 diabetes, gestational diabetes develops when the body is no longer able to respond effectively to insulin a condition called insulin resistance. […] Gestational diabetes is caused by the effects of placental hormones, says Kevin Borst, DO, an endocrinologist at the Cleveland Clinic in Ohio. These can increase insulin resistance in susceptible individuals. It is not fully understood why some women dont tolerate these hormones well and ultimately develop gestational diabetes. […] Whats more, other changes during pregnancy such as eating more, exercising less, and having larger fat deposits can contribute to insulin resistance.

• #15 Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Causes, Symptoms, Risks Factors PACE Hospitals – Best Hospitals in Hitech City, Hyderabad, India | Near Madhapur, Kukatpally, KPHB, Kondapur, Gachibowli, Jubilee Hills, Banjara HillsPACE Hospitals Contact Num

  https://www.pacehospital.com/gestational-diabetes-mellitus-gdm-causes-symptoms-risks-factors

  Gestational diabetes causes […] In a normal pregnancy, insulin resistance develops around the middle of the pregnancy and worsens during the third trimester. Hormones and adipokines released by the placenta, such as tumour necrosis factor (TNF), human placental lactogen, and human placental growth hormone, could be the causative factors for insulin resistance. In addition to this, when a woman is pregnant, her oestrogen, progesterone, and cortisol levels rise, leading to an imbalance between glucose and insulin. […] To compensate the peripheral insulin resistance that occurs during pregnancy, a woman’s pancreas secretes more insulin. Gestational diabetes develops when a woman’s pancreas secretes insufficient insulin to keep up with the metabolic burden of insulin resistance. […] In addition to the above, obesity and a high BMI are linked to chronic low-grade inflammation, according to several studies. Chronic inflammation leads to the synthesis of xanthurenic acid. This acid has been linked to the occurrence of prediabetes and gestational diabetes mellitus.

• #16 Content – Health Encyclopedia – University of Rochester Medical Center

  https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content?contenttypeid=85&contentid=P00337

  Gestational diabetes is a type of diabetes that happens during pregnancy. […] Healthcare providers don’t know what causes gestational diabetes. But they do know what happens. […] These hormones can affect how your body uses insulin (contra-insulin effect). This often begins about 20 to 24 weeks into your pregnancy and could lead to gestational diabetes. […] During pregnancy, more fat is stored in your body, you take in more calories, and you may get less exercise. All of these things can make your blood sugar (glucose) levels higher than normal and possibly lead to gestational diabetes. […] As the placenta grows, it makes more of the hormones. The risk for insulin resistance becomes greater. Normally your pancreas is able to make more insulin to overcome insulin resistance. But if it can’t make enough to overcome the effects of the placentas hormones, you can develop gestational diabetes. […] It may be caused by the hormones made by your placenta. These hormones can make insulin in your body not work as well as it should.

• #17 Gestational Diabetes: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment | UW MedicineStethascopeHeart

  https://www.uwmedicine.org/conditions-symptoms/pregnancy-postpartum/gestational-diabetes

  Gestational diabetes is a type of diabetes that happens during pregnancy. […] It may be caused by the hormones made by your placenta. These hormones can make insulin in your body not work as well as it should. […] Healthcare providers don’t know what causes gestational diabetes. But they do know what happens. The placenta gives your growing baby nutrients and water. The placenta also makes several hormones to keep the pregnancy healthy. These hormones can affect how your body uses insulin (contra-insulin effect). This often begins about 20 to 24 weeks into your pregnancy and could lead to gestational diabetes. […] During pregnancy, more fat is stored in your body, you take in more calories, and you may get less exercise. All of these things can make your blood sugar (glucose) levels higher than normal and possibly lead to gestational diabetes.

• #18 Gestational Diabetes: Causes, Risk Factors, and Treatment

  https://www.healthline.com/health/diabetes/how-do-you-get-gestational-diabetes

  Gestational diabetes typically develops around the 24th28th week of pregnancy when the insulin resistance is at its peak. […] Research shows that risk factors for gestational diabetes include: Older age: Risk is higher for women ages 3539. […] Previous case of gestational diabetes: If you had gestational diabetes before, your risk of getting it again increases sixfold. […] High body mass index (BMI) (30 kilograms per square meter): Being significantly overweight raises the risk to 12.3%. […] Family history of gestational diabetes: Having relatives with gestational diabetes increases your risk, especially if combined with a high BMI. […] Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): If you were treated for PCOS, your risk is more than doubled. […] Gestational diabetes often doesnt show noticeable symptoms; but some women may experience symptoms such as the following: increased thirst, frequent urination, fatigue, blurred vision.

• #19 Gestational Diabetes – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545196/

  Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a form of hyperglycemia that develops during pregnancy and poses risks to both mother and fetus. […] Placental hormone release causes marked insulin resistance. Human placental lactogen is the primary hormone associated with increased insulin resistance; however, this hormone also increases insulin secretion and -cell proliferation to regulate maternal hyperglycemia in normal pregnancies. Conversely, in patients with GDM, conditions or factors are present that cause maternal pancreatic -cell dysfunction or the delayed response of the cells, resulting in decreased insulin secretion and ultimately leading to maternal hyperglycemia. […] Evidence of a genetic etiology has also been found in some GDM studies. […] Several studies have found genetic polymorphisms, including MTNR1B, TCF7L2, HKDC1, GCKR, PPP1R3B, and IRS1, involved in functions such as insulin secretion, glucose metabolism, and insulin resistance in patients with type 2 diabetes that were also associated with GDM.

• #20 What Causes Gestational Diabetes? | UPMC HealthBeat

  https://share.upmc.com/2024/03/gestational-diabetes-risks/

  Gestational diabetes is a form of diabetes that can happen during pregnancy, usually around the 24th week. It develops when your body doesn’t produce enough insulin, the hormone that regulates blood sugar. […] Pregnancy hormones cause most women to develop insulin resistance during the later part of pregnancy. Insulin resistance means your cells can’t use insulin properly; it’s an early warning sign of diabetes. Most pregnant women can produce extra insulin to compensate, and they don’t develop gestational diabetes. […] However, in about two to 10% of pregnancies, a woman’s body can’t make enough insulin, and blood sugar remains high. It’s impossible to predict who will develop gestational diabetes, but these factors increase your risk: Being older than 25, being overweight (a BMI over 25), having a family history of diabetes, having polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), having prediabetes (an A1C greater than 5.7), a history of heart disease or metabolic syndrome (high triglycerides, low HDL cholesterol, and high blood pressure), a prior history of gestational diabetes, a sedentary lifestyle without regular exercise.

