Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Rotavirus – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK558951/

  Rotavirus is the leading cause of acute gastroenteritis in the world. Studies estimate that approximately 200,000 people die annually from infection. […] Despite the availability of a vaccine against rotavirus, it continues to result in more than 200,000 deaths worldwide per year. […] Rotavirus is a double-stranded ribonucleic acid virus, named for its classic wheel-shaped appearance on electron microscopy. Transmission of rotavirus primarily occurs through the fecal-oral route. Additionally, the viral spread can occur through contaminated hands, fomites, and, rarely, food and water. […] Since the advent of rotavirus vaccines, norovirus has exceeded rotavirus as the leading cause of acute viral gastroenteritis in high-income countries. In low-income countries and globally, rotavirus infections are the number one cause of acute viral gastroenteritis in children. […] Approximately 500,000 children younger than 5 die annually secondary to diarrhea, with rotavirus as the leading cause. It is estimated that 200,000 people die annually secondary to rotavirus infection. Severe dehydration is responsible for death in rotavirus infections.

• #2 Rotavirus – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK558951/

  Rotavirus is the leading cause of acute gastroenteritis in the world. Studies estimate that approximately 200,000 people die annually from infection. […] Despite the availability of a vaccine against rotavirus, it continues to result in more than 200,000 deaths worldwide per year. […] Rotavirus is a double-stranded ribonucleic acid virus, named for its classic wheel-shaped appearance on electron microscopy. Transmission of rotavirus primarily occurs through the fecal-oral route. Additionally, the viral spread can occur through contaminated hands, fomites, and, rarely, food and water. […] Since the advent of rotavirus vaccines, norovirus has exceeded rotavirus as the leading cause of acute viral gastroenteritis in high-income countries. In low-income countries and globally, rotavirus infections are the number one cause of acute viral gastroenteritis in children. […] Approximately 500,000 children younger than 5 die annually secondary to diarrhea, with rotavirus as the leading cause. It is estimated that 200,000 people die annually secondary to rotavirus infection. Severe dehydration is responsible for death in rotavirus infections.

• #3 Rotavirus – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotavirus

  Rotaviruses are the most common cause of diarrhoeal disease among infants and young children. Nearly every child in the world is infected with a rotavirus at least once by the age of five. […] The virus is transmitted by the faecaloral route. It infects and damages the cells that line the small intestine and causes gastroenteritis (which is often called „stomach flu” despite having no relation to influenza). […] In addition to its impact on human health, rotavirus also infects other animals, and is a pathogen of livestock. […] Rotaviral enteritis is usually an easily managed disease of childhood, but among children under 5 years of age rotavirus caused an estimated 151,714 deaths from diarrhoea in 2019. […] The incidence and severity of rotavirus infections has declined significantly in countries that have added rotavirus vaccine to their routine childhood immunisation policies.

• #4 Rotavirus – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/rotavirus/symptoms-causes/syc-20351300

  Rotavirus is present in an infected person’s stool two days before symptoms appear and for up to 10 days after symptoms lessen. The virus spreads easily through hand-to-mouth contact throughout this time even if the infected person doesn’t have symptoms. […] It’s possible to be infected with rotavirus more than once, even if you’ve been vaccinated. However, repeat infections are typically less severe. […] The World Health Organization recommends that all countries give infants a rotavirus vaccine. There are two vaccines available: […] The vaccines are considered safe and effective, and studies show that they prevent thousands of children from developing rotavirus every year. However, rarely, they can cause a part of the intestine to fold back on itself (intussusception), resulting in possibly life-threatening intestinal blockage. […] For children who don’t have a history of intussusception, there is a very small risk that it can develop after the rotavirus vaccine is given. Even so, the benefits of the vaccine far outweigh the risks.

