Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Toxoplasmosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563286/

  Toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by the zoonotic parasite Toxoplasma gondii, an obligate intracellular protozoan. T gondii has a global distribution, with cats being the definite hosts that shed oocysts with their feces into the environment. […] T gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite that can infect all warm-blooded animals, including farm animals, birds, and humans. T gondii has a complex life cycle, requiring a definitive host and an intermediate host to complete sexual and asexual cycles, respectively. The family Felidae members, including the domestic cat, are the only known definitive hosts for this organism. Birds and terrestrial and aquatic mammals are the intermediate hosts. […] Transmission of infection often occurs through ingesting tissue cysts via improperly cooked or raw meat or contaminated food or water. Other routes of transmission include vertical transmission, causing miscarriage or congenital toxoplasmosis, and via transplantation, by T gondii from either the host or donor organ.

• #2 About Toxoplasmosis | Toxoplasmosis | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/toxoplasmosis/about/index.html

  Toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by a single-celled parasite called Toxoplasma gondii. […] You can become infected with Toxoplasma through the following: […] Foodborne transmission: eating contaminated undercooked meat or shellfish or unwashed contaminated fresh produce. […] Animal to human transmission: accidentally consuming the parasite through contact with cat feces (poop) or contaminated soil that contains Toxoplasma. […] Mother-to-child (congenital) transmission: when a newly infected mother passes the infection to their unborn child. […] Other modes of transmission: receiving an infected organ transplant or infected blood via transfusion (though this is rare).

• #3 Toxoplasmosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563286/

  Toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by the zoonotic parasite Toxoplasma gondii, an obligate intracellular protozoan. T gondii has a global distribution, with cats being the definite hosts that shed oocysts with their feces into the environment. […] T gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite that can infect all warm-blooded animals, including farm animals, birds, and humans. T gondii has a complex life cycle, requiring a definitive host and an intermediate host to complete sexual and asexual cycles, respectively. The family Felidae members, including the domestic cat, are the only known definitive hosts for this organism. Birds and terrestrial and aquatic mammals are the intermediate hosts. […] Transmission of infection often occurs through ingesting tissue cysts via improperly cooked or raw meat or contaminated food or water. Other routes of transmission include vertical transmission, causing miscarriage or congenital toxoplasmosis, and via transplantation, by T gondii from either the host or donor organ.

• #4 Toxoplasma gondii – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondii

  Toxoplasma gondii is a species of parasitic alveolate that causes toxoplasmosis. Found worldwide, T. gondii is capable of infecting virtually all warm-blooded animals, but members of the cat family (felidae) are the only known definitive hosts in which the parasite may undergo sexual reproduction. […] In humans, infection is generally asymptomatic, but particularly in infants and those with weakened immunity, T. gondii may lead to a serious case of toxoplasmosis. T. gondii can initially cause mild, flu-like symptoms in the first few weeks following exposure, but otherwise, healthy human adults are asymptomatic. […] This asymptomatic state of infection is referred to as a latent infection, and it has been associated with numerous subtle behavioral, psychiatric, and personality alterations in humans.

• #5 Toxoplasmosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563286/

  There are 3 infectious stages of forms within the T gondii life cycle: the tachyzoites, the bradyzoites, and the sporozoites. […] Tachyzoites can penetrate any nucleated cell, including dendritic cells, monocytes, and neutrophils, resulting in dissemination. With the onset of the host immune response, these tachyzoites are repressed and eventually converted into slow-replicating forms termed bradyzoites. […] The definite host, the felids, can become infected by ingesting sporulated oocysts or ingesting infected mammals or birds. The intermediate hosts, mammals, including humans, can become infected with T gondii via various pathways, including ingesting infectious oocysts from the environment, eg, food, water, or plants contaminated with feline feces, or from eating tissue cysts or tachyzoites from undercooked, raw meat, or animal viscera, from blood products or organ or tissue transplantation, or ingestion of unpasteurized milk, from organs may contain cysts or tachyzoites, and congenitally through the maternal placenta.

• #6 Toxoplasmosis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasmosis

  Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic disease caused by Toxoplasma gondii, an apicomplexan. […] Toxoplasmosis is usually spread by eating poorly cooked food that contains cysts, by exposure to infected cat feces, or from an infected woman to her baby during pregnancy. […] The parasite is only known to reproduce sexually in the cat family. […] In its lifecycle, T. gondii adopts several forms. Tachyzoites are responsible for acute infection; they divide rapidly and spread through the tissues of the body. […] After proliferating, tachyzoites convert into bradyzoites, which are inside latent intracellular tissue cysts that form mainly in the muscles and brain. […] The formation of cysts is in part triggered by the pressure of the host immune system. […] Toxoplasmosis is generally transmitted through the mouth when Toxoplasma gondii oocysts or tissue cysts are accidentally eaten.

• #7 Toxoplasmosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563286/

  There are 3 infectious stages of forms within the T gondii life cycle: the tachyzoites, the bradyzoites, and the sporozoites. […] Tachyzoites can penetrate any nucleated cell, including dendritic cells, monocytes, and neutrophils, resulting in dissemination. With the onset of the host immune response, these tachyzoites are repressed and eventually converted into slow-replicating forms termed bradyzoites. […] The definite host, the felids, can become infected by ingesting sporulated oocysts or ingesting infected mammals or birds. The intermediate hosts, mammals, including humans, can become infected with T gondii via various pathways, including ingesting infectious oocysts from the environment, eg, food, water, or plants contaminated with feline feces, or from eating tissue cysts or tachyzoites from undercooked, raw meat, or animal viscera, from blood products or organ or tissue transplantation, or ingestion of unpasteurized milk, from organs may contain cysts or tachyzoites, and congenitally through the maternal placenta.

• #8 Toxoplasmosis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasmosis

  Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic disease caused by Toxoplasma gondii, an apicomplexan. […] Toxoplasmosis is usually spread by eating poorly cooked food that contains cysts, by exposure to infected cat feces, or from an infected woman to her baby during pregnancy. […] The parasite is only known to reproduce sexually in the cat family. […] In its lifecycle, T. gondii adopts several forms. Tachyzoites are responsible for acute infection; they divide rapidly and spread through the tissues of the body. […] After proliferating, tachyzoites convert into bradyzoites, which are inside latent intracellular tissue cysts that form mainly in the muscles and brain. […] The formation of cysts is in part triggered by the pressure of the host immune system. […] Toxoplasmosis is generally transmitted through the mouth when Toxoplasma gondii oocysts or tissue cysts are accidentally eaten.

• #9 Toxoplasmosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563286/

  There are 3 infectious stages of forms within the T gondii life cycle: the tachyzoites, the bradyzoites, and the sporozoites. […] Tachyzoites can penetrate any nucleated cell, including dendritic cells, monocytes, and neutrophils, resulting in dissemination. With the onset of the host immune response, these tachyzoites are repressed and eventually converted into slow-replicating forms termed bradyzoites. […] The definite host, the felids, can become infected by ingesting sporulated oocysts or ingesting infected mammals or birds. The intermediate hosts, mammals, including humans, can become infected with T gondii via various pathways, including ingesting infectious oocysts from the environment, eg, food, water, or plants contaminated with feline feces, or from eating tissue cysts or tachyzoites from undercooked, raw meat, or animal viscera, from blood products or organ or tissue transplantation, or ingestion of unpasteurized milk, from organs may contain cysts or tachyzoites, and congenitally through the maternal placenta.

• #10 A Comprehensive Review of Toxoplasmosis: Serious Threat to Human Health

  https://openpublichealthjournal.com/openurl/content.php?genre=article&volume=17&elocator=e18749445281387

  The second form, bradyzoites, a stage of chronic toxoplasmosis, divide slowly in tissue cysts while doing endogenous division in cysts. […] The third form, oocysts, which are typically discharged in the cat’s feces and are located in the cat’s intestines, particularly those that have sporulated (contain sporozoites), can endure temperatures of 24C for 10 months or 37C for 28 days. […] The life cycle of T. gondii is shown in Fig. (1). […] The asexual cycle occurs in hosts between humans and warm-blooded animals, such as birds, but the sexual (enteroepithelial) cycle occurs in true hosts, such as cats. […] The sexual stage begins with the development of merozoites into macrogametes and macrogametes in the intestinal epithelial cells. […] Infection in ruminant animals is thought to be spread through cat feces-contaminated food and insect vectors, such as flies and cockroaches.

• #11 Toxoplasmosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563286/

  Infected cats shed millions of unsporulated oocysts in the feces for about 1 to 3 weeks after initial infection. Oocysts take 1 to 5 days to sporulate and transform into infectious oocysts (sporozoites), which can remain infective in the environment for up to a year. […] T gondii infection or reactivation in patients with profound immunosuppression can be life-threatening. These are patients with HIV/AIDS, solid organ transplants (SOT), hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), and those receiving chemotherapy who develop toxoplasmosis either through primary infection via contaminated food or a transplanted organ containing latent cysts. […] Population studies have shown 3 predominant clonal lineages globally types I, II, and III found in specific geographical regions worldwide. T gondii clonal lineage type II strains are predominantly found in humans and agricultural animals in Western Europe and North America.

• #12 Toxoplasmosis and Its Effects on HawaiÊ»i Marine Wildlife | NOAA Fisheries

  https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/pacific-islands/endangered-species-conservation/toxoplasmosis-and-its-effects-hawaii-marine

  All monk seals diagnosed with toxoplasmosis have died from the disease, even with treatment. There is currently no successful treatment or vaccine for toxoplasmosis, either in the host cats or in other animals that become infected with the disease. […] T. gondii sexually reproduces only in the digestive tract of cats, producing infectious eggs that are shed into the environment through cat feces. These eggs can be transported from anywhere on the landscape to the ocean by watershed runoff. This exposes marine mammals to the infectious eggs either through consuming infected prey or direct exposure to eggs in the water. […] Only members of the family Felidae (domestic cats and their relatives) can spread toxoplasmosis because the parasite reproduces solely within cats’ digestive systems.

• #13 Toxoplasmosis in Cats | Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine

  https://www.vet.cornell.edu/departments-centers-and-institutes/cornell-feline-health-center/health-information/feline-health-topics/toxoplasmosis-cats

  Toxoplasmosis is a disease caused by the single-celled parasite Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii). It is one of the most common parasitic diseases and infects nearly all warm-blooded animals, including pets and humans. […] Wild and domestic cats are the only definitive hosts for T. gondii. When a cat ingests infected prey or raw meat, the parasite is released from cysts into the cats digestive tract, where it reproduces and produces oocysts. […] Other animals, including humans, are intermediate hosts of T. gondii and can become infected by eating cysts or oocysts. […] The most common symptoms of toxoplasmosis include fever, loss of appetite, and lethargy. […] Toxoplasmosis is usually diagnosed based on a cats history, signs of illness, and laboratory test results. […] Treatment usually involves a course of an antibiotic called clindamycin, either alone or in combination with corticosteroids if there is significant inflammation of the eyes or central nervous system.

• #14 Toxoplasmosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563286/

  Infected cats shed millions of unsporulated oocysts in the feces for about 1 to 3 weeks after initial infection. Oocysts take 1 to 5 days to sporulate and transform into infectious oocysts (sporozoites), which can remain infective in the environment for up to a year. […] T gondii infection or reactivation in patients with profound immunosuppression can be life-threatening. These are patients with HIV/AIDS, solid organ transplants (SOT), hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), and those receiving chemotherapy who develop toxoplasmosis either through primary infection via contaminated food or a transplanted organ containing latent cysts. […] Population studies have shown 3 predominant clonal lineages globally types I, II, and III found in specific geographical regions worldwide. T gondii clonal lineage type II strains are predominantly found in humans and agricultural animals in Western Europe and North America.

• #15 How to Identify and Treat Toxoplasmosis Infection

  https://www.healthline.com/health/toxoplasmosis

  Toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by a parasite called Toxoplasma gondii. It can be found in cat feces, undercooked meat, and contaminated food and water. […] The name of the parasite that causes toxoplasmosis is T. gondii. Its a tiny, single-celled organism. […] Aside from congenital toxoplasmosis, which is passed from a pregnant parent to their baby, most people become infected when they ingest the T. gondii parasite. This can happen in several different ways. […] In the United States, T. gondii can be found in cat feces. Although the parasite can be in nearly all warm-blooded animals, cats are the only known hosts. This means that the parasite only reproduces in cats. A cat with toxoplasmosis can shed millions of eggs in its feces for 1 to 3 weeks after infection. […] You can get toxoplasmosis from raw or undercooked meat and shellfish. […] In addition to being present in some meats and shellfish, T. gondii can also contaminate food or water. The parasite can then move to humans who eat or drink the contaminated substance.

• #16 Toxoplasmosis: Background, Etiology and Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229969-overview

  Toxoplasmosis is caused by infection with the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, an obligate intracellular parasite. […] There are 3 major genotypes (type I, type II, and type III) of T gondii. These genotypes differ in their pathogenicity and prevalence in people. In Europe and the United States, type II genotype is responsible for most cases of congenital toxoplasmosis. […] T gondii infects a large proportion of the world’s population (perhaps one third) but uncommonly causes clinically significant disease. […] However, certain individuals are at high risk for severe or life-threatening toxoplasmosis. Individuals at risk for toxoplasmosis include fetuses, newborns, and immunologically impaired patients. […] T gondii has 2 distinct life cycles. The sexual cycle occurs only in cats, the definitive host. The asexual cycle occurs in other mammals (including humans) and various strains of birds.

• #17 A Comprehensive Review of Toxoplasmosis: Serious Threat to Human Health

  https://openpublichealthjournal.com/openurl/content.php?genre=article&volume=17&elocator=e18749445281387

  The second form, bradyzoites, a stage of chronic toxoplasmosis, divide slowly in tissue cysts while doing endogenous division in cysts. […] The third form, oocysts, which are typically discharged in the cat’s feces and are located in the cat’s intestines, particularly those that have sporulated (contain sporozoites), can endure temperatures of 24C for 10 months or 37C for 28 days. […] The life cycle of T. gondii is shown in Fig. (1). […] The asexual cycle occurs in hosts between humans and warm-blooded animals, such as birds, but the sexual (enteroepithelial) cycle occurs in true hosts, such as cats. […] The sexual stage begins with the development of merozoites into macrogametes and macrogametes in the intestinal epithelial cells. […] Infection in ruminant animals is thought to be spread through cat feces-contaminated food and insect vectors, such as flies and cockroaches.