• #21 The Pathophysiology of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6274679/

  Several risk factors for GDM emerge consistently. These include overweight/obesity, excessive gestational weight gain, westernized diet, ethnicity, genetic polymorphisms, advanced maternal age, intrauterine environment (low or high birthweight), family and personal history of GDM, and other diseases of insulin resistance, such as polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS). […] Each of these risk factors are either directly or indirectly associated with impaired -cell function and/or insulin sensitivity. […] It is thought that -cells deteriorate due to excessive insulin production in response to excess energy consumption and insulin resistance, exhausting the cells over time. […] The importance of aiming to understand and effectively treat or prevent GDM is illustrated by the wide-ranging consequences of GDM for both the mother and the fetus.

• #22 The Pathophysiology of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6274679/

  Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a serious pregnancy complication, in which women without previously diagnosed diabetes develop chronic hyperglycemia during gestation. In most cases, this hyperglycemia is the result of impaired glucose tolerance due to pancreatic -cell dysfunction on a background of chronic insulin resistance. Risk factors for GDM include overweight and obesity, advanced maternal age, and a family history or any form of diabetes. […] Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a common pregnancy complication, in which spontaneous hyperglycemia develops during pregnancy. Risk factors include overweight/obesity, westernized diet and micronutrient deficiencies, advanced maternal age, and a family history of insulin resistance and/or diabetes. […] The vast majority (~80%) of GDM cases present as -cell dysfunction on a background of chronic insulin resistance, to which the normal insulin resistance of pregnancy is partially additive.

• #23 The Pathophysiology of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6274679/

  Several risk factors for GDM emerge consistently. These include overweight/obesity, excessive gestational weight gain, westernized diet, ethnicity, genetic polymorphisms, advanced maternal age, intrauterine environment (low or high birthweight), family and personal history of GDM, and other diseases of insulin resistance, such as polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS). […] Each of these risk factors are either directly or indirectly associated with impaired -cell function and/or insulin sensitivity. […] It is thought that -cells deteriorate due to excessive insulin production in response to excess energy consumption and insulin resistance, exhausting the cells over time. […] The importance of aiming to understand and effectively treat or prevent GDM is illustrated by the wide-ranging consequences of GDM for both the mother and the fetus.

• #24 Gestational Diabetes – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545196/

  Additionally, clinicians should be aware of maturity-onset diabetes of the young, an autosomal dominant genetic condition that is often misdiagnosed as GDM. […] The following clinical factors are associated with a high risk of developing gestational diabetes: Increased body weight (a BMI 25 or 23 in Asian Americans), Decreased physical activity, A first-degree relative with diabetes mellitus, High-risk ethnicity (eg, African American, Latino, Native American, Asian American, Pacific Islander), Past history of any of the following GDM, Newborn birth weight of 4000 g, Cardiovascular diseases, Hypertension, Low HDL 35 mg/dL or a triglyceride level 250 mg/dL, Polycystic ovarian syndrome, Hemoglobin A1C 5.7, Abnormal oral glucose tolerance test, Any significant marker of insulin resistance (eg, acanthosis nigricans).

• #25 Causes of gestational diabetes | Diabetes UK

  https://www.diabetes.org.uk/about-diabetes/gestational-diabetes/causes

  Lots of changes happen to your body during pregnancy. Along with the physical signs, the hormones you produce can make it hard for your body to use insulin properly. This puts you at an increased risk of insulin resistance, which is when your bodys cells dont respond properly to the insulin that your body makes, and some women cant produce enough insulin to overcome it. […] This makes it difficult to use glucose (sugar) properly for energy, so it stays in your blood and blood sugar levels rise. This then leads to gestational diabetes. […] Gestational diabetes is not directly caused by consuming too much sugar, but your risk is increased if you are living with overweight or obesity. […] There is no known link between particular foods and an increased risk of gestational diabetes. […] Some factors that can increase your risk of gestational diabetes include: Living with overweight or obesity, Having had it before in a previous pregnancy, Having had a very large baby in a previous pregnancy 4.5kg/10lb or more, Having a family history of diabetes this means at least one parent or sibling, Having a South Asian, Black or African Caribbean or Middle Eastern background, Increasing age – the NHS recommends gestational diabetes screening if you are pregnant and over 40 years old.

• #26

  https://consensus.app/questions/gestational-diabetes-causes/

  Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a condition characterized by glucose intolerance that is first recognized during pregnancy. The primary cause of GDM is the inability of pancreatic -cells to compensate for the increased insulin resistance that occurs during pregnancy. Normally, pregnancy induces insulin resistance due to placental hormones such as progesterone and estrogen. In women with GDM, the pancreatic -cells fail to produce sufficient insulin to maintain normal glucose levels, leading to hyperglycemia. […] Several risk factors increase the likelihood of developing GDM. These include obesity and overweight, advanced maternal age, family history of diabetes, and ethnicity. […] Both genetic predispositions and environmental factors play significant roles in the development of GDM. Women with GDM often share genetic risk alleles with those predisposed to type 2 diabetes. Environmental factors such as diet, physical activity, and gut microbiome composition also influence the risk of developing GDM.

• #27 Causes of Gestational Diabetes: Key Risk Factors & Prevention for Healthcare Teams

  https://www.diabetesincontrol.com/causes-of-gestational-diabetes-key-risk-factors-prevention-for-healthcare-teams/

  By the third trimester, insulin resistance peaks, and for some women, the pancreas fails to produce enough insulin to compensate, resulting in gestational diabetes. […] Gestational diabetes is essentially a temporary form of insulin resistance. If insulin production cannot keep up with rising glucose demands, blood sugar levels spike, putting both mother and baby at risk. […] Women with a BMI over 30 have three times the risk of developing gestational diabetes. Excess body fat increases insulin resistance, making it harder to regulate blood sugar. […] A family history of diabetes increases the likelihood of gestational diabetes and future Type 2 diabetes. If a patient’s mother or sister had gestational diabetes, their risk is almost doubled. […] Women over 35 years old face a higher risk due to age-related insulin resistance. As women age, beta-cell function in the pancreas declines, reducing insulin production.

• #28 Causes of Gestational Diabetes: Key Risk Factors & Prevention for Healthcare Teams

  https://www.diabetesincontrol.com/causes-of-gestational-diabetes-key-risk-factors-prevention-for-healthcare-teams/

  By the third trimester, insulin resistance peaks, and for some women, the pancreas fails to produce enough insulin to compensate, resulting in gestational diabetes. […] Gestational diabetes is essentially a temporary form of insulin resistance. If insulin production cannot keep up with rising glucose demands, blood sugar levels spike, putting both mother and baby at risk. […] Women with a BMI over 30 have three times the risk of developing gestational diabetes. Excess body fat increases insulin resistance, making it harder to regulate blood sugar. […] A family history of diabetes increases the likelihood of gestational diabetes and future Type 2 diabetes. If a patient’s mother or sister had gestational diabetes, their risk is almost doubled. […] Women over 35 years old face a higher risk due to age-related insulin resistance. As women age, beta-cell function in the pancreas declines, reducing insulin production.