• #5 Rotavirus – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/rotavirus/symptoms-causes/syc-20351300

  Rotavirus is present in an infected person’s stool two days before symptoms appear and for up to 10 days after symptoms lessen. The virus spreads easily through hand-to-mouth contact throughout this time even if the infected person doesn’t have symptoms. […] It’s possible to be infected with rotavirus more than once, even if you’ve been vaccinated. However, repeat infections are typically less severe. […] The World Health Organization recommends that all countries give infants a rotavirus vaccine. There are two vaccines available: […] The vaccines are considered safe and effective, and studies show that they prevent thousands of children from developing rotavirus every year. However, rarely, they can cause a part of the intestine to fold back on itself (intussusception), resulting in possibly life-threatening intestinal blockage. […] For children who don’t have a history of intussusception, there is a very small risk that it can develop after the rotavirus vaccine is given. Even so, the benefits of the vaccine far outweigh the risks.

• #6 Rotavirus – NFID

  https://www.nfid.org/infectious-disease/rotavirus/

  Rotavirus is a highly contagious virus that infects nearly all young children. It is one of the most common causes of severe diarrhea in the US. […] Before there was a rotavirus vaccine, almost all US children were infected with rotavirus before their 5th birthday. […] Since the vaccine was introduced in 2006, rotavirus disease has become less common. […] Most recent rotavirus outbreaks have been related to low vaccination rates, which is why it is important to make sure your child is fully vaccinated. […] Getting your child vaccinated is the best way to help protect against rotavirus disease. […] There are 2 rotavirus vaccines currently licensed for infants in the US.

• #7 Rotavirus – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK558951/

  Rotavirus is the leading cause of acute gastroenteritis in the world. Studies estimate that approximately 200,000 people die annually from infection. […] Despite the availability of a vaccine against rotavirus, it continues to result in more than 200,000 deaths worldwide per year. […] Rotavirus is a double-stranded ribonucleic acid virus, named for its classic wheel-shaped appearance on electron microscopy. Transmission of rotavirus primarily occurs through the fecal-oral route. Additionally, the viral spread can occur through contaminated hands, fomites, and, rarely, food and water. […] Since the advent of rotavirus vaccines, norovirus has exceeded rotavirus as the leading cause of acute viral gastroenteritis in high-income countries. In low-income countries and globally, rotavirus infections are the number one cause of acute viral gastroenteritis in children. […] Approximately 500,000 children younger than 5 die annually secondary to diarrhea, with rotavirus as the leading cause. It is estimated that 200,000 people die annually secondary to rotavirus infection. Severe dehydration is responsible for death in rotavirus infections.

• #8 Rotavirus – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK558951/

  Rotavirus is the leading cause of acute gastroenteritis in the world. Studies estimate that approximately 200,000 people die annually from infection. […] Despite the availability of a vaccine against rotavirus, it continues to result in more than 200,000 deaths worldwide per year. […] Rotavirus is a double-stranded ribonucleic acid virus, named for its classic wheel-shaped appearance on electron microscopy. Transmission of rotavirus primarily occurs through the fecal-oral route. Additionally, the viral spread can occur through contaminated hands, fomites, and, rarely, food and water. […] Since the advent of rotavirus vaccines, norovirus has exceeded rotavirus as the leading cause of acute viral gastroenteritis in high-income countries. In low-income countries and globally, rotavirus infections are the number one cause of acute viral gastroenteritis in children. […] Approximately 500,000 children younger than 5 die annually secondary to diarrhea, with rotavirus as the leading cause. It is estimated that 200,000 people die annually secondary to rotavirus infection. Severe dehydration is responsible for death in rotavirus infections.

• #9

  https://www.healthychildren.org/English/safety-prevention/immunizations/Pages/Rotavirus-Vaccine-What-You-Need-to-Know.aspx

  Rotavirus vaccine can prevent rotavirus disease. […] Rotavirus causes diarrhea, mostly in babies and young children. […] Almost all babies who get rotavirus vaccine will be protected from severe rotavirus diarrhea. […] Before rotavirus vaccine, rotavirus disease was a common and serious health problem for children in the United States. […] There is also a small risk of intussusception from rotavirus vaccination, usually within a week after the first or second vaccine dose. […] This additional risk is estimated to range from about 1 in 20,000 US infants to 1 in 100,000 US infants who get rotavirus vaccine. […] As with any medicine, there is a very remote chance of a vaccine causing a severe allergic reaction, other serious injury, or death.