• #18 Toxoplasmosis: Background, Etiology and Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229969-overview

  Toxoplasmosis is caused by infection with the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, an obligate intracellular parasite. […] There are 3 major genotypes (type I, type II, and type III) of T gondii. These genotypes differ in their pathogenicity and prevalence in people. In Europe and the United States, type II genotype is responsible for most cases of congenital toxoplasmosis. […] T gondii infects a large proportion of the world’s population (perhaps one third) but uncommonly causes clinically significant disease. […] However, certain individuals are at high risk for severe or life-threatening toxoplasmosis. Individuals at risk for toxoplasmosis include fetuses, newborns, and immunologically impaired patients. […] T gondii has 2 distinct life cycles. The sexual cycle occurs only in cats, the definitive host. The asexual cycle occurs in other mammals (including humans) and various strains of birds.

• #19 Toxoplasmosis: Background, Etiology and Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229969-overview

  Toxoplasmosis is caused by infection with the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, an obligate intracellular parasite. […] There are 3 major genotypes (type I, type II, and type III) of T gondii. These genotypes differ in their pathogenicity and prevalence in people. In Europe and the United States, type II genotype is responsible for most cases of congenital toxoplasmosis. […] T gondii infects a large proportion of the world’s population (perhaps one third) but uncommonly causes clinically significant disease. […] However, certain individuals are at high risk for severe or life-threatening toxoplasmosis. Individuals at risk for toxoplasmosis include fetuses, newborns, and immunologically impaired patients. […] T gondii has 2 distinct life cycles. The sexual cycle occurs only in cats, the definitive host. The asexual cycle occurs in other mammals (including humans) and various strains of birds.

• #20 Toxoplasmosis: Background, Etiology and Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229969-overview

  Most cases of toxoplasmosis in immunocompromised patients are a consequence of latent infection and reactivation. […] In patients with AIDS, T gondii tissue cysts can reactivate with CD4 counts of less than 200 cells/L; with counts of less than 100 cells/L, clinical disease becomes more likely. […] Approximately 10-20% of pregnant women infected with T gondii become symptomatic. […] When a mother is infected with T gondii during gestation, the parasite may be disseminated hematogenously to the placenta. […] Congenital toxoplasmosis caused by atypical genotypes is more severe than that caused by typical genotypes. […] Recent investigations have suggested that chronic toxoplasmosis may play several roles in the etiology of different mental disorders. […] The most probable mechanism by which T gondii could cause schizophrenia is by affecting neurotransmitters in brain areas known to be involved in schizophrenia. […] T. gondii may play a role in the progression of Alzheimer’s disease using mechanisms such as induction of host immune responses, inflammation of the central nervous system (CNS), alteration in neurotransmitter levels, and activation of indoleamine-2,3-dyoxygenase.

• #21 Toxoplasmosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563286/

  Infected cats shed millions of unsporulated oocysts in the feces for about 1 to 3 weeks after initial infection. Oocysts take 1 to 5 days to sporulate and transform into infectious oocysts (sporozoites), which can remain infective in the environment for up to a year. […] T gondii infection or reactivation in patients with profound immunosuppression can be life-threatening. These are patients with HIV/AIDS, solid organ transplants (SOT), hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), and those receiving chemotherapy who develop toxoplasmosis either through primary infection via contaminated food or a transplanted organ containing latent cysts. […] Population studies have shown 3 predominant clonal lineages globally types I, II, and III found in specific geographical regions worldwide. T gondii clonal lineage type II strains are predominantly found in humans and agricultural animals in Western Europe and North America.

• #22 Toxoplasma is a common parasite that causes birth defects – but the US doesn’t screen for it during pregnancy

  https://theconversation.com/toxoplasma-is-a-common-parasite-that-causes-birth-defects-but-the-us-doesnt-screen-for-it-during-pregnancy-232936

  Studies conducted in multiple countries have demonstrated the benefits of detecting and treating toxoplasmosis during pregnancy. […] In countries that perform prenatal screening for toxoplasmosis, the severity of congenital toxoplasmosis is far less than what is routinely observed in the U.S. […] The incidence of congenital toxoplasmosis may also be underestimated. […] A 2021 report by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention highlighted the shortcomings of toxoplasmosis surveillance in the U.S., stating that routine, standardized testing during pregnancy would provide crucial data to evaluate the scope of this threat to babies. […] Some researchers have warned that Toxoplasma prevalence may rise with the popularity of free-range, organically raised foods and climate change. […] Additionally, reports of unusually virulent Toxoplasma strains migrating from South America may exacerbate the severity of congenital toxoplasmosis infections in the U.S.

• #23 About Toxoplasmosis | Toxoplasmosis | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/toxoplasmosis/about/index.html

  Toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by a single-celled parasite called Toxoplasma gondii. […] You can become infected with Toxoplasma through the following: […] Foodborne transmission: eating contaminated undercooked meat or shellfish or unwashed contaminated fresh produce. […] Animal to human transmission: accidentally consuming the parasite through contact with cat feces (poop) or contaminated soil that contains Toxoplasma. […] Mother-to-child (congenital) transmission: when a newly infected mother passes the infection to their unborn child. […] Other modes of transmission: receiving an infected organ transplant or infected blood via transfusion (though this is rare).

• #24 Toxoplasmosis – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/toxoplasmosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20356249

  Toxoplasma gondii is a parasite that can infect most animals and birds. It can only go through the entire cycle of reproduction in domestic and wild cats. These are the main hosts for the parasite. […] Immature eggs, a middle stage of reproduction, can be in the feces of cats. This immature egg allows for the parasite to make its way through the food chain. It can pass from soil and water to plants, animals and humans. Once the parasite has a new host, the reproduction cycle goes on and causes an infection. […] If your immune system is weakened later in life, parasite reproduction can start again. This causes a new active infection that can lead to serious disease and complications. […] People often get a toxoplasma infection one of the following ways: Cat feces with the parasite. Cats that hunt or who are fed raw meat are more likely to carry toxoplasma parasites. You may get infected if you touch your mouth after touching anything that has been in contact with cat feces. This may be gardening or cleaning a litter box.

• #25 Toxoplasmosis – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/toxoplasmosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20356249

  Contaminated food or water. Undercooked beef, lamb, pork, venison, chicken and shellfish are all known carriers of the parasite. Unpasteurized goat milk and untreated drinking water also may be carriers. […] Unwashed fruits and vegetables. The surface of fruits and vegetables may have the parasite on them. […] Contaminated kitchen tool. Parasites may be on cutting boards, knives and other utensils that come into contact with raw meat or unwashed fruits and vegetables. […] Infected organ transplant or transfused blood. Rarely, toxoplasma parasites are passed through an organ transplant or blood transfusion.

• #26 Toxoplasmosis: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9756-toxoplasmosis

  Toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii. […] Toxoplasmosis is caused by an infection by the parasite T. gondii. Humans get toxoplasmosis after accidentally eating (ingesting) something contaminated with the parasite. […] You typically get toxoplasmosis from ingesting something contaminated with the parasite T. gondii. […] T. gondii reproduces in a cats intestines and ends up in their poop. Cat poop can contaminate soil, water, plant material and the food we eat. […] Toxoplasmosis isn’t contagious. But if you’re pregnant, you can pass the parasite that causes it to the fetus. […] If you get toxoplasmosis during pregnancy or shortly before getting pregnant, you can pass the parasite through the placenta to the fetus. […] Toxoplasmosis is most dangerous in pregnancy and for those with weakened immune systems, like people living with HIV or cancer.

• #27 Toxoplasmosis – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/toxoplasmosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20356249

  Contaminated food or water. Undercooked beef, lamb, pork, venison, chicken and shellfish are all known carriers of the parasite. Unpasteurized goat milk and untreated drinking water also may be carriers. […] Unwashed fruits and vegetables. The surface of fruits and vegetables may have the parasite on them. […] Contaminated kitchen tool. Parasites may be on cutting boards, knives and other utensils that come into contact with raw meat or unwashed fruits and vegetables. […] Infected organ transplant or transfused blood. Rarely, toxoplasma parasites are passed through an organ transplant or blood transfusion.

• #28 Toxoplasmosis: Background, Etiology and Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229969-overview

  A cat becomes infected with T gondii by eating contaminated raw meat, wild birds, or mice. […] T gondii oocysts, tachyzoites, and bradyzoites can cause infection in humans. Infection can occur by ingestion of oocysts following the handling of contaminated soil or cat litter or through the consumption of contaminated water or food sources (eg, unwashed garden vegetables). […] Transmission can also occur via ingestion of tissue cysts (bradyzoites) in undercooked or uncooked meat or through transplantation of an organ that contains tissue cysts. […] The seroprevalence of T gondii antibodies in the human population varies geographically, with prevalence rates approaching 90% in some European countries, while seropositivity rates in the United States have been estimated to fall between 10% and 15%.

• #29 Toxoplasmosis – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/toxoplasmosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20356249

  Contaminated food or water. Undercooked beef, lamb, pork, venison, chicken and shellfish are all known carriers of the parasite. Unpasteurized goat milk and untreated drinking water also may be carriers. […] Unwashed fruits and vegetables. The surface of fruits and vegetables may have the parasite on them. […] Contaminated kitchen tool. Parasites may be on cutting boards, knives and other utensils that come into contact with raw meat or unwashed fruits and vegetables. […] Infected organ transplant or transfused blood. Rarely, toxoplasma parasites are passed through an organ transplant or blood transfusion.

• #30 Toxoplasmosis | Beacon Health System

  https://www.beaconhealthsystem.org/library/diseases-and-conditions/toxoplasmosis?content_id=CON-20301718

  People often get a toxoplasma infection one of the following ways: Cat feces with the parasite. Cats that hunt or who are fed raw meat are more likely to carry toxoplasma parasites. You may get infected if you touch your mouth after touching anything that has been in contact with cat feces. This may be gardening or cleaning a litter box. […] Contaminated food or water. Undercooked beef, lamb, pork, venison, chicken and shellfish are all known carriers of the parasite. Unpasteurized goat milk and untreated drinking water also may be carriers. […] Unwashed fruits and vegetables. The surface of fruits and vegetables may have the parasite on them. […] Contaminated kitchen tool. Parasites may be on cutting boards, knives and other utensils that come into contact with raw meat or unwashed fruits and vegetables. […] Infected organ transplant or transfused blood. Rarely, toxoplasma parasites are passed through an organ transplant or blood transfusion.

• #31 Toxoplasmosis | Beacon Health System

  https://www.beaconhealthsystem.org/library/diseases-and-conditions/toxoplasmosis?content_id=CON-20301718

  People often get a toxoplasma infection one of the following ways: Cat feces with the parasite. Cats that hunt or who are fed raw meat are more likely to carry toxoplasma parasites. You may get infected if you touch your mouth after touching anything that has been in contact with cat feces. This may be gardening or cleaning a litter box. […] Contaminated food or water. Undercooked beef, lamb, pork, venison, chicken and shellfish are all known carriers of the parasite. Unpasteurized goat milk and untreated drinking water also may be carriers. […] Unwashed fruits and vegetables. The surface of fruits and vegetables may have the parasite on them. […] Contaminated kitchen tool. Parasites may be on cutting boards, knives and other utensils that come into contact with raw meat or unwashed fruits and vegetables. […] Infected organ transplant or transfused blood. Rarely, toxoplasma parasites are passed through an organ transplant or blood transfusion.

• #32 Toxoplasma gondii: A Parasite that Causes Toxoplasmosis | Ohioline

  https://ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/HYG-5578

  Toxoplasmosis is the infection caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii (Toxo). […] Cats are the only primary or definitive host for the parasite Toxo; however, most warm-blood animals can become infected. […] Eating soil (for instance, soil on a tomato eaten straight from the garden), drinking contaminated water, or eating an animal that is already infected with Toxo, are routes of infection for an animal or human. […] Toxo can also be present in the milk of infected animals. […] Other susceptible groups are the immune-compromised or the older adult, pregnant women, those infected with HIV/AIDs, those with cancer, and those who have had an organ transplant. […] When the immune system is suppressed the parasite transforms from a dormant form to an active form and will affect various parts of the body.

• #33 Toxoplasmosis – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/toxoplasmosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20356249

  Contaminated food or water. Undercooked beef, lamb, pork, venison, chicken and shellfish are all known carriers of the parasite. Unpasteurized goat milk and untreated drinking water also may be carriers. […] Unwashed fruits and vegetables. The surface of fruits and vegetables may have the parasite on them. […] Contaminated kitchen tool. Parasites may be on cutting boards, knives and other utensils that come into contact with raw meat or unwashed fruits and vegetables. […] Infected organ transplant or transfused blood. Rarely, toxoplasma parasites are passed through an organ transplant or blood transfusion.

• #34 Toxoplasmosis | Beacon Health System

  https://www.beaconhealthsystem.org/library/diseases-and-conditions/toxoplasmosis?content_id=CON-20301718

  People often get a toxoplasma infection one of the following ways: Cat feces with the parasite. Cats that hunt or who are fed raw meat are more likely to carry toxoplasma parasites. You may get infected if you touch your mouth after touching anything that has been in contact with cat feces. This may be gardening or cleaning a litter box. […] Contaminated food or water. Undercooked beef, lamb, pork, venison, chicken and shellfish are all known carriers of the parasite. Unpasteurized goat milk and untreated drinking water also may be carriers. […] Unwashed fruits and vegetables. The surface of fruits and vegetables may have the parasite on them. […] Contaminated kitchen tool. Parasites may be on cutting boards, knives and other utensils that come into contact with raw meat or unwashed fruits and vegetables. […] Infected organ transplant or transfused blood. Rarely, toxoplasma parasites are passed through an organ transplant or blood transfusion.

• #35 Toxoplasmosis Fact Sheet – MN Dept. of Health

  https://www.health.state.mn.us/diseases/toxoplasmosis/toxo.html

  Toxoplasmosis an illness caused by a parasite called Toxoplasma gondii. […] Cats are important in the spread of toxoplasmosis because they are the only species that shed the parasite in their feces. […] Pregnant women can pass the infection to their unborn baby if they become infected during or just before pregnancy. […] The baby may be born with blindness or brain damage, or might develop serious problems later in life, such as blindness or mental retardation.