• #29 Gestational Diabetes: Causes, Risk Factors, and Treatment

  https://www.healthline.com/health/diabetes/how-do-you-get-gestational-diabetes

  Gestational diabetes typically develops around the 24th28th week of pregnancy when the insulin resistance is at its peak. […] Research shows that risk factors for gestational diabetes include: Older age: Risk is higher for women ages 3539. […] Previous case of gestational diabetes: If you had gestational diabetes before, your risk of getting it again increases sixfold. […] High body mass index (BMI) (30 kilograms per square meter): Being significantly overweight raises the risk to 12.3%. […] Family history of gestational diabetes: Having relatives with gestational diabetes increases your risk, especially if combined with a high BMI. […] Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): If you were treated for PCOS, your risk is more than doubled. […] Gestational diabetes often doesnt show noticeable symptoms; but some women may experience symptoms such as the following: increased thirst, frequent urination, fatigue, blurred vision.

• #30 Causes of Gestational Diabetes: Key Risk Factors & Prevention for Healthcare Teams

  https://www.diabetesincontrol.com/causes-of-gestational-diabetes-key-risk-factors-prevention-for-healthcare-teams/

  By the third trimester, insulin resistance peaks, and for some women, the pancreas fails to produce enough insulin to compensate, resulting in gestational diabetes. […] Gestational diabetes is essentially a temporary form of insulin resistance. If insulin production cannot keep up with rising glucose demands, blood sugar levels spike, putting both mother and baby at risk. […] Women with a BMI over 30 have three times the risk of developing gestational diabetes. Excess body fat increases insulin resistance, making it harder to regulate blood sugar. […] A family history of diabetes increases the likelihood of gestational diabetes and future Type 2 diabetes. If a patient’s mother or sister had gestational diabetes, their risk is almost doubled. […] Women over 35 years old face a higher risk due to age-related insulin resistance. As women age, beta-cell function in the pancreas declines, reducing insulin production.

• #31 Gestational Diabetes – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545196/

  Additionally, clinicians should be aware of maturity-onset diabetes of the young, an autosomal dominant genetic condition that is often misdiagnosed as GDM. […] The following clinical factors are associated with a high risk of developing gestational diabetes: Increased body weight (a BMI 25 or 23 in Asian Americans), Decreased physical activity, A first-degree relative with diabetes mellitus, High-risk ethnicity (eg, African American, Latino, Native American, Asian American, Pacific Islander), Past history of any of the following GDM, Newborn birth weight of 4000 g, Cardiovascular diseases, Hypertension, Low HDL 35 mg/dL or a triglyceride level 250 mg/dL, Polycystic ovarian syndrome, Hemoglobin A1C 5.7, Abnormal oral glucose tolerance test, Any significant marker of insulin resistance (eg, acanthosis nigricans).

• #32 Causes of Gestational Diabetes: Key Risk Factors & Prevention for Healthcare Teams

  https://www.diabetesincontrol.com/causes-of-gestational-diabetes-key-risk-factors-prevention-for-healthcare-teams/

  PCOS is strongly linked to insulin resistance and hormonal imbalances, making affected women more prone to gestational diabetes. […] Studies show Hispanic, African American, Native American, and Asian women have higher rates of gestational diabetes, likely due to genetic predisposition and metabolic factors. […] Women who gain more weight than recommended during pregnancy have a higher chance of developing insulin resistance. […] Patients who had gestational diabetes in a prior pregnancy have a 50% chance of developing it again in future pregnancies. They are also seven times more likely to develop Type 2 diabetes later in life. […] Gestational diabetes is caused by hormonal changes in pregnancy that reduce insulin sensitivity, leading to high blood sugar levels. […] Women with obesity, PCOS, advanced maternal age, a family history of diabetes, or excessive pregnancy weight gain are at higher risk.

• #33 Diabetes Mellitus and Pregnancy: Practice Essentials, Gestational Diabetes, Maternal-Fetal Metabolism in Normal Pregnancy

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/127547-overview

  The prevalence of gestational diabetes is strongly related to the patient’s race and culture. […] In these high-risk populations, the recurrence risk with future pregnancies has been reported to be as high as 68%. […] The excessive fetal and neonatal morbidity attributable to diabetes in pregnancy should be considered preventable with early diagnosis and effective treatment therapies. […] Studies indicate that the risk of these morbidities is directly proportional to the degree of maternal hyperglycemia.

• #34 Gestational Diabetes: Causes, Risk Factors, and Treatment

  https://www.healthline.com/health/diabetes/how-do-you-get-gestational-diabetes

  Gestational diabetes typically develops around the 24th28th week of pregnancy when the insulin resistance is at its peak. […] Research shows that risk factors for gestational diabetes include: Older age: Risk is higher for women ages 3539. […] Previous case of gestational diabetes: If you had gestational diabetes before, your risk of getting it again increases sixfold. […] High body mass index (BMI) (30 kilograms per square meter): Being significantly overweight raises the risk to 12.3%. […] Family history of gestational diabetes: Having relatives with gestational diabetes increases your risk, especially if combined with a high BMI. […] Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): If you were treated for PCOS, your risk is more than doubled. […] Gestational diabetes often doesnt show noticeable symptoms; but some women may experience symptoms such as the following: increased thirst, frequent urination, fatigue, blurred vision.

• #35 Causes of Gestational Diabetes: Key Risk Factors & Prevention for Healthcare Teams

  https://www.diabetesincontrol.com/causes-of-gestational-diabetes-key-risk-factors-prevention-for-healthcare-teams/

  PCOS is strongly linked to insulin resistance and hormonal imbalances, making affected women more prone to gestational diabetes. […] Studies show Hispanic, African American, Native American, and Asian women have higher rates of gestational diabetes, likely due to genetic predisposition and metabolic factors. […] Women who gain more weight than recommended during pregnancy have a higher chance of developing insulin resistance. […] Patients who had gestational diabetes in a prior pregnancy have a 50% chance of developing it again in future pregnancies. They are also seven times more likely to develop Type 2 diabetes later in life. […] Gestational diabetes is caused by hormonal changes in pregnancy that reduce insulin sensitivity, leading to high blood sugar levels. […] Women with obesity, PCOS, advanced maternal age, a family history of diabetes, or excessive pregnancy weight gain are at higher risk.

• #36 Gestational Diabetes – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545196/

  Additionally, clinicians should be aware of maturity-onset diabetes of the young, an autosomal dominant genetic condition that is often misdiagnosed as GDM. […] The following clinical factors are associated with a high risk of developing gestational diabetes: Increased body weight (a BMI 25 or 23 in Asian Americans), Decreased physical activity, A first-degree relative with diabetes mellitus, High-risk ethnicity (eg, African American, Latino, Native American, Asian American, Pacific Islander), Past history of any of the following GDM, Newborn birth weight of 4000 g, Cardiovascular diseases, Hypertension, Low HDL 35 mg/dL or a triglyceride level 250 mg/dL, Polycystic ovarian syndrome, Hemoglobin A1C 5.7, Abnormal oral glucose tolerance test, Any significant marker of insulin resistance (eg, acanthosis nigricans).