• #10 Rotavirus: The Disease & Vaccines | Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia

  https://www.chop.edu/vaccine-education-center/vaccine-details/rotavirus-vaccine

  In 2006 and 2008, two new rotavirus vaccines were licensed. […] Natural rotavirus infection has been found to be a possible cause of type 1 diabetes in children. […] The Australian researchers compared the frequency of type 1 diabetes diagnoses in the eight years before and the eight years after rotavirus vaccine was introduced (2007 in that country). […] Without a rotavirus vaccine, approximately 55,000 to 70,000 children born in the United States would be hospitalized with rotavirus each year.

• #11 Rotavirus Vaccine | Vaccine Knowledge Project

  https://vaccineknowledge.ox.ac.uk/rotavirus-vaccine

  The rotavirus vaccine used in the UK is called Rotarix. It gives protection against rotavirus infections that can cause vomiting and severe diarrhoea in infants and children. […] Vaccines for rotavirus, including Rotarix, have been shown in clinical trials to be 90-100% effective in preventing severe rotavirus and 74-85% effective in preventing rotavirus infection of any severity. […] Some studies also suggest a very small, and extremely rare, increased risk of intussusception within 7 days of vaccination (up to 6 cases of intussusception per 100,000 first doses of the vaccine). […] The vaccine contains live human rotavirus that has been weakened (attenuated), so it stimulates the immune system but does not cause disease in healthy people. […] However, it should not be given to people who are clinically immunosuppressed, either due to drug treatment or underlying illness.

• #12 Rotavirus vaccine, live (oral route) – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements/rotavirus-vaccine-live-oral-route/description/drg-20071625

  Rotavirus vaccine live is used to prevent infants and children from getting a rotavirus stomach infection. It works by causing your body to produce its own protection (antibodies) against the virus. […] Rotavirus is a serious infection that causes diarrhea and vomiting. It may also cause severe dehydration in infants and children. […] Safety and efficacy have not been established. […] There is no evidence that this vaccine is safe or effective infants with these conditions. […] There is no evidence that this vaccine is safe or effective in infants with these conditions.

• #13 Rotavirus Vaccine

  https://www.pediatriconcall.com/articles/vaccinology/rotavirus-vaccine/rotavirus-vaccine-introduction

  Both vaccines are highly immunogenic in developed nations with overall effectiveness of 75 -87% against any rotavirus diarrhea and 90-95% against severe RVGE. […] Monovalent rotavirus vaccine in developing countries (South Africa and Malawi) has demonstrated the efficacy of 61.2% (44-73.2%) overall in developing countries. […] The pentavalent vaccine has demonstrated efficacy against severe RVGE at 2 years of 48.3% (22.3-66.1%) in Bangladesh and Vietnam. […] Immunity against rotavirus is complex and involves both B cell (antibody-mediated major) and T cell-mediated (minor). […] The initial rotavirus vaccine was associated with intussusception and was withdrawn from the market because of it. […] Though newer vaccines are not associated with an increased incidence of intussusception but their safety beyond 8 months is not proven due to lack of data hence it is not approved beyond 8 months.

• #14 Rotavirus Vaccine | Vaccine Knowledge Project

  https://vaccineknowledge.ox.ac.uk/rotavirus-vaccine

  The rotavirus vaccine used in the UK is called Rotarix. It gives protection against rotavirus infections that can cause vomiting and severe diarrhoea in infants and children. […] Vaccines for rotavirus, including Rotarix, have been shown in clinical trials to be 90-100% effective in preventing severe rotavirus and 74-85% effective in preventing rotavirus infection of any severity. […] Some studies also suggest a very small, and extremely rare, increased risk of intussusception within 7 days of vaccination (up to 6 cases of intussusception per 100,000 first doses of the vaccine). […] The vaccine contains live human rotavirus that has been weakened (attenuated), so it stimulates the immune system but does not cause disease in healthy people. […] However, it should not be given to people who are clinically immunosuppressed, either due to drug treatment or underlying illness.