• #36 Toxoplasmosis – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/toxoplasmosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20356249

  Toxoplasma gondii is a parasite that can infect most animals and birds. It can only go through the entire cycle of reproduction in domestic and wild cats. These are the main hosts for the parasite. […] Immature eggs, a middle stage of reproduction, can be in the feces of cats. This immature egg allows for the parasite to make its way through the food chain. It can pass from soil and water to plants, animals and humans. Once the parasite has a new host, the reproduction cycle goes on and causes an infection. […] If your immune system is weakened later in life, parasite reproduction can start again. This causes a new active infection that can lead to serious disease and complications. […] People often get a toxoplasma infection one of the following ways: Cat feces with the parasite. Cats that hunt or who are fed raw meat are more likely to carry toxoplasma parasites. You may get infected if you touch your mouth after touching anything that has been in contact with cat feces. This may be gardening or cleaning a litter box.

• #37 Toxoplasmosis

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/toxoplasmosis/

  Toxoplasmosis is a common infection that you can catch from the poo of infected cats, or infected meat. It’s usually harmless but can cause serious problems in some people. […] The parasite that causes toxoplasmosis can be found in the poo of infected cats, and in undercooked meat. You can also catch it from soil that’s been contaminated by cat poo.

• #38 Toxoplasmosis – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/toxoplasmosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20356249

  Toxoplasma gondii is a parasite that can infect most animals and birds. It can only go through the entire cycle of reproduction in domestic and wild cats. These are the main hosts for the parasite. […] Immature eggs, a middle stage of reproduction, can be in the feces of cats. This immature egg allows for the parasite to make its way through the food chain. It can pass from soil and water to plants, animals and humans. Once the parasite has a new host, the reproduction cycle goes on and causes an infection. […] If your immune system is weakened later in life, parasite reproduction can start again. This causes a new active infection that can lead to serious disease and complications. […] People often get a toxoplasma infection one of the following ways: Cat feces with the parasite. Cats that hunt or who are fed raw meat are more likely to carry toxoplasma parasites. You may get infected if you touch your mouth after touching anything that has been in contact with cat feces. This may be gardening or cleaning a litter box.

• #39 Toxoplasmosis: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/toxoplasmosis-7098005

  Toxoplasmosis is a disease caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii. This parasite is a tiny single-celled organism called a protozoan. People can acquire it from undercooked meat and exposure to cat feces. […] Toxoplasmosis is caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii. In the wild, toxoplasma is transmitted between rodents and cats and birds. Housecats can acquire it if they venture outside. Farm or game animals can acquire toxoplasma in their environment. […] Humans can acquire toxoplasmosis from exposure to the parasites eggs in their environment. The parasite eggs can be in the soil of, for instance, a home garden. […] Humans may acquire toxoplasmosis by any of several routes, including: Eating undercooked meat of animals infected with toxoplasma from their environment; Eating food or drinking water contaminated with toxoplasma from cat feces, for example, from a home garden; Coming into contact with contaminated soil or changing a cat’s litter box if the animal has acquired a toxoplasma infection while out of the house; Exposure to infected blood or organs through transfusion or transplantation; Exposure to the fetus through the placenta when the pregnant person has acute toxoplasmosis.

• #40 Toxoplasmosis – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/toxoplasmosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20356249

  Toxoplasma gondii is a parasite that can infect most animals and birds. It can only go through the entire cycle of reproduction in domestic and wild cats. These are the main hosts for the parasite. […] Immature eggs, a middle stage of reproduction, can be in the feces of cats. This immature egg allows for the parasite to make its way through the food chain. It can pass from soil and water to plants, animals and humans. Once the parasite has a new host, the reproduction cycle goes on and causes an infection. […] If your immune system is weakened later in life, parasite reproduction can start again. This causes a new active infection that can lead to serious disease and complications. […] People often get a toxoplasma infection one of the following ways: Cat feces with the parasite. Cats that hunt or who are fed raw meat are more likely to carry toxoplasma parasites. You may get infected if you touch your mouth after touching anything that has been in contact with cat feces. This may be gardening or cleaning a litter box.

• #41 Toxoplasmosis | Pregnancy Birth and Baby

  https://www.pregnancybirthbaby.org.au/toxoplasmosis

  Toxoplasmosis infection is caused by a parasite called Toxoplasma gondii. […] Toxoplasma gondii can be found in many animals including cats, birds, rats, mice, sheep, pigs and kangaroos. […] You can become infected with toxoplasmosis if you swallow the parasite. This can happen if you eat infected meat that has not been properly cooked, eat unwashed salad vegetables that have grown in soil that is infected with Toxoplasma gondii, touch your mouth after being in contact with infected animal poo or soil for example, if you are gardening or cleaning a cat litter box, or drink unfiltered water in developing countries or unpasteurised milk. […] Toxoplasmosis does not usually spread from person to person. However, if you are pregnant, you can pass it on to your unborn baby. […] Toxoplasmosis is a disease caused by a parasite called Toxoplasma gondii. This parasite occurs commonly throughout the world and infects birds and mammals, including humans. […] Toxoplasmosis infection is caused by a parasite Toxoplasma gondii. It occurs in animals and can be carried by cats and shed in cat faeces.

• #42 Toxoplasmosis | Beacon Health System

  https://www.beaconhealthsystem.org/library/diseases-and-conditions/toxoplasmosis?content_id=CON-20301718

  People often get a toxoplasma infection one of the following ways: Cat feces with the parasite. Cats that hunt or who are fed raw meat are more likely to carry toxoplasma parasites. You may get infected if you touch your mouth after touching anything that has been in contact with cat feces. This may be gardening or cleaning a litter box. […] Contaminated food or water. Undercooked beef, lamb, pork, venison, chicken and shellfish are all known carriers of the parasite. Unpasteurized goat milk and untreated drinking water also may be carriers. […] Unwashed fruits and vegetables. The surface of fruits and vegetables may have the parasite on them. […] Contaminated kitchen tool. Parasites may be on cutting boards, knives and other utensils that come into contact with raw meat or unwashed fruits and vegetables. […] Infected organ transplant or transfused blood. Rarely, toxoplasma parasites are passed through an organ transplant or blood transfusion.

• #43 Toxoplasmosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563286/

  Infected cats shed millions of unsporulated oocysts in the feces for about 1 to 3 weeks after initial infection. Oocysts take 1 to 5 days to sporulate and transform into infectious oocysts (sporozoites), which can remain infective in the environment for up to a year. […] T gondii infection or reactivation in patients with profound immunosuppression can be life-threatening. These are patients with HIV/AIDS, solid organ transplants (SOT), hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), and those receiving chemotherapy who develop toxoplasmosis either through primary infection via contaminated food or a transplanted organ containing latent cysts. […] Population studies have shown 3 predominant clonal lineages globally types I, II, and III found in specific geographical regions worldwide. T gondii clonal lineage type II strains are predominantly found in humans and agricultural animals in Western Europe and North America.

• #44 Toxoplasmosis: Causes and How It Spreads | Toxoplasmosis | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/toxoplasmosis/causes/index.html

  The Toxoplasma gondii protozoan parasite causes toxoplasmosis. […] Toxoplasmosis is not passed from person-to-person, except in instances of mother-to-child (congenital) transmission (mother passing an infection to her baby during pregnancy or at birth) and blood transfusion or organ transplantation. […] Women who are newly infected with Toxoplasma during or just before pregnancy can pass the infection to their unborn child.

• #45 Toxoplasmosis | March of Dimes

  https://www.marchofdimes.org/find-support/topics/pregnancy/toxoplasmosis

  Toxoplasmosis is an infection you can get from eating undercooked meat or touching cat poop. […] Toxoplasmosis is an infection you can get from eating undercooked meat or touching cat poop or a litter box. Its caused by a very common parasite called Toxoplasma gondii. […] However, toxoplasmosis can cause health problems for you and your baby during pregnancy. […] If you have toxoplasmosis within 6 months of getting pregnant, you may be able to pass it to your baby during pregnancy. […] Yes. Pregnancy complications caused by toxoplasmosis include: Preterm birth Birth that happens before 37 weeks of pregnancy, Stillbirth When a baby dies after 20 weeks of pregnancy, Miscarriage — When a baby dies before 20 weeks of pregnancy. […] If you get toxoplasmosis just before or during pregnancy, you may pass the infection to your baby even if you dont have any symptoms.

• #46 Congenital Toxoplasmosis – Pediatrics – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/infections-in-neonates/congenital-toxoplasmosis

  Congenital toxoplasmosis is caused by transplacental acquisition of Toxoplasma gondii. […] Congenital toxoplasmosis is almost exclusively due to a primary maternal infection during pregnancy or within 3 months of conception; however, there are exceptions, including reinfection with a new serotype of T. gondii or reactivation of toxoplasmosis in mothers with severe cell-mediated immunodeficiencies. […] Infection with T. gondii occurs primarily from ingestion of inadequately cooked meat containing cysts or from ingestion of oocysts derived from food or water contaminated with cat feces. […] The rate of transmission to the fetus is higher in women infected later during pregnancy. […] Overall, 70% of children who are born to people infected with and not treated for toxoplasmosis during pregnancy have symptoms of congenital toxoplasmosis if the mother seroconverted after 37 weeks, and approximately 30% of people infected during pregnancy will have a congenitally infected child.

• #47 Congenital Toxoplasmosis – Pediatrics – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/infections-in-neonates/congenital-toxoplasmosis

  Congenital toxoplasmosis is caused by transplacental acquisition of Toxoplasma gondii. […] Congenital toxoplasmosis is almost exclusively due to a primary maternal infection during pregnancy or within 3 months of conception; however, there are exceptions, including reinfection with a new serotype of T. gondii or reactivation of toxoplasmosis in mothers with severe cell-mediated immunodeficiencies. […] Infection with T. gondii occurs primarily from ingestion of inadequately cooked meat containing cysts or from ingestion of oocysts derived from food or water contaminated with cat feces. […] The rate of transmission to the fetus is higher in women infected later during pregnancy. […] Overall, 70% of children who are born to people infected with and not treated for toxoplasmosis during pregnancy have symptoms of congenital toxoplasmosis if the mother seroconverted after 37 weeks, and approximately 30% of people infected during pregnancy will have a congenitally infected child.

• #48 Congenital Toxoplasmosis – Pediatrics – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/infections-in-neonates/congenital-toxoplasmosis

  Congenital toxoplasmosis is caused by transplacental acquisition of Toxoplasma gondii. […] Congenital toxoplasmosis is almost exclusively due to a primary maternal infection during pregnancy or within 3 months of conception; however, there are exceptions, including reinfection with a new serotype of T. gondii or reactivation of toxoplasmosis in mothers with severe cell-mediated immunodeficiencies. […] Infection with T. gondii occurs primarily from ingestion of inadequately cooked meat containing cysts or from ingestion of oocysts derived from food or water contaminated with cat feces. […] The rate of transmission to the fetus is higher in women infected later during pregnancy. […] Overall, 70% of children who are born to people infected with and not treated for toxoplasmosis during pregnancy have symptoms of congenital toxoplasmosis if the mother seroconverted after 37 weeks, and approximately 30% of people infected during pregnancy will have a congenitally infected child.

• #49 Toxoplasmosis Symptoms, Treatment, Test, Cause & Transmission

  https://www.medicinenet.com/toxoplasmosis/article.htm

  The majority of people who get toxoplasmosis who have a healthy immune response will have no significant long-term effects. […] An infected fetus or infant has a variable prognosis, depending on the severity of the effects of the disease. […] The earlier the fetus is infected, the worse the prognosis. […] A woman carrying a severely affected fetus may experience a spontaneous abortion (miscarriage), and newborns may develop significant physical or mental problems.

• #50

  https://zana.com/a/toxoplasmosis-causes-toxoplasmosis.4869

  After being infected, most people are immune to toxoplasmosis for the rest of their life. However, the parasites that cause the infection can remain inactive in the body for many years, and potentially for life. […] If a pregnant woman becomes infected with toxoplasmosis, there’s a risk the infection could spread to her baby through the placenta (the organ that links the mother’s blood supply to her unborn baby’s). […] However, this can only occur if the mother becomes infected for the first time while she’s pregnant or shortly before conceiving. […] Even if you do become infected while pregnant, it doesn’t necessarily mean the infection will spread to your baby. The chances of your child becoming infected are higher the later you become infected. […] If your baby does become infected, it can cause a serious condition known as congenital toxoplasmosis.

• #51 Toxoplasmosis – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/toxoplasmosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20356249

  Contaminated food or water. Undercooked beef, lamb, pork, venison, chicken and shellfish are all known carriers of the parasite. Unpasteurized goat milk and untreated drinking water also may be carriers. […] Unwashed fruits and vegetables. The surface of fruits and vegetables may have the parasite on them. […] Contaminated kitchen tool. Parasites may be on cutting boards, knives and other utensils that come into contact with raw meat or unwashed fruits and vegetables. […] Infected organ transplant or transfused blood. Rarely, toxoplasma parasites are passed through an organ transplant or blood transfusion.

• #52 About Toxoplasmosis | Toxoplasmosis | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/toxoplasmosis/about/index.html

  Toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by a single-celled parasite called Toxoplasma gondii. […] You can become infected with Toxoplasma through the following: […] Foodborne transmission: eating contaminated undercooked meat or shellfish or unwashed contaminated fresh produce. […] Animal to human transmission: accidentally consuming the parasite through contact with cat feces (poop) or contaminated soil that contains Toxoplasma. […] Mother-to-child (congenital) transmission: when a newly infected mother passes the infection to their unborn child. […] Other modes of transmission: receiving an infected organ transplant or infected blood via transfusion (though this is rare).

• #53 Toxoplasmosis – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/toxoplasmosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20356249

  Contaminated food or water. Undercooked beef, lamb, pork, venison, chicken and shellfish are all known carriers of the parasite. Unpasteurized goat milk and untreated drinking water also may be carriers. […] Unwashed fruits and vegetables. The surface of fruits and vegetables may have the parasite on them. […] Contaminated kitchen tool. Parasites may be on cutting boards, knives and other utensils that come into contact with raw meat or unwashed fruits and vegetables. […] Infected organ transplant or transfused blood. Rarely, toxoplasma parasites are passed through an organ transplant or blood transfusion.