• #37 Gestational Diabetes – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545196/

  Additionally, clinicians should be aware of maturity-onset diabetes of the young, an autosomal dominant genetic condition that is often misdiagnosed as GDM. […] The following clinical factors are associated with a high risk of developing gestational diabetes: Increased body weight (a BMI 25 or 23 in Asian Americans), Decreased physical activity, A first-degree relative with diabetes mellitus, High-risk ethnicity (eg, African American, Latino, Native American, Asian American, Pacific Islander), Past history of any of the following GDM, Newborn birth weight of 4000 g, Cardiovascular diseases, Hypertension, Low HDL 35 mg/dL or a triglyceride level 250 mg/dL, Polycystic ovarian syndrome, Hemoglobin A1C 5.7, Abnormal oral glucose tolerance test, Any significant marker of insulin resistance (eg, acanthosis nigricans).

• #38 Gestational Diabetes | Birth Injury Center

  https://birthinjurycenter.org/pregnancy-complications/gestational-diabetes/

  Giving birth to a baby that weighs more than nine pounds or experiencing a stillbirth may also increase the chances of gestational diabetes. […] Some races, including African Americans, Hispanics, Native Americans, and Pacific Islanders, have higher rates of developing gestational diabetes. […] Certain health conditions may increase the risk for gestational diabetes, for example, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).

• #39 Gestational Diabetes – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545196/

  Additionally, clinicians should be aware of maturity-onset diabetes of the young, an autosomal dominant genetic condition that is often misdiagnosed as GDM. […] The following clinical factors are associated with a high risk of developing gestational diabetes: Increased body weight (a BMI 25 or 23 in Asian Americans), Decreased physical activity, A first-degree relative with diabetes mellitus, High-risk ethnicity (eg, African American, Latino, Native American, Asian American, Pacific Islander), Past history of any of the following GDM, Newborn birth weight of 4000 g, Cardiovascular diseases, Hypertension, Low HDL 35 mg/dL or a triglyceride level 250 mg/dL, Polycystic ovarian syndrome, Hemoglobin A1C 5.7, Abnormal oral glucose tolerance test, Any significant marker of insulin resistance (eg, acanthosis nigricans).

• #40 Gestational Diabetes – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545196/

  Additionally, clinicians should be aware of maturity-onset diabetes of the young, an autosomal dominant genetic condition that is often misdiagnosed as GDM. […] The following clinical factors are associated with a high risk of developing gestational diabetes: Increased body weight (a BMI 25 or 23 in Asian Americans), Decreased physical activity, A first-degree relative with diabetes mellitus, High-risk ethnicity (eg, African American, Latino, Native American, Asian American, Pacific Islander), Past history of any of the following GDM, Newborn birth weight of 4000 g, Cardiovascular diseases, Hypertension, Low HDL 35 mg/dL or a triglyceride level 250 mg/dL, Polycystic ovarian syndrome, Hemoglobin A1C 5.7, Abnormal oral glucose tolerance test, Any significant marker of insulin resistance (eg, acanthosis nigricans).

• #41 Gestational Diabetes – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545196/

  Additionally, clinicians should be aware of maturity-onset diabetes of the young, an autosomal dominant genetic condition that is often misdiagnosed as GDM. […] The following clinical factors are associated with a high risk of developing gestational diabetes: Increased body weight (a BMI 25 or 23 in Asian Americans), Decreased physical activity, A first-degree relative with diabetes mellitus, High-risk ethnicity (eg, African American, Latino, Native American, Asian American, Pacific Islander), Past history of any of the following GDM, Newborn birth weight of 4000 g, Cardiovascular diseases, Hypertension, Low HDL 35 mg/dL or a triglyceride level 250 mg/dL, Polycystic ovarian syndrome, Hemoglobin A1C 5.7, Abnormal oral glucose tolerance test, Any significant marker of insulin resistance (eg, acanthosis nigricans).

• #42 Content – Health Encyclopedia – University of Rochester Medical Center

  https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content?contenttypeid=85&contentid=P00337

  Gestational diabetes is a type of diabetes that happens during pregnancy. […] Healthcare providers don’t know what causes gestational diabetes. But they do know what happens. […] These hormones can affect how your body uses insulin (contra-insulin effect). This often begins about 20 to 24 weeks into your pregnancy and could lead to gestational diabetes. […] During pregnancy, more fat is stored in your body, you take in more calories, and you may get less exercise. All of these things can make your blood sugar (glucose) levels higher than normal and possibly lead to gestational diabetes. […] As the placenta grows, it makes more of the hormones. The risk for insulin resistance becomes greater. Normally your pancreas is able to make more insulin to overcome insulin resistance. But if it can’t make enough to overcome the effects of the placentas hormones, you can develop gestational diabetes. […] It may be caused by the hormones made by your placenta. These hormones can make insulin in your body not work as well as it should.

• #43 Causes of gestational diabetes | Diabetes UK

  https://www.diabetes.org.uk/about-diabetes/gestational-diabetes/causes

  Lots of changes happen to your body during pregnancy. Along with the physical signs, the hormones you produce can make it hard for your body to use insulin properly. This puts you at an increased risk of insulin resistance, which is when your bodys cells dont respond properly to the insulin that your body makes, and some women cant produce enough insulin to overcome it. […] This makes it difficult to use glucose (sugar) properly for energy, so it stays in your blood and blood sugar levels rise. This then leads to gestational diabetes. […] Gestational diabetes is not directly caused by consuming too much sugar, but your risk is increased if you are living with overweight or obesity. […] There is no known link between particular foods and an increased risk of gestational diabetes. […] Some factors that can increase your risk of gestational diabetes include: Living with overweight or obesity, Having had it before in a previous pregnancy, Having had a very large baby in a previous pregnancy 4.5kg/10lb or more, Having a family history of diabetes this means at least one parent or sibling, Having a South Asian, Black or African Caribbean or Middle Eastern background, Increasing age – the NHS recommends gestational diabetes screening if you are pregnant and over 40 years old.

• #44 Causes of Gestational Diabetes: Key Risk Factors & Prevention for Healthcare Teams

  https://www.diabetesincontrol.com/causes-of-gestational-diabetes-key-risk-factors-prevention-for-healthcare-teams/

  PCOS is strongly linked to insulin resistance and hormonal imbalances, making affected women more prone to gestational diabetes. […] Studies show Hispanic, African American, Native American, and Asian women have higher rates of gestational diabetes, likely due to genetic predisposition and metabolic factors. […] Women who gain more weight than recommended during pregnancy have a higher chance of developing insulin resistance. […] Patients who had gestational diabetes in a prior pregnancy have a 50% chance of developing it again in future pregnancies. They are also seven times more likely to develop Type 2 diabetes later in life. […] Gestational diabetes is caused by hormonal changes in pregnancy that reduce insulin sensitivity, leading to high blood sugar levels. […] Women with obesity, PCOS, advanced maternal age, a family history of diabetes, or excessive pregnancy weight gain are at higher risk.