• #15 Rotavirus Vaccination | Rotavirus | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/rotavirus/vaccines/index.html

  Two or more doses of rotavirus vaccine are recommended for children by doctors as the best way to protect against rotavirus. […] The best way to protect against rotavirus disease is to get the rotavirus vaccine. […] Vaccinated children are less likely to get sick from rotavirus. […] There are two rotavirus vaccines licensed for use in infants in the United States. […] Rotavirus vaccine can be safely given during the same doctors visit with DTaP vaccine; Hib vaccine; polio vaccine; hepatitis B vaccine; and pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. […] Most infants should get rotavirus vaccine to protect against rotavirus disease. […] Rotavirus vaccine is very safe and is effective at preventing rotavirus. […] Before rotavirus vaccine was used in the United States, each year about 1,900 infants developed intussusception before 1 year of age. […] The risk of intussusception from rotavirus vaccine is about: 1 case in every 20,000 U.S. infants to […] 1 case in every 100,000 U.S. infants. […] Rotavirus causes common symptoms like watery diarrhea and vomiting, especially in children. Protect your child with rotavirus vaccine.

• #16 Rotavirus: The Disease & Vaccines | Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia

  https://www.chop.edu/vaccine-education-center/vaccine-details/rotavirus-vaccine

  The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) approved a rotavirus vaccine for use in all infants in the United States in 2006. […] The first rotavirus vaccine, RotaTeq, is made from a strain of rotavirus that was originally isolated from a calf. […] In 1999, a different rotavirus vaccine, called Rotashield, was removed from the market because it was found to cause a rare form of intestinal blockage (called intussusception), affecting about 1 in 10,000 to 1 in 30,000 children. […] The current rotavirus vaccines have also been found to be rare causes of intestinal blockage (intussusception) affecting about 1 in 100,000 children, usually occurring within a week after getting the first or second dose of vaccine. […] The first rotavirus vaccine, known as RotaShield, was approved for use in 1998; however, less than one year later it was removed from the market because of an increased risk of a rare form of intestinal blockage, called intussusception.

• #17 Rotavirus – Infectious Disease Advisor

  https://www.infectiousdiseaseadvisor.com/ddi/rotavirus/

  The prognosis for rotavirus infection depends on the persons age and what part of the world they live in. Since the introduction of the rotavirus vaccine, the prognosis for rotavirus has been much better, particularly in areas with high vaccine coverage. […] Vaccination against rotavirus is currently the best protection against infection. Four vaccines have been developed for rotavirus: RV5 vaccine (RotaTeq [Merck]); RV1 vaccine (Rotarix [GSK]); ROTAVAC (Bharat Biotech); and Rotasiil (Serum Institute of India). […] The first rotavirus vaccine formulation (RotaShield) was licensed in the US in 1998 but was withdrawn in 1999 because of reports of intussusception. The rotavirus vaccines currently available in the US (RV5 and RV1) have been tested for intussusception. The data do not show an increased risk of intussusception with these vaccines.

• #18 Rotavirus – Infectious Disease Advisor

  https://www.infectiousdiseaseadvisor.com/ddi/rotavirus/

  The prognosis for rotavirus infection depends on the persons age and what part of the world they live in. Since the introduction of the rotavirus vaccine, the prognosis for rotavirus has been much better, particularly in areas with high vaccine coverage. […] Vaccination against rotavirus is currently the best protection against infection. Four vaccines have been developed for rotavirus: RV5 vaccine (RotaTeq [Merck]); RV1 vaccine (Rotarix [GSK]); ROTAVAC (Bharat Biotech); and Rotasiil (Serum Institute of India). […] The first rotavirus vaccine formulation (RotaShield) was licensed in the US in 1998 but was withdrawn in 1999 because of reports of intussusception. The rotavirus vaccines currently available in the US (RV5 and RV1) have been tested for intussusception. The data do not show an increased risk of intussusception with these vaccines.