• #54 About Toxoplasmosis | Toxoplasmosis | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/toxoplasmosis/about/index.html

  Toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by a single-celled parasite called Toxoplasma gondii. […] You can become infected with Toxoplasma through the following: […] Foodborne transmission: eating contaminated undercooked meat or shellfish or unwashed contaminated fresh produce. […] Animal to human transmission: accidentally consuming the parasite through contact with cat feces (poop) or contaminated soil that contains Toxoplasma. […] Mother-to-child (congenital) transmission: when a newly infected mother passes the infection to their unborn child. […] Other modes of transmission: receiving an infected organ transplant or infected blood via transfusion (though this is rare).

• #55

  https://zana.com/a/toxoplasmosis-causes-toxoplasmosis.4869

  Toxoplasmosis is caused by the Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) parasite. This is found in the poo (faeces) of infected cats and the meat of infected animals. […] The parasites can get into animal meat if an animal eats soil, grass, animal feed or another animal that has been contaminated by an infected cat’s poo. […] You can get toxoplasmosis if the T. gondii parasites get into your mouth. […] There’s also a small risk of the infection being passed from sheep during the lambing season. This is because the T. gondii parasite is sometimes found in the afterbirth and on newborn lambs after an infected sheep has given birth. […] However, in rare cases people have developed toxoplasmosis from an infected organ transplant or blood transfusion. […] There’s also a chance the infection could be passed to an unborn baby if the mother becomes infected while pregnant.

• #56 Toxoplasmosis: Causes and How It Spreads | Toxoplasmosis | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/toxoplasmosis/causes/index.html

  The Toxoplasma gondii protozoan parasite causes toxoplasmosis. […] Toxoplasmosis is not passed from person-to-person, except in instances of mother-to-child (congenital) transmission (mother passing an infection to her baby during pregnancy or at birth) and blood transfusion or organ transplantation. […] Women who are newly infected with Toxoplasma during or just before pregnancy can pass the infection to their unborn child.

• #57 Toxoplasmosis: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/toxoplasmosis-7098005

  If you have a cat that goes outside, you can acquire toxoplasmosis. While outside, the cat may come into contact with toxoplasma and acquire an infection. Once infected, the cat has eggs of the parasite in their feces. […] Toxoplasmosis is not considered a sexually transmitted infection (STI). Toxoplasma can be transmitted through sexual contact, but that is atypical. However, it is more likely to cause long-term, chronic infections in people with the STI HIV who have weakened immune systems.

• #58 Toxoplasmosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563286/

  T gondii infection is estimated to have an average global seroprevalence rate of 25.7% (95% confidence interval 25.6%-25.8%). The overall range of seroprevalence was determined to be 0.5% to 87.7%. African countries had the highest average seroprevalence rate of 61.4%, followed by Oceania at 38.5%, South America at 31.2%, Europe at 29.6%, the US and Canada at 17.5%, and Asia at 16.4%. […] T gondii can overcome the host defenses and disseminate through the body to the liver and spleen, eluding the immune system and reaching the central nervous system by crossing the highly regulated blood-brain barrier and infecting the brain, where the parasite resides. […] Although most infections with T gondii are subclinical, a small percentage of immunocompetent people can develop acute toxoplasmosis that can manifest with nonspecific, constitutional symptoms, including fever, malaise, and lymphadenopathy, as well as central nervous system pathology and ocular disease usually posterior uveitis. […] After the initial infection, T gondii becomes latent and persists for life; the latent tissue cysts can reactivate in profoundly immunosuppressed people, and reactivation can also occur during transplantation from the donor organ.

• #59 Toxoplasmosis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasmosis

  Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic disease caused by Toxoplasma gondii, an apicomplexan. […] Toxoplasmosis is usually spread by eating poorly cooked food that contains cysts, by exposure to infected cat feces, or from an infected woman to her baby during pregnancy. […] The parasite is only known to reproduce sexually in the cat family. […] In its lifecycle, T. gondii adopts several forms. Tachyzoites are responsible for acute infection; they divide rapidly and spread through the tissues of the body. […] After proliferating, tachyzoites convert into bradyzoites, which are inside latent intracellular tissue cysts that form mainly in the muscles and brain. […] The formation of cysts is in part triggered by the pressure of the host immune system. […] Toxoplasmosis is generally transmitted through the mouth when Toxoplasma gondii oocysts or tissue cysts are accidentally eaten.

• #60 Toxoplasmosis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasmosis

  Congenital transmittance from mother to fetus can also occur. […] Transmission may also occur during the solid organ transplant process or hematogenous stem cell transplants. […] The mechanisms above allow T. gondii to persist in a host. […] The effect on the host also depends on the strength of the host immune system. Immunocompetent individuals do not normally show severe symptoms or any at all, while fatality or severe complications can result in immunocompromised individuals.

• #61 Toxoplasmosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563286/

  T gondii infection is estimated to have an average global seroprevalence rate of 25.7% (95% confidence interval 25.6%-25.8%). The overall range of seroprevalence was determined to be 0.5% to 87.7%. African countries had the highest average seroprevalence rate of 61.4%, followed by Oceania at 38.5%, South America at 31.2%, Europe at 29.6%, the US and Canada at 17.5%, and Asia at 16.4%. […] T gondii can overcome the host defenses and disseminate through the body to the liver and spleen, eluding the immune system and reaching the central nervous system by crossing the highly regulated blood-brain barrier and infecting the brain, where the parasite resides. […] Although most infections with T gondii are subclinical, a small percentage of immunocompetent people can develop acute toxoplasmosis that can manifest with nonspecific, constitutional symptoms, including fever, malaise, and lymphadenopathy, as well as central nervous system pathology and ocular disease usually posterior uveitis. […] After the initial infection, T gondii becomes latent and persists for life; the latent tissue cysts can reactivate in profoundly immunosuppressed people, and reactivation can also occur during transplantation from the donor organ.

• #62 Toxoplasmosis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasmosis

  Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic disease caused by Toxoplasma gondii, an apicomplexan. […] Toxoplasmosis is usually spread by eating poorly cooked food that contains cysts, by exposure to infected cat feces, or from an infected woman to her baby during pregnancy. […] The parasite is only known to reproduce sexually in the cat family. […] In its lifecycle, T. gondii adopts several forms. Tachyzoites are responsible for acute infection; they divide rapidly and spread through the tissues of the body. […] After proliferating, tachyzoites convert into bradyzoites, which are inside latent intracellular tissue cysts that form mainly in the muscles and brain. […] The formation of cysts is in part triggered by the pressure of the host immune system. […] Toxoplasmosis is generally transmitted through the mouth when Toxoplasma gondii oocysts or tissue cysts are accidentally eaten.

• #63

  https://zana.com/a/toxoplasmosis-causes-toxoplasmosis.4869

  After being infected, most people are immune to toxoplasmosis for the rest of their life. However, the parasites that cause the infection can remain inactive in the body for many years, and potentially for life. […] If a pregnant woman becomes infected with toxoplasmosis, there’s a risk the infection could spread to her baby through the placenta (the organ that links the mother’s blood supply to her unborn baby’s). […] However, this can only occur if the mother becomes infected for the first time while she’s pregnant or shortly before conceiving. […] Even if you do become infected while pregnant, it doesn’t necessarily mean the infection will spread to your baby. The chances of your child becoming infected are higher the later you become infected. […] If your baby does become infected, it can cause a serious condition known as congenital toxoplasmosis.

• #64 Toxoplasmosis – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/toxoplasmosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20356249

  Toxoplasma gondii is a parasite that can infect most animals and birds. It can only go through the entire cycle of reproduction in domestic and wild cats. These are the main hosts for the parasite. […] Immature eggs, a middle stage of reproduction, can be in the feces of cats. This immature egg allows for the parasite to make its way through the food chain. It can pass from soil and water to plants, animals and humans. Once the parasite has a new host, the reproduction cycle goes on and causes an infection. […] If your immune system is weakened later in life, parasite reproduction can start again. This causes a new active infection that can lead to serious disease and complications. […] People often get a toxoplasma infection one of the following ways: Cat feces with the parasite. Cats that hunt or who are fed raw meat are more likely to carry toxoplasma parasites. You may get infected if you touch your mouth after touching anything that has been in contact with cat feces. This may be gardening or cleaning a litter box.

• #65 Toxoplasmosis: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9756-toxoplasmosis

  If you’re living with HIV or cancer or if you’re taking immune-suppressing medications, your immune system can’t fight off infections like T. gondii. […] Left untreated, toxoplasmosis can cause organ damage in someone with a compromised immune system. […] Because of the cysts left behind by T. gondii, toxoplasmosis may never be fully cured.

• #66 Toxoplasmosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563286/

  T gondii infection is estimated to have an average global seroprevalence rate of 25.7% (95% confidence interval 25.6%-25.8%). The overall range of seroprevalence was determined to be 0.5% to 87.7%. African countries had the highest average seroprevalence rate of 61.4%, followed by Oceania at 38.5%, South America at 31.2%, Europe at 29.6%, the US and Canada at 17.5%, and Asia at 16.4%. […] T gondii can overcome the host defenses and disseminate through the body to the liver and spleen, eluding the immune system and reaching the central nervous system by crossing the highly regulated blood-brain barrier and infecting the brain, where the parasite resides. […] Although most infections with T gondii are subclinical, a small percentage of immunocompetent people can develop acute toxoplasmosis that can manifest with nonspecific, constitutional symptoms, including fever, malaise, and lymphadenopathy, as well as central nervous system pathology and ocular disease usually posterior uveitis. […] After the initial infection, T gondii becomes latent and persists for life; the latent tissue cysts can reactivate in profoundly immunosuppressed people, and reactivation can also occur during transplantation from the donor organ.

• #67 Toxoplasmosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563286/

  T gondii infection is estimated to have an average global seroprevalence rate of 25.7% (95% confidence interval 25.6%-25.8%). The overall range of seroprevalence was determined to be 0.5% to 87.7%. African countries had the highest average seroprevalence rate of 61.4%, followed by Oceania at 38.5%, South America at 31.2%, Europe at 29.6%, the US and Canada at 17.5%, and Asia at 16.4%. […] T gondii can overcome the host defenses and disseminate through the body to the liver and spleen, eluding the immune system and reaching the central nervous system by crossing the highly regulated blood-brain barrier and infecting the brain, where the parasite resides. […] Although most infections with T gondii are subclinical, a small percentage of immunocompetent people can develop acute toxoplasmosis that can manifest with nonspecific, constitutional symptoms, including fever, malaise, and lymphadenopathy, as well as central nervous system pathology and ocular disease usually posterior uveitis. […] After the initial infection, T gondii becomes latent and persists for life; the latent tissue cysts can reactivate in profoundly immunosuppressed people, and reactivation can also occur during transplantation from the donor organ.

• #68 Toxoplasma gondii Encephalitis: Adult and Adolescent OIs | NIH

  https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/guidelines/hiv-clinical-guidelines-adult-and-adolescent-opportunistic-infections/toxoplasmosis

  Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan that can commonly cause asymptomatic infection, a mononucleosis-like syndrome, retinochoroiditis, or congenital infection in immunocompetent individuals, but it presents most often as toxoplasma encephalitis (TE) in people with HIV who are severely immunocompromised. Toxoplasmosis in people with HIV appears to occur mainly due to reactivation of latent tissue cysts from a prior infection; primary infection is occasionally associated with acute cerebral or disseminated disease. […] Primary infection occurs most commonly after consumption of undercooked meat, unwashed fruits or vegetables, water, or unpasteurized milk containing viable organisms, or ingesting oocysts that have been shed in cat feces and sporulated in the environment, a process that takes at least 24 hours. Infection can also be transmitted congenitally, or rarely following organ transplant or blood transfusion.

• #69 Toxoplasma gondii Encephalitis: Adult and Adolescent OIs | NIH

  https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/guidelines/hiv-clinical-guidelines-adult-and-adolescent-opportunistic-infections/toxoplasmosis

  The organism is not transmitted through direct person-to-person contact. […] In the era before antiretroviral therapy (ART), the 12-month incidence of TE was approximately 33% in patients with advanced immunodeficiency who were seropositive for T. gondii and not receiving prophylaxis with drugs active against the disease. A very low incidence of toxoplasmosis is seen in people with HIV who are seronegative for T. gondii. […] Clinical disease related to immunodeficiency is rare among people with HIV with CD4 T lymphocyte (CD4) cell counts 200 cells/mm3. People with CD4 counts 50 cells/mm3 are at greatest risk. […] Among people with HIV, the most common clinical presentation of T. gondii infection is focal encephalitis, with subacute onset of headache, focal neurologic deficits (e.g., hemiparesis), and sometimes fever.

• #70 Toxoplasmosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563286/

  Infected cats shed millions of unsporulated oocysts in the feces for about 1 to 3 weeks after initial infection. Oocysts take 1 to 5 days to sporulate and transform into infectious oocysts (sporozoites), which can remain infective in the environment for up to a year. […] T gondii infection or reactivation in patients with profound immunosuppression can be life-threatening. These are patients with HIV/AIDS, solid organ transplants (SOT), hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), and those receiving chemotherapy who develop toxoplasmosis either through primary infection via contaminated food or a transplanted organ containing latent cysts. […] Population studies have shown 3 predominant clonal lineages globally types I, II, and III found in specific geographical regions worldwide. T gondii clonal lineage type II strains are predominantly found in humans and agricultural animals in Western Europe and North America.

• #71 Toxoplasma gondii Encephalitis: Adult and Adolescent OIs | NIH

  https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/guidelines/hiv-clinical-guidelines-adult-and-adolescent-opportunistic-infections/toxoplasmosis

  The organism is not transmitted through direct person-to-person contact. […] In the era before antiretroviral therapy (ART), the 12-month incidence of TE was approximately 33% in patients with advanced immunodeficiency who were seropositive for T. gondii and not receiving prophylaxis with drugs active against the disease. A very low incidence of toxoplasmosis is seen in people with HIV who are seronegative for T. gondii. […] Clinical disease related to immunodeficiency is rare among people with HIV with CD4 T lymphocyte (CD4) cell counts 200 cells/mm3. People with CD4 counts 50 cells/mm3 are at greatest risk. […] Among people with HIV, the most common clinical presentation of T. gondii infection is focal encephalitis, with subacute onset of headache, focal neurologic deficits (e.g., hemiparesis), and sometimes fever.