• #45 Gestational Diabetes: Signs, Causes, and Risk Factors | ABC Law Centers: Birth Injury Lawyers

  https://www.abclawcenters.com/practice-areas/gestational-diabetes-signs-causes-and-risk-factors/

  Risk for gestational diabetes may increase if the patient has any of the following conditions: A previous diagnosis of gestational diabetes or prediabetes, poor impaired glucose tolerance, or impaired fasting glycemia; A family history of type 2 diabetes; Maternal obesity; Advanced maternal age (over 35); Previously birthed a baby that weighed more than 9 pounds; High blood pressure and preeclampsia; Too much amniotic fluid (polyhydramnios); Significant weight gain before or during the first 18-24 weeks of pregnancy; Medical conditions associated with risk for diabetes, such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). […] The American Congress of Obstetrics and Gynecologists (ACOG) recommends that all pregnant patients receive an oral glucose tolerance test between the 24th and 28th week of pregnancy.

• #46 What Causes Gestational Diabetes? | M.O.G.A.

  https://mogamd.com/what-causes-gestational-diabetes/

  Genetics: Having an existing family history of diabetes can increase the risk of developing gestational diabetes. If your relatives have type 2 diabetes, your risk may also be higher. […] Ethnicity: Some ethnic groups, such as African American, Hispanic, Native American, and Asian American, carry a greater risk of developing gestational diabetes. […] Age: Women who are older than 25 years, and particularly those over 35, are more prone to developing gestational diabetes. […] Previous Gestational Diabetes: When women have had gestational diabetes during a previous pregnancy, they are at increased risk of developing it again in subsequent pregnancies. […] Multiple Pregnancies: Women carrying twins or more babies are at a higher risk of gestational diabetes due to the increased demands on the body.

• #47 Diabetes Mellitus and Pregnancy: Practice Essentials, Gestational Diabetes, Maternal-Fetal Metabolism in Normal Pregnancy

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/127547-overview

  Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is defined as glucose intolerance of variable degree with onset or first recognition during pregnancy. […] A study by Stuebe et al found this condition to be associated with persistent metabolic dysfunction in women at 3 years after delivery, separate from other clinical risk factors. […] Gestational diabetes mellitus accounts for 90% of cases of diabetes mellitus in pregnancy, while preexisting type 2 diabetes accounts for 8% of such cases. […] A study by OReilly et al concluded that gestational insulin use, non-European ethnicity, a family history of type 2 diabetes mellitus, and an elevated body mass index (BMI) were factors associated with persistent dysglycemia in women who have had gestational diabetes mellitus. […] Medical interventions during pregnancy may increase the likelihood of developing gestational diabetes. A study reported in 2007 demonstrated an increased incidence of gestational diabetes mellitus in women receiving prophylactic 17 alpha-hydroxyprogesterone caproate for the prevention of recurrent preterm delivery (from 4.9% in controls to 12.9% in treated patients).

• #48 Gestational Diabetes – UF Health

  https://ufhealth.org/conditions-and-treatments/gestational-diabetes

  Gestational diabetes is high blood sugar (glucose) that starts or is first diagnosed during pregnancy. […] Pregnancy hormones can inhibit insulin from doing its job. When this happens, glucose level may increase in a pregnant woman’s blood. […] You are at greater risk for gestational diabetes if you: Are older than 25 when you are pregnant, Come from a higher risk ethnic group, such as Latino, African American, Native American, Asian, or Pacific Islander, Have a family history of diabetes, Gave birth to a baby that weighed more than 9 pounds (4 kg) or had a birth defect, Have high blood pressure, Have too much amniotic fluid, Have had an unexplained miscarriage or stillbirth, Were overweight before your pregnancy, Gain too much weight during your pregnancy, Have polycystic ovary syndrome. […] If you are overweight, getting your weight within the normal body mass index (BMI) range will decrease your risk for gestational diabetes.

• #49 Gestational Diabetes – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545196/

  Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a form of hyperglycemia that develops during pregnancy and poses risks to both mother and fetus. […] Placental hormone release causes marked insulin resistance. Human placental lactogen is the primary hormone associated with increased insulin resistance; however, this hormone also increases insulin secretion and -cell proliferation to regulate maternal hyperglycemia in normal pregnancies. Conversely, in patients with GDM, conditions or factors are present that cause maternal pancreatic -cell dysfunction or the delayed response of the cells, resulting in decreased insulin secretion and ultimately leading to maternal hyperglycemia. […] Evidence of a genetic etiology has also been found in some GDM studies. […] Several studies have found genetic polymorphisms, including MTNR1B, TCF7L2, HKDC1, GCKR, PPP1R3B, and IRS1, involved in functions such as insulin secretion, glucose metabolism, and insulin resistance in patients with type 2 diabetes that were also associated with GDM.

• #50 Gestational diabetes – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestational_diabetes

  Gestational diabetes can occur during pregnancy because of insulin resistance or reduced production of insulin. […] Risk factors include being overweight, previously having gestational diabetes, a family history of type 2 diabetes, and having polycystic ovarian syndrome. […] The precise mechanisms underlying gestational diabetes remain unknown. The hallmark of GDM is increased insulin resistance. […] It is unclear why some women are unable to balance insulin needs and develop GDM; however, several explanations have been given, similar to those in type 2 diabetes: autoimmunity, single gene mutations, obesity, along with other mechanisms. […] One proposed biochemical mechanism involves insulin-producing -cell adaptation controlled by the HGF/c-MET signaling pathway. […] The exact mechanism of HGF/c-MET regulated -cell adaptation is not yet known. […] Although the mechanism of HGF/c-MET control of gestational diabetes is not yet well understood, there is a strong correlation between the signaling pathway and the inability to produce an adequate amount of insulin during pregnancy and thus it may be the target for future diabetic therapies.

• #51 Gestational Diabetes – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545196/

  Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a form of hyperglycemia that develops during pregnancy and poses risks to both mother and fetus. […] Placental hormone release causes marked insulin resistance. Human placental lactogen is the primary hormone associated with increased insulin resistance; however, this hormone also increases insulin secretion and -cell proliferation to regulate maternal hyperglycemia in normal pregnancies. Conversely, in patients with GDM, conditions or factors are present that cause maternal pancreatic -cell dysfunction or the delayed response of the cells, resulting in decreased insulin secretion and ultimately leading to maternal hyperglycemia. […] Evidence of a genetic etiology has also been found in some GDM studies. […] Several studies have found genetic polymorphisms, including MTNR1B, TCF7L2, HKDC1, GCKR, PPP1R3B, and IRS1, involved in functions such as insulin secretion, glucose metabolism, and insulin resistance in patients with type 2 diabetes that were also associated with GDM.