• #19 Rotavirus Vaccine | Vaccine Knowledge Project

  https://vaccineknowledge.ox.ac.uk/rotavirus-vaccine

  The rotavirus vaccine used in the UK is called Rotarix. It gives protection against rotavirus infections that can cause vomiting and severe diarrhoea in infants and children. […] Vaccines for rotavirus, including Rotarix, have been shown in clinical trials to be 90-100% effective in preventing severe rotavirus and 74-85% effective in preventing rotavirus infection of any severity. […] Some studies also suggest a very small, and extremely rare, increased risk of intussusception within 7 days of vaccination (up to 6 cases of intussusception per 100,000 first doses of the vaccine). […] The vaccine contains live human rotavirus that has been weakened (attenuated), so it stimulates the immune system but does not cause disease in healthy people. […] However, it should not be given to people who are clinically immunosuppressed, either due to drug treatment or underlying illness.

• #20 Rotavirus Vaccine – Infections – Merck Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/infections/immunization/rotavirus-vaccine

  The rotavirus vaccine is a live-virus vaccine that helps protect against gastroenteritis caused by rotavirus, which causes vomiting, diarrhea, and, if symptoms persist, dehydration and organ damage. […] Two formulations of rotavirus virus are available. Both contain live but weakened (attenuated) rotavirus. […] The rotavirus vaccine is part of the routine vaccination schedule recommended for children. […] Certain conditions may affect whether and when people are vaccinated. For example, rotavirus vaccine should not be given to infants who have certain immunodeficiency disorders or who have had intussusception (a condition in which one segment of the intestine slides into another).

• #21 Rotavirus – Infectious Disease Advisor

  https://www.infectiousdiseaseadvisor.com/ddi/rotavirus/

  The prognosis for rotavirus infection depends on the persons age and what part of the world they live in. Since the introduction of the rotavirus vaccine, the prognosis for rotavirus has been much better, particularly in areas with high vaccine coverage. […] Vaccination against rotavirus is currently the best protection against infection. Four vaccines have been developed for rotavirus: RV5 vaccine (RotaTeq [Merck]); RV1 vaccine (Rotarix [GSK]); ROTAVAC (Bharat Biotech); and Rotasiil (Serum Institute of India). […] The first rotavirus vaccine formulation (RotaShield) was licensed in the US in 1998 but was withdrawn in 1999 because of reports of intussusception. The rotavirus vaccines currently available in the US (RV5 and RV1) have been tested for intussusception. The data do not show an increased risk of intussusception with these vaccines.

• #22 Rotavirus: The Disease & Vaccines | Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia

  https://www.chop.edu/vaccine-education-center/vaccine-details/rotavirus-vaccine

  The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) approved a rotavirus vaccine for use in all infants in the United States in 2006. […] The first rotavirus vaccine, RotaTeq, is made from a strain of rotavirus that was originally isolated from a calf. […] In 1999, a different rotavirus vaccine, called Rotashield, was removed from the market because it was found to cause a rare form of intestinal blockage (called intussusception), affecting about 1 in 10,000 to 1 in 30,000 children. […] The current rotavirus vaccines have also been found to be rare causes of intestinal blockage (intussusception) affecting about 1 in 100,000 children, usually occurring within a week after getting the first or second dose of vaccine. […] The first rotavirus vaccine, known as RotaShield, was approved for use in 1998; however, less than one year later it was removed from the market because of an increased risk of a rare form of intestinal blockage, called intussusception.

• #23 Rotavirus: The Disease & Vaccines | Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia

  https://www.chop.edu/vaccine-education-center/vaccine-details/rotavirus-vaccine

  In 2006 and 2008, two new rotavirus vaccines were licensed. […] Natural rotavirus infection has been found to be a possible cause of type 1 diabetes in children. […] The Australian researchers compared the frequency of type 1 diabetes diagnoses in the eight years before and the eight years after rotavirus vaccine was introduced (2007 in that country). […] Without a rotavirus vaccine, approximately 55,000 to 70,000 children born in the United States would be hospitalized with rotavirus each year.