• #72 Pediatric Toxoplasmosis: Practice Essentials, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1000028-overview

  Pediatric toxoplasmosis can be acute or chronic and congenital or postnatally acquired. Toxoplasmosis refers to a symptomatic infection by Toxoplasma gondii, a widely distributed protozoan that usually causes an asymptomatic infection in the healthy host. […] Apart from toxoplasmosis in immunocompromised individuals, congenital toxoplasmosis is the most serious manifestation of infection, resulting from the vertical transmission of T gondii transplacentally from a parasitemic mother to her offspring. The severity of disease depends on the gestational age at transmission. […] Congenital disease is passed transplacentally from the newly infected mother to the fetus during pregnancy. Other syndromes may result from newly acquired infection or reactivation of latent infection. Ingestion of meat or other foods containing cysts or oocysts present in cat feces can cause infection. Thus, individuals who live in poor sanitary conditions and those who eat raw or poorly cooked meat are at an increased risk of acquiring Toxoplasma infection. Infection can also be transmitted by blood transfusion or organ transplantation.

• #73 Pediatric Toxoplasmosis: Practice Essentials, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1000028-overview

  Vertical transmission is the cause of congenital toxoplasmosis. The infection can occur in utero or during a vaginal delivery. Transmission by breastfeeding has not been demonstrated. In general, only primary infection during pregnancy results in congenital toxoplasmosis. Thus, it is exceedingly rare for a woman to deliver a second child with congenital toxoplasmosis unless she is immunocompromised, usually from acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). […] The severity of infection in the fetus depends on the gestational age at the time of transmission. In general, earlier infection is more severe but less frequent. As a consequence, 85% of live infants with congenital infection appear normal at birth. Very early infections (ie, occurring in the first trimester) may result in fetal death in utero or in a newborn with severe central nervous system (CNS) involvement, such as cerebral calcifications and hydrocephalus.

• #74 Pediatric Toxoplasmosis: Practice Essentials, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1000028-overview

  Vertical transmission is the cause of congenital toxoplasmosis. The infection can occur in utero or during a vaginal delivery. Transmission by breastfeeding has not been demonstrated. In general, only primary infection during pregnancy results in congenital toxoplasmosis. Thus, it is exceedingly rare for a woman to deliver a second child with congenital toxoplasmosis unless she is immunocompromised, usually from acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). […] The severity of infection in the fetus depends on the gestational age at the time of transmission. In general, earlier infection is more severe but less frequent. As a consequence, 85% of live infants with congenital infection appear normal at birth. Very early infections (ie, occurring in the first trimester) may result in fetal death in utero or in a newborn with severe central nervous system (CNS) involvement, such as cerebral calcifications and hydrocephalus.

• #75 Toxoplasmosis: Background, Etiology and Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229969-overview

  Most cases of toxoplasmosis in immunocompromised patients are a consequence of latent infection and reactivation. […] In patients with AIDS, T gondii tissue cysts can reactivate with CD4 counts of less than 200 cells/L; with counts of less than 100 cells/L, clinical disease becomes more likely. […] Approximately 10-20% of pregnant women infected with T gondii become symptomatic. […] When a mother is infected with T gondii during gestation, the parasite may be disseminated hematogenously to the placenta. […] Congenital toxoplasmosis caused by atypical genotypes is more severe than that caused by typical genotypes. […] Recent investigations have suggested that chronic toxoplasmosis may play several roles in the etiology of different mental disorders. […] The most probable mechanism by which T gondii could cause schizophrenia is by affecting neurotransmitters in brain areas known to be involved in schizophrenia. […] T. gondii may play a role in the progression of Alzheimer’s disease using mechanisms such as induction of host immune responses, inflammation of the central nervous system (CNS), alteration in neurotransmitter levels, and activation of indoleamine-2,3-dyoxygenase.

• #76 Toxoplasma gondii – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondii

  Toxoplasma gondii is a species of parasitic alveolate that causes toxoplasmosis. Found worldwide, T. gondii is capable of infecting virtually all warm-blooded animals, but members of the cat family (felidae) are the only known definitive hosts in which the parasite may undergo sexual reproduction. […] In humans, infection is generally asymptomatic, but particularly in infants and those with weakened immunity, T. gondii may lead to a serious case of toxoplasmosis. T. gondii can initially cause mild, flu-like symptoms in the first few weeks following exposure, but otherwise, healthy human adults are asymptomatic. […] This asymptomatic state of infection is referred to as a latent infection, and it has been associated with numerous subtle behavioral, psychiatric, and personality alterations in humans.

• #77 Toxoplasmosis: Background, Etiology and Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229969-overview

  Most cases of toxoplasmosis in immunocompromised patients are a consequence of latent infection and reactivation. […] In patients with AIDS, T gondii tissue cysts can reactivate with CD4 counts of less than 200 cells/L; with counts of less than 100 cells/L, clinical disease becomes more likely. […] Approximately 10-20% of pregnant women infected with T gondii become symptomatic. […] When a mother is infected with T gondii during gestation, the parasite may be disseminated hematogenously to the placenta. […] Congenital toxoplasmosis caused by atypical genotypes is more severe than that caused by typical genotypes. […] Recent investigations have suggested that chronic toxoplasmosis may play several roles in the etiology of different mental disorders. […] The most probable mechanism by which T gondii could cause schizophrenia is by affecting neurotransmitters in brain areas known to be involved in schizophrenia. […] T. gondii may play a role in the progression of Alzheimer’s disease using mechanisms such as induction of host immune responses, inflammation of the central nervous system (CNS), alteration in neurotransmitter levels, and activation of indoleamine-2,3-dyoxygenase.

• #78 Toxoplasmosis: Background, Etiology and Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229969-overview

  Most cases of toxoplasmosis in immunocompromised patients are a consequence of latent infection and reactivation. […] In patients with AIDS, T gondii tissue cysts can reactivate with CD4 counts of less than 200 cells/L; with counts of less than 100 cells/L, clinical disease becomes more likely. […] Approximately 10-20% of pregnant women infected with T gondii become symptomatic. […] When a mother is infected with T gondii during gestation, the parasite may be disseminated hematogenously to the placenta. […] Congenital toxoplasmosis caused by atypical genotypes is more severe than that caused by typical genotypes. […] Recent investigations have suggested that chronic toxoplasmosis may play several roles in the etiology of different mental disorders. […] The most probable mechanism by which T gondii could cause schizophrenia is by affecting neurotransmitters in brain areas known to be involved in schizophrenia. […] T. gondii may play a role in the progression of Alzheimer’s disease using mechanisms such as induction of host immune responses, inflammation of the central nervous system (CNS), alteration in neurotransmitter levels, and activation of indoleamine-2,3-dyoxygenase.

• #79 Toxoplasma gondii – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondii

  However, there is evidence that T. Gondii may cause suicidal ideation and suicide in humans. […] Toxoplasmosis is becoming a global health hazard as it infects 30-50% of the world human population. Clinically, the life-long presence of the parasite in tissues of a majority of infected individuals is usually considered asymptomatic. However, a number of studies show that this 'asymptomatic infection’ may also lead to development of other human pathologies.

• #80 Reddit – The heart of the internet

  https://www.reddit.com/r/science/comments/4bo09p/a_disorder_that_causes_the_individual_to_fly_off/

  A disorder that causes the individual to fly off the handle unexpectedly, as in road rage, has been significantly linked with toxoplasmosis, a parasite commonly associated with cat feces, according to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry.

• #81 Toxoplasma gondii – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondii

  Toxoplasma gondii is a species of parasitic alveolate that causes toxoplasmosis. Found worldwide, T. gondii is capable of infecting virtually all warm-blooded animals, but members of the cat family (felidae) are the only known definitive hosts in which the parasite may undergo sexual reproduction. […] In humans, infection is generally asymptomatic, but particularly in infants and those with weakened immunity, T. gondii may lead to a serious case of toxoplasmosis. T. gondii can initially cause mild, flu-like symptoms in the first few weeks following exposure, but otherwise, healthy human adults are asymptomatic. […] This asymptomatic state of infection is referred to as a latent infection, and it has been associated with numerous subtle behavioral, psychiatric, and personality alterations in humans.

• #82 Toxoplasma gondii – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondii

  However, there is evidence that T. Gondii may cause suicidal ideation and suicide in humans. […] Toxoplasmosis is becoming a global health hazard as it infects 30-50% of the world human population. Clinically, the life-long presence of the parasite in tissues of a majority of infected individuals is usually considered asymptomatic. However, a number of studies show that this 'asymptomatic infection’ may also lead to development of other human pathologies.

• #83 Toxoplasmosis | Symptoms & Causes | Freedmans Health

  https://freedmanshealth.org/disease-conditions/symptoms-causes/toxoplasmosis/

  Left untreated, toxoplasmosis can cause organ damage in someone with a compromised immune system. This can eventually lead to death. […] Worldwide, it’s estimated that up to 1 in 3 people are infected with (T. gondii), the parasite that causes toxoplasmosis. Most people who are infected don’t have any symptoms.

• #84 Toxoplasmosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563286/

  T gondii infection is estimated to have an average global seroprevalence rate of 25.7% (95% confidence interval 25.6%-25.8%). The overall range of seroprevalence was determined to be 0.5% to 87.7%. African countries had the highest average seroprevalence rate of 61.4%, followed by Oceania at 38.5%, South America at 31.2%, Europe at 29.6%, the US and Canada at 17.5%, and Asia at 16.4%. […] T gondii can overcome the host defenses and disseminate through the body to the liver and spleen, eluding the immune system and reaching the central nervous system by crossing the highly regulated blood-brain barrier and infecting the brain, where the parasite resides. […] Although most infections with T gondii are subclinical, a small percentage of immunocompetent people can develop acute toxoplasmosis that can manifest with nonspecific, constitutional symptoms, including fever, malaise, and lymphadenopathy, as well as central nervous system pathology and ocular disease usually posterior uveitis. […] After the initial infection, T gondii becomes latent and persists for life; the latent tissue cysts can reactivate in profoundly immunosuppressed people, and reactivation can also occur during transplantation from the donor organ.

• #85 Toxoplasmosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563286/

  T gondii infection is estimated to have an average global seroprevalence rate of 25.7% (95% confidence interval 25.6%-25.8%). The overall range of seroprevalence was determined to be 0.5% to 87.7%. African countries had the highest average seroprevalence rate of 61.4%, followed by Oceania at 38.5%, South America at 31.2%, Europe at 29.6%, the US and Canada at 17.5%, and Asia at 16.4%. […] T gondii can overcome the host defenses and disseminate through the body to the liver and spleen, eluding the immune system and reaching the central nervous system by crossing the highly regulated blood-brain barrier and infecting the brain, where the parasite resides. […] Although most infections with T gondii are subclinical, a small percentage of immunocompetent people can develop acute toxoplasmosis that can manifest with nonspecific, constitutional symptoms, including fever, malaise, and lymphadenopathy, as well as central nervous system pathology and ocular disease usually posterior uveitis. […] After the initial infection, T gondii becomes latent and persists for life; the latent tissue cysts can reactivate in profoundly immunosuppressed people, and reactivation can also occur during transplantation from the donor organ.

• #86 Toxoplasmosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563286/

  T gondii infection is estimated to have an average global seroprevalence rate of 25.7% (95% confidence interval 25.6%-25.8%). The overall range of seroprevalence was determined to be 0.5% to 87.7%. African countries had the highest average seroprevalence rate of 61.4%, followed by Oceania at 38.5%, South America at 31.2%, Europe at 29.6%, the US and Canada at 17.5%, and Asia at 16.4%. […] T gondii can overcome the host defenses and disseminate through the body to the liver and spleen, eluding the immune system and reaching the central nervous system by crossing the highly regulated blood-brain barrier and infecting the brain, where the parasite resides. […] Although most infections with T gondii are subclinical, a small percentage of immunocompetent people can develop acute toxoplasmosis that can manifest with nonspecific, constitutional symptoms, including fever, malaise, and lymphadenopathy, as well as central nervous system pathology and ocular disease usually posterior uveitis. […] After the initial infection, T gondii becomes latent and persists for life; the latent tissue cysts can reactivate in profoundly immunosuppressed people, and reactivation can also occur during transplantation from the donor organ.

• #87 Toxoplasmosis: Background, Etiology and Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229969-overview

  A cat becomes infected with T gondii by eating contaminated raw meat, wild birds, or mice. […] T gondii oocysts, tachyzoites, and bradyzoites can cause infection in humans. Infection can occur by ingestion of oocysts following the handling of contaminated soil or cat litter or through the consumption of contaminated water or food sources (eg, unwashed garden vegetables). […] Transmission can also occur via ingestion of tissue cysts (bradyzoites) in undercooked or uncooked meat or through transplantation of an organ that contains tissue cysts. […] The seroprevalence of T gondii antibodies in the human population varies geographically, with prevalence rates approaching 90% in some European countries, while seropositivity rates in the United States have been estimated to fall between 10% and 15%.

• #88 Toxoplasmosis: Background, Etiology and Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229969-overview

  A cat becomes infected with T gondii by eating contaminated raw meat, wild birds, or mice. […] T gondii oocysts, tachyzoites, and bradyzoites can cause infection in humans. Infection can occur by ingestion of oocysts following the handling of contaminated soil or cat litter or through the consumption of contaminated water or food sources (eg, unwashed garden vegetables). […] Transmission can also occur via ingestion of tissue cysts (bradyzoites) in undercooked or uncooked meat or through transplantation of an organ that contains tissue cysts. […] The seroprevalence of T gondii antibodies in the human population varies geographically, with prevalence rates approaching 90% in some European countries, while seropositivity rates in the United States have been estimated to fall between 10% and 15%.

• #89 Toxoplasmosis Symptoms, Treatment, Test, Cause & Transmission

  https://www.medicinenet.com/toxoplasmosis/article.htm

  Infection can also occur due to accidental ingestion of these tissue cysts when undercooked or raw meat is eaten. […] The following risk factors and situations potentially expose a person to the Toxoplasma gondii parasite and increase the risk of acquiring toxoplasmosis infection: Touching your hands to your mouth after gardening, cleaning a cat’s litter box, or anything that came into contact with cat feces, Eating raw or partly cooked meat, especially pork, lamb, or venison, Using utensils or cutting boards that have not been properly cleaned after they have had contact with raw meat, Drinking raw goat’s milk, Touching your hands to your mouth after contact with raw or undercooked meat, Organ transplantation or transfusion (this is rare). […] If a woman is pregnant when she is infected with toxo, the infection can be transmitted to the baby with sometimes catastrophic consequences.