• #52

  https://consensus.app/questions/gestational-diabetes-causes/

  Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a condition characterized by glucose intolerance that is first recognized during pregnancy. The primary cause of GDM is the inability of pancreatic -cells to compensate for the increased insulin resistance that occurs during pregnancy. Normally, pregnancy induces insulin resistance due to placental hormones such as progesterone and estrogen. In women with GDM, the pancreatic -cells fail to produce sufficient insulin to maintain normal glucose levels, leading to hyperglycemia. […] Several risk factors increase the likelihood of developing GDM. These include obesity and overweight, advanced maternal age, family history of diabetes, and ethnicity. […] Both genetic predispositions and environmental factors play significant roles in the development of GDM. Women with GDM often share genetic risk alleles with those predisposed to type 2 diabetes. Environmental factors such as diet, physical activity, and gut microbiome composition also influence the risk of developing GDM.

• #53 Gestational Diabetes – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545196/

  Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a form of hyperglycemia that develops during pregnancy and poses risks to both mother and fetus. […] Placental hormone release causes marked insulin resistance. Human placental lactogen is the primary hormone associated with increased insulin resistance; however, this hormone also increases insulin secretion and -cell proliferation to regulate maternal hyperglycemia in normal pregnancies. Conversely, in patients with GDM, conditions or factors are present that cause maternal pancreatic -cell dysfunction or the delayed response of the cells, resulting in decreased insulin secretion and ultimately leading to maternal hyperglycemia. […] Evidence of a genetic etiology has also been found in some GDM studies. […] Several studies have found genetic polymorphisms, including MTNR1B, TCF7L2, HKDC1, GCKR, PPP1R3B, and IRS1, involved in functions such as insulin secretion, glucose metabolism, and insulin resistance in patients with type 2 diabetes that were also associated with GDM.

• #54 Gestational diabetes mellitus causes genome hyper-methylation of oocyte via increased EZH2 | Nature Communications

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-55499-x

  Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), a common pregnancy disease, has long-term negative effects on offspring health. […] Our results show that GDM induces genomic hyper-methylation of offspring oocytes, and at least a part of the altered methylation is inherited by F2 oocytes, which may be a reason for the inheritance of metabolic disorders. […] We further find that GDM exposure increases the expression of Ezh2 in oocytes. Ezh2 regulates DNA methylation via DNMT1, and Ezh2 knockdown reduces the genomic methylation level of GDF1 oocytes. […] These results suggest that GDM may induce oocyte genomic hyper-methylation of offspring via enhancing the Ezh2 expression recruiting more DNMT1 into nucleus. […] Previous studies have shown that altered DNA methylation induced by GDM is observed in umbilical cord blood, placenta, fetoplacental endothelial cells, and offspring blood in humans.

• #55 Gestational diabetes mellitus causes genome hyper-methylation of oocyte via increased EZH2 | Nature Communications

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-55499-x

  Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), a common pregnancy disease, has long-term negative effects on offspring health. […] Our results show that GDM induces genomic hyper-methylation of offspring oocytes, and at least a part of the altered methylation is inherited by F2 oocytes, which may be a reason for the inheritance of metabolic disorders. […] We further find that GDM exposure increases the expression of Ezh2 in oocytes. Ezh2 regulates DNA methylation via DNMT1, and Ezh2 knockdown reduces the genomic methylation level of GDF1 oocytes. […] These results suggest that GDM may induce oocyte genomic hyper-methylation of offspring via enhancing the Ezh2 expression recruiting more DNMT1 into nucleus. […] Previous studies have shown that altered DNA methylation induced by GDM is observed in umbilical cord blood, placenta, fetoplacental endothelial cells, and offspring blood in humans.

• #56 Gestational diabetes mellitus causes genome hyper-methylation of oocyte via increased EZH2 | Nature Communications

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-55499-x

  GDM exposure also has negative effects on histone modification and miRNA expression in fetus and placentas. […] These suggest that epigenetic changes may have vital contributions to offspring health of GDM mothers. […] Here, we show that GDM disrupts the DNA methylome in oocytes and the metabolism of offspring, which can be partly transmitted to the subsequent generations via females. […] Our results suggest that the increased EZH2 induced by GDM recruits DNMT1 into nucleus leading to the hyper-methylation of oocytes. […] The disturbed genomic DNA methylation in GDF1 oocytes may have contributions to the inheritance of metabolic disorders. […] The altered epigenetic modification may have contributions to metabolic diseases in offspring of GDM mothers. […] The inheritance of changed DNA methylation is also reported by studies. […] These suggest that the inheritance of metabolic disorders caused by GDM may be associated with changes of DNA methylation in oocytes, which affects the health of next generations.

• #57

  https://consensus.app/questions/gestational-diabetes-causes/

  Recent studies have highlighted the role of gut microbiome changes in the development of GDM. Dysbiosis, or an imbalance in the gut microbiota, can lead to chronic inflammation and insulin resistance, which are key factors in the pathogenesis of GDM. […] Gestational diabetes mellitus is a complex condition with multifactorial causes, including insulin resistance, pancreatic -cell dysfunction, genetic predispositions, and environmental factors.

• #58 The Pathophysiology of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6274679/

  In the majority of cases, pancreatic -cells fail to compensate for a chronic fuel surfeit, leading to eventual insulin resistance, hyperglycemia, and an increased supply of glucose to the growing fetus. There is also evidence that adipose expandability, low-grade chronic inflammation, gluconeogenesis, oxidative stress, and placental factors contribute to the pathology of GDM.

• #59 The Pathophysiology of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6274679/

  In the majority of cases, pancreatic -cells fail to compensate for a chronic fuel surfeit, leading to eventual insulin resistance, hyperglycemia, and an increased supply of glucose to the growing fetus. There is also evidence that adipose expandability, low-grade chronic inflammation, gluconeogenesis, oxidative stress, and placental factors contribute to the pathology of GDM.

• #60 The Pathophysiology of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6274679/

  In the majority of cases, pancreatic -cells fail to compensate for a chronic fuel surfeit, leading to eventual insulin resistance, hyperglycemia, and an increased supply of glucose to the growing fetus. There is also evidence that adipose expandability, low-grade chronic inflammation, gluconeogenesis, oxidative stress, and placental factors contribute to the pathology of GDM.