• #24

  https://historyofvaccines.org/diseases/rotavirus/

  Rotavirus is the most common cause of severe diarrhea in children and infants worldwide. […] Several species and subtypes of rotavirus cause disease in humans. […] The first vaccine for rotavirus, RotaShield, was licensed and recommended for routine childhood immunization in 1998. […] Scientists associated the vaccine with a rare intestinal problem called intussusception, a potentially fatal telescoping of part of the bowel. […] No rotavirus vaccine was available until 2006, when the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices recommended routine infant immunization with three doses of the recently licensed RotaTeq vaccine, developed by H. Fred Clark, PhD, Stanley A. Plotkin, MD, and Paul A. Offit, MD. […] The Food and Drug Administration licensed another rotavirus vaccine, Rotarix, for use in the United States in 2008. […] Efforts are being made to make the rotavirus vaccine available in the developing world, where deaths from rotavirus illness are more common.

• #25

  https://historyofvaccines.org/diseases/rotavirus/

  Rotavirus is the most common cause of severe diarrhea in children and infants worldwide. […] Several species and subtypes of rotavirus cause disease in humans. […] The first vaccine for rotavirus, RotaShield, was licensed and recommended for routine childhood immunization in 1998. […] Scientists associated the vaccine with a rare intestinal problem called intussusception, a potentially fatal telescoping of part of the bowel. […] No rotavirus vaccine was available until 2006, when the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices recommended routine infant immunization with three doses of the recently licensed RotaTeq vaccine, developed by H. Fred Clark, PhD, Stanley A. Plotkin, MD, and Paul A. Offit, MD. […] The Food and Drug Administration licensed another rotavirus vaccine, Rotarix, for use in the United States in 2008. […] Efforts are being made to make the rotavirus vaccine available in the developing world, where deaths from rotavirus illness are more common.

• #26

  https://historyofvaccines.org/diseases/rotavirus/

  Rotavirus is the most common cause of severe diarrhea in children and infants worldwide. […] Several species and subtypes of rotavirus cause disease in humans. […] The first vaccine for rotavirus, RotaShield, was licensed and recommended for routine childhood immunization in 1998. […] Scientists associated the vaccine with a rare intestinal problem called intussusception, a potentially fatal telescoping of part of the bowel. […] No rotavirus vaccine was available until 2006, when the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices recommended routine infant immunization with three doses of the recently licensed RotaTeq vaccine, developed by H. Fred Clark, PhD, Stanley A. Plotkin, MD, and Paul A. Offit, MD. […] The Food and Drug Administration licensed another rotavirus vaccine, Rotarix, for use in the United States in 2008. […] Efforts are being made to make the rotavirus vaccine available in the developing world, where deaths from rotavirus illness are more common.

• #27 The control of diarrhea, the case of a rotavirus vaccine

  http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0036-36342020000100001

  In the late 1960s, before the discovery of enteric viruses, an etiologic agent could only be identified in ~20% of children hospitalized with diarrhea. […] The subsequent development and application of sensitive enzyme immunoassays for rotavirus detection in fecal specimens soon led to numerous studies showing the important role of rotavirus in the etiology of severe childhood diarrhea. […] Before the widespread global implementation of rotavirus vaccines, data from sentinel hospital-based surveillance using a standardized protocol in more than 50 countries showed that 36% of hospitalizations for childhood diarrhea were caused by rotavirus. […] Given its important etiologic role, efforts to reduce the burden of severe childhood diarrhea have targeted rotavirus. […] These findings supported the development of attenuated rotavirus vaccines that could induce protective immunity by simulating the effect of natural rotavirus infection. […] In summary, substantial progress has been made in the past decade in the implementation of rotavirus vaccines into childhood immunization programs globally, which is particularly noteworthy given the great uncertainty after the abrupt withdrawal of the first licensed rotavirus vaccine.