• #90 What Is Toxoplasmosis? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, and Treatment

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/toxoplasmosis/guide/

  Toxoplasmosis is an infectious disease caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii. […] Although cats and their feline relatives are the only hosts in which T. gondii reproduces, the parasite is found in humans and numerous other animals, including rodents, birds, pigs, and sheep. […] A cat becomes infected with T. gondii after eating birds or small mammals infected with the parasite. […] The parasites then reproduce in the cats small intestine and form oocysts, which are thick-walled cysts containing zygotes. […] A single cat can shed millions of oocysts for up to three weeks after infection. […] Humans can become infected by accidentally ingesting oocysts after cleaning the litter box or after touching anything that has come in contact with the cats feces that contain T. gondii. […] You can get toxoplasmosis by ingesting food or drink contaminated with T. gondii. This can happen by: Eating uncooked or raw meat thats infected with the parasite, particularly venison, pork, or lamb.

• #91 Toxoplasmosis: Background, Etiology and Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229969-overview

  Toxoplasmosis is caused by infection with the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, an obligate intracellular parasite. […] There are 3 major genotypes (type I, type II, and type III) of T gondii. These genotypes differ in their pathogenicity and prevalence in people. In Europe and the United States, type II genotype is responsible for most cases of congenital toxoplasmosis. […] T gondii infects a large proportion of the world’s population (perhaps one third) but uncommonly causes clinically significant disease. […] However, certain individuals are at high risk for severe or life-threatening toxoplasmosis. Individuals at risk for toxoplasmosis include fetuses, newborns, and immunologically impaired patients. […] T gondii has 2 distinct life cycles. The sexual cycle occurs only in cats, the definitive host. The asexual cycle occurs in other mammals (including humans) and various strains of birds.

• #92 Toxoplasmosis: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9756-toxoplasmosis

  Toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii. […] Toxoplasmosis is caused by an infection by the parasite T. gondii. Humans get toxoplasmosis after accidentally eating (ingesting) something contaminated with the parasite. […] You typically get toxoplasmosis from ingesting something contaminated with the parasite T. gondii. […] T. gondii reproduces in a cats intestines and ends up in their poop. Cat poop can contaminate soil, water, plant material and the food we eat. […] Toxoplasmosis isn’t contagious. But if you’re pregnant, you can pass the parasite that causes it to the fetus. […] If you get toxoplasmosis during pregnancy or shortly before getting pregnant, you can pass the parasite through the placenta to the fetus. […] Toxoplasmosis is most dangerous in pregnancy and for those with weakened immune systems, like people living with HIV or cancer.

• #93 Toxoplasma is a common parasite that causes birth defects – but the US doesn’t screen for it during pregnancy

  https://theconversation.com/toxoplasma-is-a-common-parasite-that-causes-birth-defects-but-the-us-doesnt-screen-for-it-during-pregnancy-232936

  Studies conducted in multiple countries have demonstrated the benefits of detecting and treating toxoplasmosis during pregnancy. […] In countries that perform prenatal screening for toxoplasmosis, the severity of congenital toxoplasmosis is far less than what is routinely observed in the U.S. […] The incidence of congenital toxoplasmosis may also be underestimated. […] A 2021 report by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention highlighted the shortcomings of toxoplasmosis surveillance in the U.S., stating that routine, standardized testing during pregnancy would provide crucial data to evaluate the scope of this threat to babies. […] Some researchers have warned that Toxoplasma prevalence may rise with the popularity of free-range, organically raised foods and climate change. […] Additionally, reports of unusually virulent Toxoplasma strains migrating from South America may exacerbate the severity of congenital toxoplasmosis infections in the U.S.

• #94 A Comprehensive Review of Toxoplasmosis: Serious Threat to Human Health

  https://openpublichealthjournal.com/openurl/content.php?genre=article&volume=17&elocator=e18749445281387

  The clinical manifestations of this illness are persistent and subclinical for the duration of the infection. […] Toxoplasmosis infections are recognized as a concern and a serious public health issue due to the great prevalence of transmission in humans, the chronic nature of the disease, its potentially lethal effects, and the fact that many people are unaware they have the infection. […] The impact of toxoplasmosis is very significant in humans because it causes abortion and disease in newborns, resulting in serious economic losses. […] To treat toxoplasmosis, dihydropteroate synthetase and dihydrofolate reductase inhibitors are advised. […] Toxoplasma transmission to humans can be avoided by thoroughly washing your hands with soap after handling meat, poultry, or shellfish.

• #95 About Toxoplasmosis | Toxoplasmosis | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/toxoplasmosis/about/index.html

  Toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by a single-celled parasite called Toxoplasma gondii. […] You can become infected with Toxoplasma through the following: […] Foodborne transmission: eating contaminated undercooked meat or shellfish or unwashed contaminated fresh produce. […] Animal to human transmission: accidentally consuming the parasite through contact with cat feces (poop) or contaminated soil that contains Toxoplasma. […] Mother-to-child (congenital) transmission: when a newly infected mother passes the infection to their unborn child. […] Other modes of transmission: receiving an infected organ transplant or infected blood via transfusion (though this is rare).

• #96 What Is Toxoplasmosis? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, and Treatment

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/toxoplasmosis/guide/

  Toxoplasmosis is an infectious disease caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii. […] Although cats and their feline relatives are the only hosts in which T. gondii reproduces, the parasite is found in humans and numerous other animals, including rodents, birds, pigs, and sheep. […] A cat becomes infected with T. gondii after eating birds or small mammals infected with the parasite. […] The parasites then reproduce in the cats small intestine and form oocysts, which are thick-walled cysts containing zygotes. […] A single cat can shed millions of oocysts for up to three weeks after infection. […] Humans can become infected by accidentally ingesting oocysts after cleaning the litter box or after touching anything that has come in contact with the cats feces that contain T. gondii. […] You can get toxoplasmosis by ingesting food or drink contaminated with T. gondii. This can happen by: Eating uncooked or raw meat thats infected with the parasite, particularly venison, pork, or lamb.

• #97 Toxoplasmosis and Its Effects on HawaiÊ»i Marine Wildlife | NOAA Fisheries

  https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/pacific-islands/endangered-species-conservation/toxoplasmosis-and-its-effects-hawaii-marine

  All monk seals diagnosed with toxoplasmosis have died from the disease, even with treatment. There is currently no successful treatment or vaccine for toxoplasmosis, either in the host cats or in other animals that become infected with the disease. […] T. gondii sexually reproduces only in the digestive tract of cats, producing infectious eggs that are shed into the environment through cat feces. These eggs can be transported from anywhere on the landscape to the ocean by watershed runoff. This exposes marine mammals to the infectious eggs either through consuming infected prey or direct exposure to eggs in the water. […] Only members of the family Felidae (domestic cats and their relatives) can spread toxoplasmosis because the parasite reproduces solely within cats’ digestive systems.

• #98 What Is Toxoplasmosis? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, and Treatment

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/toxoplasmosis/guide/

  You can also get toxoplasmosis by swallowing particles of oocyst-laden cat feces, such as if you touch your mouth after cleaning or changing your cats litter, handle objects that have come into contact with cat feces, or garden without gloves. […] In very rare cases, you can get the disease through a blood transfusion or an organ transplant. […] Toxoplasmosis is typically diagnosed by a blood test that checks for antibodies to the parasite. […] If a woman tests positive during pregnancy, a doctor will check to see if the baby is infected. […] Toxoplasmosis during pregnancy can also result in miscarriage, stillbirth, or a child born with signs of the disease, such as an abnormal head size. […] Toxoplasmosis can be transmitted across the placenta to the unborn child when a pregnant woman acquires the infection for the first time while she is pregnant and not immune. […] An estimated 40 million people in the United States may be infected with T. gondii, but most people dont have symptoms, as the immune system usually keeps the parasite from causing sickness.

• #99 Toxoplasmosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563286/

  Infected cats shed millions of unsporulated oocysts in the feces for about 1 to 3 weeks after initial infection. Oocysts take 1 to 5 days to sporulate and transform into infectious oocysts (sporozoites), which can remain infective in the environment for up to a year. […] T gondii infection or reactivation in patients with profound immunosuppression can be life-threatening. These are patients with HIV/AIDS, solid organ transplants (SOT), hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), and those receiving chemotherapy who develop toxoplasmosis either through primary infection via contaminated food or a transplanted organ containing latent cysts. […] Population studies have shown 3 predominant clonal lineages globally types I, II, and III found in specific geographical regions worldwide. T gondii clonal lineage type II strains are predominantly found in humans and agricultural animals in Western Europe and North America.

• #100 How to Identify and Treat Toxoplasmosis Infection

  https://www.healthline.com/health/toxoplasmosis

  Toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by a parasite called Toxoplasma gondii. It can be found in cat feces, undercooked meat, and contaminated food and water. […] The name of the parasite that causes toxoplasmosis is T. gondii. Its a tiny, single-celled organism. […] Aside from congenital toxoplasmosis, which is passed from a pregnant parent to their baby, most people become infected when they ingest the T. gondii parasite. This can happen in several different ways. […] In the United States, T. gondii can be found in cat feces. Although the parasite can be in nearly all warm-blooded animals, cats are the only known hosts. This means that the parasite only reproduces in cats. A cat with toxoplasmosis can shed millions of eggs in its feces for 1 to 3 weeks after infection. […] You can get toxoplasmosis from raw or undercooked meat and shellfish. […] In addition to being present in some meats and shellfish, T. gondii can also contaminate food or water. The parasite can then move to humans who eat or drink the contaminated substance.

• #101 Toxoplasmosis

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/toxoplasmosis/

  Toxoplasmosis is a common infection that you can catch from the poo of infected cats, or infected meat. It’s usually harmless but can cause serious problems in some people. […] The parasite that causes toxoplasmosis can be found in the poo of infected cats, and in undercooked meat. You can also catch it from soil that’s been contaminated by cat poo.

• #102 Toxoplasmosis: Symptoms, Pregnancy Risks, Diagnosis, Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/baby/toxoplasmosis

  Toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by a parasite called Toxoplasma gondii. You can find it in the intestines of some animals, including cats and pigs. […] You might come into contact with the parasite if you: Clean out a cats litter box or touch anything that has touched infected cat feces. […] You also could be exposed to it if you’re an organ donor or have had a blood transfusion. […] If you have a weakened immune system (especially because of HIV or AIDS), toxoplasmosis can be serious and cause seizures or encephalitis. […] People who have AIDS or encephalitis that isn’t treated can die from toxoplasmosis. […] Toxoplasmosis doesn’t cause problems for most people, so you probably won’t need treatment for it if your immune system is healthy. If you are HIV-positive or have AIDS, your doctor may recommend the antibiotic sulfadiazine, along with a medication usually used to treat malaria called pyrimethamine (Daraprim).

• #103 Toxoplasmosis in Cats | PetMD

  https://www.petmd.com/cat/conditions/infectious-parasitic/c_ct_toxoplasmosis

  Researchers estimate that about a third of the human population is infected with T. gondii. […] Most infected cats do not actually suffer from the disease itself, but essentially act as carriers for the disease to be promulgated so it would be rare for them to be shedding oocysts and be suffering acutely from the disease itself. […] Toxoplasmosis is rarely fatal in cats unless they are either very young or immunocompromised, such as cats that are FIV or FeLV positive. […] Other animals, including people, become infected by T. gondii in much the same way as cats (contact with feces or uncooked meat).

• #104 What Is Toxoplasmosis? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, and Treatment

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/toxoplasmosis/guide/

  Toxoplasmosis is an infectious disease caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii. […] Although cats and their feline relatives are the only hosts in which T. gondii reproduces, the parasite is found in humans and numerous other animals, including rodents, birds, pigs, and sheep. […] A cat becomes infected with T. gondii after eating birds or small mammals infected with the parasite. […] The parasites then reproduce in the cats small intestine and form oocysts, which are thick-walled cysts containing zygotes. […] A single cat can shed millions of oocysts for up to three weeks after infection. […] Humans can become infected by accidentally ingesting oocysts after cleaning the litter box or after touching anything that has come in contact with the cats feces that contain T. gondii. […] You can get toxoplasmosis by ingesting food or drink contaminated with T. gondii. This can happen by: Eating uncooked or raw meat thats infected with the parasite, particularly venison, pork, or lamb.

• #105 Diagnostic testing for toxoplasmosis infection – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/diagnostic-testing-for-toxoplasmosis-infection

  Toxoplasmosis is a worldwide zoonosis caused by the intracellular protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii). Infection in humans most commonly occurs through the ingestion of raw or undercooked meat that contains tissue cysts, through ingestion of water or food contaminated with oocysts, or congenitally through transplacental transmission from a mother who acquired infection during pregnancy. […] Laboratory testing is usually necessary to establish the diagnosis of toxoplasmosis because the clinical manifestations of infection are so protean. The diagnostic methodology requires careful consideration based on the patient’s clinical presentation. Available diagnostic modalities for T. gondii include serologic assays, molecular-based techniques (eg, polymerase chain reaction-based assays), and histopathology.

• #106 Toxoplasmosis: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/toxoplasmosis-7098005

  Toxoplasmosis is a disease caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii. This parasite is a tiny single-celled organism called a protozoan. People can acquire it from undercooked meat and exposure to cat feces. […] Toxoplasmosis is caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii. In the wild, toxoplasma is transmitted between rodents and cats and birds. Housecats can acquire it if they venture outside. Farm or game animals can acquire toxoplasma in their environment. […] Humans can acquire toxoplasmosis from exposure to the parasites eggs in their environment. The parasite eggs can be in the soil of, for instance, a home garden. […] Humans may acquire toxoplasmosis by any of several routes, including: Eating undercooked meat of animals infected with toxoplasma from their environment; Eating food or drinking water contaminated with toxoplasma from cat feces, for example, from a home garden; Coming into contact with contaminated soil or changing a cat’s litter box if the animal has acquired a toxoplasma infection while out of the house; Exposure to infected blood or organs through transfusion or transplantation; Exposure to the fetus through the placenta when the pregnant person has acute toxoplasmosis.