• #61 Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Causes, Symptoms, Risks Factors PACE Hospitals – Best Hospitals in Hitech City, Hyderabad, India | Near Madhapur, Kukatpally, KPHB, Kondapur, Gachibowli, Jubilee Hills, Banjara HillsPACE Hospitals Contact Num

  https://www.pacehospital.com/gestational-diabetes-mellitus-gdm-causes-symptoms-risks-factors

  Gestational diabetes causes […] In a normal pregnancy, insulin resistance develops around the middle of the pregnancy and worsens during the third trimester. Hormones and adipokines released by the placenta, such as tumour necrosis factor (TNF), human placental lactogen, and human placental growth hormone, could be the causative factors for insulin resistance. In addition to this, when a woman is pregnant, her oestrogen, progesterone, and cortisol levels rise, leading to an imbalance between glucose and insulin. […] To compensate the peripheral insulin resistance that occurs during pregnancy, a woman’s pancreas secretes more insulin. Gestational diabetes develops when a woman’s pancreas secretes insufficient insulin to keep up with the metabolic burden of insulin resistance. […] In addition to the above, obesity and a high BMI are linked to chronic low-grade inflammation, according to several studies. Chronic inflammation leads to the synthesis of xanthurenic acid. This acid has been linked to the occurrence of prediabetes and gestational diabetes mellitus.

• #62 Gestational diabetes – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestational_diabetes

  Gestational diabetes can occur during pregnancy because of insulin resistance or reduced production of insulin. […] Risk factors include being overweight, previously having gestational diabetes, a family history of type 2 diabetes, and having polycystic ovarian syndrome. […] The precise mechanisms underlying gestational diabetes remain unknown. The hallmark of GDM is increased insulin resistance. […] It is unclear why some women are unable to balance insulin needs and develop GDM; however, several explanations have been given, similar to those in type 2 diabetes: autoimmunity, single gene mutations, obesity, along with other mechanisms. […] One proposed biochemical mechanism involves insulin-producing -cell adaptation controlled by the HGF/c-MET signaling pathway. […] The exact mechanism of HGF/c-MET regulated -cell adaptation is not yet known. […] Although the mechanism of HGF/c-MET control of gestational diabetes is not yet well understood, there is a strong correlation between the signaling pathway and the inability to produce an adequate amount of insulin during pregnancy and thus it may be the target for future diabetic therapies.

• #63 New Clues on What Causes Gestational Diabetes | Today’s Clinical Lab

  https://www.clinicallab.com/new-clues-on-what-causes-gestational-diabetes-27851

  A new study led by the Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute has identified that a deficit in the placental expression of the gene insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGFBP1) and low IGFBP1 circulating levels are associated with insulin resistance during pregnancy, highlighting a potential risk factor for the development of gestational diabetes. […] The placenta, the major driver of changes in insulin physiology in pregnancy, is likely a key source of hormones involved in the development of gestational diabetes, says Marie-France Hivert, Harvard Medical School associate professor of population medicine at the Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute and lead author of the study. […] The team identified 14 genes whose placental RNA expression levels were associated with insulin resistance, finding the strongest association with gene IGFBP1.

• #64 New Clues on What Causes Gestational Diabetes | Today’s Clinical Lab

  https://www.clinicallab.com/new-clues-on-what-causes-gestational-diabetes-27851

  Results also show that low levels of circulating IGFBP1 in early pregnancy could predict who is likely to develop gestational diabetes in late second trimester of pregnancy. […] Its possible that measuring IGFBP1 in the first trimester could help identify people at risk of developing gestational diabetes early in pregnancy, potentially offering a window for prevention. We hope to conduct future research to address whether this protein plays a causal role in gestational glycemic regulation.

• #65 Causes of gestational diabetes | Diabetes UK

  https://www.diabetes.org.uk/about-diabetes/gestational-diabetes/causes

  Some people cant prevent gestational diabetes, but there are some things you can do to reduce your risk. This includes getting support to manage your weight, eat healthily and keep active before pregnancy. […] Gestational diabetes is less common than type 1 or type 2 diabetes, but prevalence has been increasing. It affects at least 45 in 100 women during pregnancy, or 1 in 20 pregnancies in the UK.

• #66 Gestational Diabetes: Causes, Risk Factors, and Treatment

  https://www.healthline.com/health/diabetes/how-do-you-get-gestational-diabetes

  Adopting a healthy lifestyle, including regular exercise and a balanced diet, especially for people with overweight or obesity, can play a crucial role in reducing the risk of gestational diabetes. […] Complications of gestational diabetes may include: increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes later in life, higher likelihood of developing preeclampsia (high blood pressure during pregnancy), increased chances of requiring a cesarean section during delivery. […] Gestational diabetes typically goes away after childbirth, but people with a history of the condition in prior pregnancies have a higher likelihood of experiencing it again in subsequent pregnancies. […] Preventive measures involve a healthy lifestyle, but the condition isnt always avoidable.

• #67 Gestational Diabetes & Birth Complications | Identify the Risk Factors

  https://www.childbirthinjuries.com/blog/gestational-diabetes-and-increased-risk-of-birth-injury/

  It’s important to note that some women may still develop gestational diabetes even if they do not have any of these risk factors. […] About half of women with gestational diabetes will develop type 2 diabetes later in life, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). […] As a result of gestational diabetes, some babies may grow too large to safely pass through their mother’s birth canal, which puts them at risk of complicated deliveries, birth injuries, and even type 2 diabetes later in life. […] Cerebral palsy, for example, is a neurological condition linked to gestational diabetes. […] Another condition linked to gestational diabetes is Erb’s palsy.

• #68 Gestational diabetes: Causes and more

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/is-gestational-diabetes-my-fault

  Risk factors such as being overweight or having a family history of diabetes may increase the chances of developing gestational diabetes. However, it is not something a person can directly control or prevent through their actions. […] Several factors can raise the risk of gestational diabetes, including family history of diabetes, being overweight or having a high body mass index (BMI) before pregnancy, previously giving birth to a baby over 9 pounds, being over the age of 30, and having conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). […] However, individuals without these risk factors can develop gestational diabetes due to the natural hormonal shifts during pregnancy. […] Gestational diabetes arises due to hormonal changes during pregnancy; it does not stem from anything a person has done wrong. While certain risk factors can increase the likelihood of developing it, gestational diabetes can affect anyone.

• #69 Gestational Diabetes – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545196/

  The pathophysiology of GDM is similar to type 2 diabetes, caused by increased insulin resistance and a deficiency in insulin hormone. Maternal pancreatic -cell dysfunction resulting in decreased insulin secretion is the primary mechanism that results in the inability to control maternal insulin resistance and increased glucose levels, which leads to reduced glucose uptake, increased hepatic gluconeogenesis, and maternal hyperglycemia. […] Proper control of maternal glucose levels significantly reduces GDM risks, including macrosomia and neonatal hypoglycemia.