• #107 Toxoplasmosis – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/toxoplasmosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20356249

  Contaminated food or water. Undercooked beef, lamb, pork, venison, chicken and shellfish are all known carriers of the parasite. Unpasteurized goat milk and untreated drinking water also may be carriers. […] Unwashed fruits and vegetables. The surface of fruits and vegetables may have the parasite on them. […] Contaminated kitchen tool. Parasites may be on cutting boards, knives and other utensils that come into contact with raw meat or unwashed fruits and vegetables. […] Infected organ transplant or transfused blood. Rarely, toxoplasma parasites are passed through an organ transplant or blood transfusion.

• #108 Toxoplasmosis | Beacon Health System

  https://www.beaconhealthsystem.org/library/diseases-and-conditions/toxoplasmosis?content_id=CON-20301718

  People often get a toxoplasma infection one of the following ways: Cat feces with the parasite. Cats that hunt or who are fed raw meat are more likely to carry toxoplasma parasites. You may get infected if you touch your mouth after touching anything that has been in contact with cat feces. This may be gardening or cleaning a litter box. […] Contaminated food or water. Undercooked beef, lamb, pork, venison, chicken and shellfish are all known carriers of the parasite. Unpasteurized goat milk and untreated drinking water also may be carriers. […] Unwashed fruits and vegetables. The surface of fruits and vegetables may have the parasite on them. […] Contaminated kitchen tool. Parasites may be on cutting boards, knives and other utensils that come into contact with raw meat or unwashed fruits and vegetables. […] Infected organ transplant or transfused blood. Rarely, toxoplasma parasites are passed through an organ transplant or blood transfusion.

• #109 Toxoplasma gondii: A Parasite that Causes Toxoplasmosis | Ohioline

  https://ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/HYG-5578

  Toxoplasmosis is the infection caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii (Toxo). […] Cats are the only primary or definitive host for the parasite Toxo; however, most warm-blood animals can become infected. […] Eating soil (for instance, soil on a tomato eaten straight from the garden), drinking contaminated water, or eating an animal that is already infected with Toxo, are routes of infection for an animal or human. […] Toxo can also be present in the milk of infected animals. […] Other susceptible groups are the immune-compromised or the older adult, pregnant women, those infected with HIV/AIDs, those with cancer, and those who have had an organ transplant. […] When the immune system is suppressed the parasite transforms from a dormant form to an active form and will affect various parts of the body.

• #110 Toxoplasmosis – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/toxoplasmosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20356249

  Contaminated food or water. Undercooked beef, lamb, pork, venison, chicken and shellfish are all known carriers of the parasite. Unpasteurized goat milk and untreated drinking water also may be carriers. […] Unwashed fruits and vegetables. The surface of fruits and vegetables may have the parasite on them. […] Contaminated kitchen tool. Parasites may be on cutting boards, knives and other utensils that come into contact with raw meat or unwashed fruits and vegetables. […] Infected organ transplant or transfused blood. Rarely, toxoplasma parasites are passed through an organ transplant or blood transfusion.

• #111 Toxoplasma gondii: A Parasite that Causes Toxoplasmosis | Ohioline

  https://ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/HYG-5578

  Pregnant women who are exposed during pregnancy can pass the parasite to their baby resulting in congenital conditions in the child, such as blindness, mental disabilities, and seizures. […] 50% of the Toxoplasmosis illnesses in the United States are foodborne. […] You should be tested for Toxoplasma gondii and undergo treatment recommended by your physician.

• #112 Toxoplasma Gondii – Medical Microbiology – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7752/

  Infection is contracted by ingesting either oocysts or meat containing live organisms. […] Most cases of toxoplasmosis in humans are probably acquired by the ingestion of either tissue cysts in infected meat or oocysts in food contaminated with cat feces. […] Toxoplasmosis shows a nonseasonal worldwide distribution. Most natural infections are acquired by ingesting undercooked meat containing tissue cysts or food contaminated by cat feces. […] Toxoplasma gondii infection in humans is widespread throughout the world. Approximately half a billion humans have antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii. […] The relative frequency with which postnatal toxoplasmosis is acquired by eating raw meat and by ingesting food contaminated by oocysts from cat feces is unknown and difficult to investigate. […] Oocysts are shed by cats – not only the domestic cat – but also other felids such as ocelots, margays, jaguarundi, bobcats, Pallas cats, and Bengal tigers. However, oocyst formation is greatest in the domestic cat. […] Diagnosis of toxoplasmosis can be aided by serologic or histocytologic examination. […] Many serologic tests have been used to detect antibodies to T gondii. […] Sulfonamides and pyrimethamine (Daraprim) are two drugs widely used to treat toxoplasmosis in humans.

• #113 Toxoplasmosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563286/

  Infected cats shed millions of unsporulated oocysts in the feces for about 1 to 3 weeks after initial infection. Oocysts take 1 to 5 days to sporulate and transform into infectious oocysts (sporozoites), which can remain infective in the environment for up to a year. […] T gondii infection or reactivation in patients with profound immunosuppression can be life-threatening. These are patients with HIV/AIDS, solid organ transplants (SOT), hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), and those receiving chemotherapy who develop toxoplasmosis either through primary infection via contaminated food or a transplanted organ containing latent cysts. […] Population studies have shown 3 predominant clonal lineages globally types I, II, and III found in specific geographical regions worldwide. T gondii clonal lineage type II strains are predominantly found in humans and agricultural animals in Western Europe and North America.

• #114 Toxoplasmosis and Its Effects on HawaiÊ»i Marine Wildlife | NOAA Fisheries

  https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/pacific-islands/endangered-species-conservation/toxoplasmosis-and-its-effects-hawaii-marine

  All monk seals diagnosed with toxoplasmosis have died from the disease, even with treatment. There is currently no successful treatment or vaccine for toxoplasmosis, either in the host cats or in other animals that become infected with the disease. […] T. gondii sexually reproduces only in the digestive tract of cats, producing infectious eggs that are shed into the environment through cat feces. These eggs can be transported from anywhere on the landscape to the ocean by watershed runoff. This exposes marine mammals to the infectious eggs either through consuming infected prey or direct exposure to eggs in the water. […] Only members of the family Felidae (domestic cats and their relatives) can spread toxoplasmosis because the parasite reproduces solely within cats’ digestive systems.

• #115 Toxoplasmosis | Pregnancy Birth and Baby

  https://www.pregnancybirthbaby.org.au/toxoplasmosis

  Toxoplasmosis infection is caused by a parasite called Toxoplasma gondii. […] Toxoplasma gondii can be found in many animals including cats, birds, rats, mice, sheep, pigs and kangaroos. […] You can become infected with toxoplasmosis if you swallow the parasite. This can happen if you eat infected meat that has not been properly cooked, eat unwashed salad vegetables that have grown in soil that is infected with Toxoplasma gondii, touch your mouth after being in contact with infected animal poo or soil for example, if you are gardening or cleaning a cat litter box, or drink unfiltered water in developing countries or unpasteurised milk. […] Toxoplasmosis does not usually spread from person to person. However, if you are pregnant, you can pass it on to your unborn baby. […] Toxoplasmosis is a disease caused by a parasite called Toxoplasma gondii. This parasite occurs commonly throughout the world and infects birds and mammals, including humans. […] Toxoplasmosis infection is caused by a parasite Toxoplasma gondii. It occurs in animals and can be carried by cats and shed in cat faeces.

• #116 About Toxoplasmosis | Toxoplasmosis | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/toxoplasmosis/about/index.html

  Toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by a single-celled parasite called Toxoplasma gondii. […] You can become infected with Toxoplasma through the following: […] Foodborne transmission: eating contaminated undercooked meat or shellfish or unwashed contaminated fresh produce. […] Animal to human transmission: accidentally consuming the parasite through contact with cat feces (poop) or contaminated soil that contains Toxoplasma. […] Mother-to-child (congenital) transmission: when a newly infected mother passes the infection to their unborn child. […] Other modes of transmission: receiving an infected organ transplant or infected blood via transfusion (though this is rare).

• #117 Toxoplasmosis | Pregnancy Birth and Baby

  https://www.pregnancybirthbaby.org.au/toxoplasmosis

  Toxoplasmosis infection is caused by a parasite called Toxoplasma gondii. […] Toxoplasma gondii can be found in many animals including cats, birds, rats, mice, sheep, pigs and kangaroos. […] You can become infected with toxoplasmosis if you swallow the parasite. This can happen if you eat infected meat that has not been properly cooked, eat unwashed salad vegetables that have grown in soil that is infected with Toxoplasma gondii, touch your mouth after being in contact with infected animal poo or soil for example, if you are gardening or cleaning a cat litter box, or drink unfiltered water in developing countries or unpasteurised milk. […] Toxoplasmosis does not usually spread from person to person. However, if you are pregnant, you can pass it on to your unborn baby. […] Toxoplasmosis is a disease caused by a parasite called Toxoplasma gondii. This parasite occurs commonly throughout the world and infects birds and mammals, including humans. […] Toxoplasmosis infection is caused by a parasite Toxoplasma gondii. It occurs in animals and can be carried by cats and shed in cat faeces.

• #118 Toxoplasmosis and Its Effects on HawaiÊ»i Marine Wildlife | NOAA Fisheries

  https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/pacific-islands/endangered-species-conservation/toxoplasmosis-and-its-effects-hawaii-marine

  All monk seals diagnosed with toxoplasmosis have died from the disease, even with treatment. There is currently no successful treatment or vaccine for toxoplasmosis, either in the host cats or in other animals that become infected with the disease. […] T. gondii sexually reproduces only in the digestive tract of cats, producing infectious eggs that are shed into the environment through cat feces. These eggs can be transported from anywhere on the landscape to the ocean by watershed runoff. This exposes marine mammals to the infectious eggs either through consuming infected prey or direct exposure to eggs in the water. […] Only members of the family Felidae (domestic cats and their relatives) can spread toxoplasmosis because the parasite reproduces solely within cats’ digestive systems.

• #119 Congenital toxoplasmosis: MedlinePlus Medical EncyclopediaLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001360.htm

  Congenital toxoplasmosis is a group of symptoms that occur when an unborn baby (fetus) is infected with the parasite Toxoplasma gondii. […] Toxoplasmosis infection can be passed to a developing baby if the mother becomes infected while pregnant. The infection spreads to the developing baby across the placenta. […] The woman may not be aware she has the parasite. However, infection of the developing baby can cause serious problems. Problems are worse if the infection occurs in early pregnancy.

• #120 Congenital Toxoplasmosis – Pediatrics – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/infections-in-neonates/congenital-toxoplasmosis

  Congenital toxoplasmosis is caused by transplacental acquisition of Toxoplasma gondii. […] Congenital toxoplasmosis is almost exclusively due to a primary maternal infection during pregnancy or within 3 months of conception; however, there are exceptions, including reinfection with a new serotype of T. gondii or reactivation of toxoplasmosis in mothers with severe cell-mediated immunodeficiencies. […] Infection with T. gondii occurs primarily from ingestion of inadequately cooked meat containing cysts or from ingestion of oocysts derived from food or water contaminated with cat feces. […] The rate of transmission to the fetus is higher in women infected later during pregnancy. […] Overall, 70% of children who are born to people infected with and not treated for toxoplasmosis during pregnancy have symptoms of congenital toxoplasmosis if the mother seroconverted after 37 weeks, and approximately 30% of people infected during pregnancy will have a congenitally infected child.

• #121 About Toxoplasmosis | Toxoplasmosis | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/toxoplasmosis/about/index.html

  Toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by a single-celled parasite called Toxoplasma gondii. […] You can become infected with Toxoplasma through the following: […] Foodborne transmission: eating contaminated undercooked meat or shellfish or unwashed contaminated fresh produce. […] Animal to human transmission: accidentally consuming the parasite through contact with cat feces (poop) or contaminated soil that contains Toxoplasma. […] Mother-to-child (congenital) transmission: when a newly infected mother passes the infection to their unborn child. […] Other modes of transmission: receiving an infected organ transplant or infected blood via transfusion (though this is rare).

• #122 Toxoplasmosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563286/

  Toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by the zoonotic parasite Toxoplasma gondii, an obligate intracellular protozoan. T gondii has a global distribution, with cats being the definite hosts that shed oocysts with their feces into the environment. […] T gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite that can infect all warm-blooded animals, including farm animals, birds, and humans. T gondii has a complex life cycle, requiring a definitive host and an intermediate host to complete sexual and asexual cycles, respectively. The family Felidae members, including the domestic cat, are the only known definitive hosts for this organism. Birds and terrestrial and aquatic mammals are the intermediate hosts. […] Transmission of infection often occurs through ingesting tissue cysts via improperly cooked or raw meat or contaminated food or water. Other routes of transmission include vertical transmission, causing miscarriage or congenital toxoplasmosis, and via transplantation, by T gondii from either the host or donor organ.

• #123 About Toxoplasmosis | Toxoplasmosis | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/toxoplasmosis/about/index.html

  Toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by a single-celled parasite called Toxoplasma gondii. […] You can become infected with Toxoplasma through the following: […] Foodborne transmission: eating contaminated undercooked meat or shellfish or unwashed contaminated fresh produce. […] Animal to human transmission: accidentally consuming the parasite through contact with cat feces (poop) or contaminated soil that contains Toxoplasma. […] Mother-to-child (congenital) transmission: when a newly infected mother passes the infection to their unborn child. […] Other modes of transmission: receiving an infected organ transplant or infected blood via transfusion (though this is rare).

• #124 Toxoplasmosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563286/

  Toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by the zoonotic parasite Toxoplasma gondii, an obligate intracellular protozoan. T gondii has a global distribution, with cats being the definite hosts that shed oocysts with their feces into the environment. […] T gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite that can infect all warm-blooded animals, including farm animals, birds, and humans. T gondii has a complex life cycle, requiring a definitive host and an intermediate host to complete sexual and asexual cycles, respectively. The family Felidae members, including the domestic cat, are the only known definitive hosts for this organism. Birds and terrestrial and aquatic mammals are the intermediate hosts. […] Transmission of infection often occurs through ingesting tissue cysts via improperly cooked or raw meat or contaminated food or water. Other routes of transmission include vertical transmission, causing miscarriage or congenital toxoplasmosis, and via transplantation, by T gondii from either the host or donor organ.