• #70 Gestational Diabetes: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatments > Fact Sheets > Yale Medicine

  https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/gestational-diabetes-symptoms-causes-treatments

  Gestational diabetes mellitus occurs only in women during pregnancy. Although the exact cause is unknown, the prevailing theory is that the placenta—the organ that delivers water and nutrients to the fetus—produces hormones that block the mother’s ability to use insulin effectively. Insulin is a hormone that the body needs to convert glucose, or sugar, into energy that the body’s cells can use. […] As the pregnancy continues, the placenta grows and produces more and more of these hormones; the result is that glucose builds up in the blood, rather than being used by the mother’s and fetus’s cells. […] Mothers with gestational diabetes are at a higher risk for preeclampsia (hypertension during pregnancy), problems with labor, and Cesarean delivery. […] A mother who has had gestational diabetes is also at greater risk of developing type 2 diabetes later in life. […] High blood glucose during labor can cause complications for the baby, including chemical imbalances. […] However, it is important for patients to take the glucose test again about six weeks postpartum. This is to ensure there is no sustained type 2 diabetes.

• #71 Gestational Diabetes | ACOG

  https://www.acog.org/womens-health/faqs/gestational-diabetes

  Diabetes mellitus (also called diabetes) is a condition in which too much glucose (sugar) stays in the blood instead of being used for energy. […] During pregnancy, higher levels of pregnancy hormones can interfere with insulin. Usually the body can make more insulin during pregnancy to keep blood sugar normal. But in some women, the body cannot make enough insulin during pregnancy, and blood sugar levels go up. This leads to GD. […] Several risk factors are linked to GD, including being overweight or obese, being physically inactive, having GD in a previous pregnancy, having a very large baby (9 pounds or more) in a previous pregnancy, having high blood pressure, having a history of heart disease, having polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). […] GD greatly increases the risk of developing diabetes in your next pregnancy and in the future when you are no longer pregnant. One third of women who had GD will have diabetes or a milder form of elevated blood sugar soon after giving birth. Between 15 and 70 percent of women with GD will develop diabetes later in life. […] Women who have high blood pressure or preeclampsia during pregnancy also are at greater risk of heart disease and stroke later in life.

• #72 Gestational Diabetes | ACOG

  https://www.acog.org/womens-health/faqs/gestational-diabetes

  Diabetes mellitus (also called diabetes) is a condition in which too much glucose (sugar) stays in the blood instead of being used for energy. […] During pregnancy, higher levels of pregnancy hormones can interfere with insulin. Usually the body can make more insulin during pregnancy to keep blood sugar normal. But in some women, the body cannot make enough insulin during pregnancy, and blood sugar levels go up. This leads to GD. […] Several risk factors are linked to GD, including being overweight or obese, being physically inactive, having GD in a previous pregnancy, having a very large baby (9 pounds or more) in a previous pregnancy, having high blood pressure, having a history of heart disease, having polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). […] GD greatly increases the risk of developing diabetes in your next pregnancy and in the future when you are no longer pregnant. One third of women who had GD will have diabetes or a milder form of elevated blood sugar soon after giving birth. Between 15 and 70 percent of women with GD will develop diabetes later in life. […] Women who have high blood pressure or preeclampsia during pregnancy also are at greater risk of heart disease and stroke later in life.

• #73 Gestational Diabetes: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatments > Fact Sheets > Yale Medicine

  https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/gestational-diabetes-symptoms-causes-treatments

  Gestational diabetes mellitus occurs only in women during pregnancy. Although the exact cause is unknown, the prevailing theory is that the placenta—the organ that delivers water and nutrients to the fetus—produces hormones that block the mother’s ability to use insulin effectively. Insulin is a hormone that the body needs to convert glucose, or sugar, into energy that the body’s cells can use. […] As the pregnancy continues, the placenta grows and produces more and more of these hormones; the result is that glucose builds up in the blood, rather than being used by the mother’s and fetus’s cells. […] Mothers with gestational diabetes are at a higher risk for preeclampsia (hypertension during pregnancy), problems with labor, and Cesarean delivery. […] A mother who has had gestational diabetes is also at greater risk of developing type 2 diabetes later in life. […] High blood glucose during labor can cause complications for the baby, including chemical imbalances. […] However, it is important for patients to take the glucose test again about six weeks postpartum. This is to ensure there is no sustained type 2 diabetes.

• #74 Pregnancy and Gestational Diabetes: Causes, Risks, Management

  https://idf.org/about-diabetes/types-of-diabetes/gestational-diabetes/

  Gestational diabetes (GDM) is caused by high blood glucose that develops during pregnancy and usually disappears after birth. […] The exact cause of gestational diabetes is not yet known. Still, several risk factors can increase the chances of developing GDM. […] Women over 45 are at greater risk of hyperglycaemia during pregnancy, while women with a history of GDM have an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes within five to ten years after delivery. […] Children exposed to high blood glucose levels during pregnancy may also be at higher risk of becoming overweight or obese and developing type 2 diabetes.

• #75 Pregnancy and Gestational Diabetes: Causes, Risks, Management

  https://idf.org/about-diabetes/types-of-diabetes/gestational-diabetes/

  Gestational diabetes (GDM) is caused by high blood glucose that develops during pregnancy and usually disappears after birth. […] The exact cause of gestational diabetes is not yet known. Still, several risk factors can increase the chances of developing GDM. […] Women over 45 are at greater risk of hyperglycaemia during pregnancy, while women with a history of GDM have an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes within five to ten years after delivery. […] Children exposed to high blood glucose levels during pregnancy may also be at higher risk of becoming overweight or obese and developing type 2 diabetes.

• #76

  https://consensus.app/questions/gestational-diabetes-causes/

  Recent studies have highlighted the role of gut microbiome changes in the development of GDM. Dysbiosis, or an imbalance in the gut microbiota, can lead to chronic inflammation and insulin resistance, which are key factors in the pathogenesis of GDM. […] Gestational diabetes mellitus is a complex condition with multifactorial causes, including insulin resistance, pancreatic -cell dysfunction, genetic predispositions, and environmental factors.

• #77 Causes of Gestational Diabetes: Key Risk Factors & Prevention for Healthcare Teams

  https://www.diabetesincontrol.com/causes-of-gestational-diabetes-key-risk-factors-prevention-for-healthcare-teams/

  PCOS is strongly linked to insulin resistance and hormonal imbalances, making affected women more prone to gestational diabetes. […] Studies show Hispanic, African American, Native American, and Asian women have higher rates of gestational diabetes, likely due to genetic predisposition and metabolic factors. […] Women who gain more weight than recommended during pregnancy have a higher chance of developing insulin resistance. […] Patients who had gestational diabetes in a prior pregnancy have a 50% chance of developing it again in future pregnancies. They are also seven times more likely to develop Type 2 diabetes later in life. […] Gestational diabetes is caused by hormonal changes in pregnancy that reduce insulin sensitivity, leading to high blood sugar levels. […] Women with obesity, PCOS, advanced maternal age, a family history of diabetes, or excessive pregnancy weight gain are at higher risk.

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