• #125

  https://zana.com/a/toxoplasmosis-causes-toxoplasmosis.4869

  Toxoplasmosis is caused by the Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) parasite. This is found in the poo (faeces) of infected cats and the meat of infected animals. […] The parasites can get into animal meat if an animal eats soil, grass, animal feed or another animal that has been contaminated by an infected cat’s poo. […] You can get toxoplasmosis if the T. gondii parasites get into your mouth. […] There’s also a small risk of the infection being passed from sheep during the lambing season. This is because the T. gondii parasite is sometimes found in the afterbirth and on newborn lambs after an infected sheep has given birth. […] However, in rare cases people have developed toxoplasmosis from an infected organ transplant or blood transfusion. […] There’s also a chance the infection could be passed to an unborn baby if the mother becomes infected while pregnant.

• #126 Toxoplasma gondii Encephalitis: Adult and Adolescent OIs | NIH

  https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/guidelines/hiv-clinical-guidelines-adult-and-adolescent-opportunistic-infections/toxoplasmosis

  People with HIV should be counseled regarding sources of Toxoplasma infection. Those with CD4 counts 200 cells/mm3 should be tested for IgG antibody to Toxoplasma soon after they are diagnosed with HIV to detect latent infection with T. gondii. […] To minimize risk of acquiring toxoplasmosis, people with HIV, especially those with CD4 counts 200 cells/mm3, should be advised not to eat raw or undercooked meat, including undercooked lamb, beef, pork, or venison, and not to eat raw shellfish, including oysters, clams, and mussels. […] Toxoplasma IgG positive patients with CD4 count 100 cells/mm3 should receive prophylaxis against TE. […] The preferred primary prophylaxis regimen is one double-strength tablet daily of TMP-SMX. […] If pyrimethamine is unavailable or cannot be obtained without delay due to costs or other factors, TMP-SMX should be utilized. […] Pyrimethamine plus sulfadiazine plus leucovorin is the preferred regimen for treating Toxoplasma gondii encephalitis.

• #127 Toxoplasmosis: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9756-toxoplasmosis

  Toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii. […] Toxoplasmosis is caused by an infection by the parasite T. gondii. Humans get toxoplasmosis after accidentally eating (ingesting) something contaminated with the parasite. […] You typically get toxoplasmosis from ingesting something contaminated with the parasite T. gondii. […] T. gondii reproduces in a cats intestines and ends up in their poop. Cat poop can contaminate soil, water, plant material and the food we eat. […] Toxoplasmosis isn’t contagious. But if you’re pregnant, you can pass the parasite that causes it to the fetus. […] If you get toxoplasmosis during pregnancy or shortly before getting pregnant, you can pass the parasite through the placenta to the fetus. […] Toxoplasmosis is most dangerous in pregnancy and for those with weakened immune systems, like people living with HIV or cancer.

• #128 Toxoplasmosis: Background, Etiology and Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229969-overview

  Toxoplasmosis is caused by infection with the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, an obligate intracellular parasite. […] There are 3 major genotypes (type I, type II, and type III) of T gondii. These genotypes differ in their pathogenicity and prevalence in people. In Europe and the United States, type II genotype is responsible for most cases of congenital toxoplasmosis. […] T gondii infects a large proportion of the world’s population (perhaps one third) but uncommonly causes clinically significant disease. […] However, certain individuals are at high risk for severe or life-threatening toxoplasmosis. Individuals at risk for toxoplasmosis include fetuses, newborns, and immunologically impaired patients. […] T gondii has 2 distinct life cycles. The sexual cycle occurs only in cats, the definitive host. The asexual cycle occurs in other mammals (including humans) and various strains of birds.

• #129 Toxoplasmosis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasmosis

  Congenital transmittance from mother to fetus can also occur. […] Transmission may also occur during the solid organ transplant process or hematogenous stem cell transplants. […] The mechanisms above allow T. gondii to persist in a host. […] The effect on the host also depends on the strength of the host immune system. Immunocompetent individuals do not normally show severe symptoms or any at all, while fatality or severe complications can result in immunocompromised individuals.

• #130 Toxoplasmosis: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9756-toxoplasmosis

  If you’re living with HIV or cancer or if you’re taking immune-suppressing medications, your immune system can’t fight off infections like T. gondii. […] Left untreated, toxoplasmosis can cause organ damage in someone with a compromised immune system. […] Because of the cysts left behind by T. gondii, toxoplasmosis may never be fully cured.

• #131 Toxoplasmosis: Background, Etiology and Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229969-overview

  Most cases of toxoplasmosis in immunocompromised patients are a consequence of latent infection and reactivation. […] In patients with AIDS, T gondii tissue cysts can reactivate with CD4 counts of less than 200 cells/L; with counts of less than 100 cells/L, clinical disease becomes more likely. […] Approximately 10-20% of pregnant women infected with T gondii become symptomatic. […] When a mother is infected with T gondii during gestation, the parasite may be disseminated hematogenously to the placenta. […] Congenital toxoplasmosis caused by atypical genotypes is more severe than that caused by typical genotypes. […] Recent investigations have suggested that chronic toxoplasmosis may play several roles in the etiology of different mental disorders. […] The most probable mechanism by which T gondii could cause schizophrenia is by affecting neurotransmitters in brain areas known to be involved in schizophrenia. […] T. gondii may play a role in the progression of Alzheimer’s disease using mechanisms such as induction of host immune responses, inflammation of the central nervous system (CNS), alteration in neurotransmitter levels, and activation of indoleamine-2,3-dyoxygenase.

• #132 Toxoplasmosis – Infectious Diseases – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/extraintestinal-protozoa/toxoplasmosis

  Transmission may occur via transfusion of whole blood or white blood cells or via transplantation of an organ from a seropositive donor. […] Toxoplasmosis reactivates in 30 to 40% of AIDS patients who are not taking antibiotic prophylaxis. […] About 11% of the US population have been infected with T. gondii, but symptomatic disease is rare and occurs mainly in fetuses who are infected when the mother acquires acute infection during pregnancy and transmits the infection transplacentally or in people who are immunocompromised by HIV or other causes.

• #133 Toxoplasmosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563286/

  Infected cats shed millions of unsporulated oocysts in the feces for about 1 to 3 weeks after initial infection. Oocysts take 1 to 5 days to sporulate and transform into infectious oocysts (sporozoites), which can remain infective in the environment for up to a year. […] T gondii infection or reactivation in patients with profound immunosuppression can be life-threatening. These are patients with HIV/AIDS, solid organ transplants (SOT), hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), and those receiving chemotherapy who develop toxoplasmosis either through primary infection via contaminated food or a transplanted organ containing latent cysts. […] Population studies have shown 3 predominant clonal lineages globally types I, II, and III found in specific geographical regions worldwide. T gondii clonal lineage type II strains are predominantly found in humans and agricultural animals in Western Europe and North America.

• #134 Toxoplasmosis: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9756-toxoplasmosis

  If you’re living with HIV or cancer or if you’re taking immune-suppressing medications, your immune system can’t fight off infections like T. gondii. […] Left untreated, toxoplasmosis can cause organ damage in someone with a compromised immune system. […] Because of the cysts left behind by T. gondii, toxoplasmosis may never be fully cured.

• #135 Toxoplasma gondii: A Parasite that Causes Toxoplasmosis | Ohioline

  https://ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/HYG-5578

  Toxoplasmosis is the infection caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii (Toxo). […] Cats are the only primary or definitive host for the parasite Toxo; however, most warm-blood animals can become infected. […] Eating soil (for instance, soil on a tomato eaten straight from the garden), drinking contaminated water, or eating an animal that is already infected with Toxo, are routes of infection for an animal or human. […] Toxo can also be present in the milk of infected animals. […] Other susceptible groups are the immune-compromised or the older adult, pregnant women, those infected with HIV/AIDs, those with cancer, and those who have had an organ transplant. […] When the immune system is suppressed the parasite transforms from a dormant form to an active form and will affect various parts of the body.

• #136 Toxoplasma gondii: A Parasite that Causes Toxoplasmosis | Ohioline

  https://ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/HYG-5578

  Toxoplasmosis is the infection caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii (Toxo). […] Cats are the only primary or definitive host for the parasite Toxo; however, most warm-blood animals can become infected. […] Eating soil (for instance, soil on a tomato eaten straight from the garden), drinking contaminated water, or eating an animal that is already infected with Toxo, are routes of infection for an animal or human. […] Toxo can also be present in the milk of infected animals. […] Other susceptible groups are the immune-compromised or the older adult, pregnant women, those infected with HIV/AIDs, those with cancer, and those who have had an organ transplant. […] When the immune system is suppressed the parasite transforms from a dormant form to an active form and will affect various parts of the body.

• #137 Toxoplasmosis | March of Dimes

  https://www.marchofdimes.org/find-support/topics/pregnancy/toxoplasmosis

  Toxoplasmosis is an infection you can get from eating undercooked meat or touching cat poop. […] Toxoplasmosis is an infection you can get from eating undercooked meat or touching cat poop or a litter box. Its caused by a very common parasite called Toxoplasma gondii. […] However, toxoplasmosis can cause health problems for you and your baby during pregnancy. […] If you have toxoplasmosis within 6 months of getting pregnant, you may be able to pass it to your baby during pregnancy. […] Yes. Pregnancy complications caused by toxoplasmosis include: Preterm birth Birth that happens before 37 weeks of pregnancy, Stillbirth When a baby dies after 20 weeks of pregnancy, Miscarriage — When a baby dies before 20 weeks of pregnancy. […] If you get toxoplasmosis just before or during pregnancy, you may pass the infection to your baby even if you dont have any symptoms.

• #138 Toxoplasmosis | March of Dimes

  https://www.marchofdimes.org/find-support/topics/pregnancy/toxoplasmosis

  The risk of passing the infection to your baby depends on how far along in your pregnancy you were when you were infected. […] Most babies born with toxoplasmosis have no symptoms. But about 1 in 10 babies (10 percent) with the infection are born with problems, including: Eye infections or eye inflammation, Swollen liver and spleen, Jaundice (when a baby’s eyes and skin look yellow.), Seizures or convulsions, Fluid on the brain (hydrocephalus), Swollen lymph nodes, Large head size (macrocephaly) or smaller-than-normal head size (microcephaly), Feeding problems, Low birthweight, Skin rash or bruising. […] Without treatment, newborns may develop problems later in life, even if they show no symptoms earlier. […] If you are infected during pregnancy, both you and your baby should be closely monitored during your pregnancy and after the baby is born.

• #139 Toxoplasmosis Symptoms, Treatment, Test, Cause & Transmission

  https://www.medicinenet.com/toxoplasmosis/article.htm

  Infection can also occur due to accidental ingestion of these tissue cysts when undercooked or raw meat is eaten. […] The following risk factors and situations potentially expose a person to the Toxoplasma gondii parasite and increase the risk of acquiring toxoplasmosis infection: Touching your hands to your mouth after gardening, cleaning a cat’s litter box, or anything that came into contact with cat feces, Eating raw or partly cooked meat, especially pork, lamb, or venison, Using utensils or cutting boards that have not been properly cleaned after they have had contact with raw meat, Drinking raw goat’s milk, Touching your hands to your mouth after contact with raw or undercooked meat, Organ transplantation or transfusion (this is rare). […] If a woman is pregnant when she is infected with toxo, the infection can be transmitted to the baby with sometimes catastrophic consequences.

• #140 Toxoplasmosis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563286/

  Toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by the zoonotic parasite Toxoplasma gondii, an obligate intracellular protozoan. T gondii has a global distribution, with cats being the definite hosts that shed oocysts with their feces into the environment. […] T gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite that can infect all warm-blooded animals, including farm animals, birds, and humans. T gondii has a complex life cycle, requiring a definitive host and an intermediate host to complete sexual and asexual cycles, respectively. The family Felidae members, including the domestic cat, are the only known definitive hosts for this organism. Birds and terrestrial and aquatic mammals are the intermediate hosts. […] Transmission of infection often occurs through ingesting tissue cysts via improperly cooked or raw meat or contaminated food or water. Other routes of transmission include vertical transmission, causing miscarriage or congenital toxoplasmosis, and via transplantation, by T gondii from either the host or donor organ.

• #141 Toxoplasmosis in Animals – Generalized Conditions – Merck Veterinary Manual

  https://www.merckvetmanual.com/generalized-conditions/toxoplasmosis/toxoplasmosis-in-animals

  Toxoplasmosis is an important zoonotic protozoal infection worldwide. […] Toxoplasmosis is diagnosed by biologic, serologic, or histologic methods; or some combination of these. […] Toxoplasmosis is an important zoonotic disease. […] Toxoplasmosis is also a concern for pregnant women because tachyzoites can migrate transplacentally and cause neurologic disorders in the fetus. […] Different T gondii genotypes could generate different clinical outcomes. […] Immunocompromised individuals may develop generalized toxoplasmosis with multiorgan failure. […] T gondii may be transmitted vertically and produce fetal lesions and abortions.

• #142 Insights into the threats of toxoplasmosis for free-ranging black-tufted marmosets living in our neighborhood | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-00495-4

  The high susceptibility of platyrrhines to toxoplasmosis may originate from evolutionary and environmental factors that have not favored the development of an effective immune response. […] Due to the limited number of studies focusing on acute fatal toxoplasmosis (AFT) in neotropical free-ranging NHPs, comprehensive investigations and epidemiological studies are crucial to understanding the disease dynamics within these populations. […] The potential role of urbanized free-ranging marmosets as environmental sentinels for the disease has been previously proposed, emphasizing their significance within the One Health paradigm. […] The broad range of hosts for T. gondii and the uncertainty regarding the environmental factors critical for disease maintenance complicate the characterization and comprehension of toxoplasmosis epidemiology in NHPs within anthropogenic settings, impacting ecological integrity and public health.

• #143 Diagnostic testing for toxoplasmosis infection – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/diagnostic-testing-for-toxoplasmosis-infection

  Toxoplasmosis is a worldwide zoonosis caused by the intracellular protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii). Infection in humans most commonly occurs through the ingestion of raw or undercooked meat that contains tissue cysts, through ingestion of water or food contaminated with oocysts, or congenitally through transplacental transmission from a mother who acquired infection during pregnancy. […] Laboratory testing is usually necessary to establish the diagnosis of toxoplasmosis because the clinical manifestations of infection are so protean. The diagnostic methodology requires careful consideration based on the patient’s clinical presentation. Available diagnostic modalities for T. gondii include serologic assays, molecular-based techniques (eg, polymerase chain reaction-based assays), and histopathology.

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