• #28 The control of diarrhea, the case of a rotavirus vaccine

  http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0036-36342020000100001

  In the late 1960s, before the discovery of enteric viruses, an etiologic agent could only be identified in ~20% of children hospitalized with diarrhea. […] The subsequent development and application of sensitive enzyme immunoassays for rotavirus detection in fecal specimens soon led to numerous studies showing the important role of rotavirus in the etiology of severe childhood diarrhea. […] Before the widespread global implementation of rotavirus vaccines, data from sentinel hospital-based surveillance using a standardized protocol in more than 50 countries showed that 36% of hospitalizations for childhood diarrhea were caused by rotavirus. […] Given its important etiologic role, efforts to reduce the burden of severe childhood diarrhea have targeted rotavirus. […] These findings supported the development of attenuated rotavirus vaccines that could induce protective immunity by simulating the effect of natural rotavirus infection. […] In summary, substantial progress has been made in the past decade in the implementation of rotavirus vaccines into childhood immunization programs globally, which is particularly noteworthy given the great uncertainty after the abrupt withdrawal of the first licensed rotavirus vaccine.

• #29 Vaccine profiles: Rotavirusverifiedverifiedverifiedverifiedverifiedverifiedverifiedverifiedverifiedverified

  https://www.gavi.org/vaccineswork/routine-vaccines-extraordinary-impact-rotavirus

  Subsequent studies confirmed that this virus was the cause of the severe diarrhoeal illness that was claiming so many children’s lives – but also that once children had been infected, they were protected against future severe rotavirus illness. This discovery sparked hope that rotavirus could be prevented through vaccination. […] In 1983, the first rotavirus vaccine candidate entered clinical trials in human infants. Derived from a rotavirus strain that infects cattle, it proved to be safe and capable of stimulating an immune response that provided significant protection against severe disease in some, but not all, infants. […] The trials were enormous, involving more than 60,000 infants, and demonstrated that these vaccines were both safe and effective, protecting against severe disease or hospitalisation with an efficacy of 85% to 95%.

• #30 The control of diarrhea, the case of a rotavirus vaccine

  http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0036-36342020000100001

  In the late 1960s, before the discovery of enteric viruses, an etiologic agent could only be identified in ~20% of children hospitalized with diarrhea. […] The subsequent development and application of sensitive enzyme immunoassays for rotavirus detection in fecal specimens soon led to numerous studies showing the important role of rotavirus in the etiology of severe childhood diarrhea. […] Before the widespread global implementation of rotavirus vaccines, data from sentinel hospital-based surveillance using a standardized protocol in more than 50 countries showed that 36% of hospitalizations for childhood diarrhea were caused by rotavirus. […] Given its important etiologic role, efforts to reduce the burden of severe childhood diarrhea have targeted rotavirus. […] These findings supported the development of attenuated rotavirus vaccines that could induce protective immunity by simulating the effect of natural rotavirus infection. […] In summary, substantial progress has been made in the past decade in the implementation of rotavirus vaccines into childhood immunization programs globally, which is particularly noteworthy given the great uncertainty after the abrupt withdrawal of the first licensed rotavirus vaccine.

• #31 The control of diarrhea, the case of a rotavirus vaccine

  http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0036-36342020000100001

  In the late 1960s, before the discovery of enteric viruses, an etiologic agent could only be identified in ~20% of children hospitalized with diarrhea. […] The subsequent development and application of sensitive enzyme immunoassays for rotavirus detection in fecal specimens soon led to numerous studies showing the important role of rotavirus in the etiology of severe childhood diarrhea. […] Before the widespread global implementation of rotavirus vaccines, data from sentinel hospital-based surveillance using a standardized protocol in more than 50 countries showed that 36% of hospitalizations for childhood diarrhea were caused by rotavirus. […] Given its important etiologic role, efforts to reduce the burden of severe childhood diarrhea have targeted rotavirus. […] These findings supported the development of attenuated rotavirus vaccines that could induce protective immunity by simulating the effect of natural rotavirus infection. […] In summary, substantial progress has been made in the past decade in the implementation of rotavirus vaccines into childhood immunization programs globally, which is particularly noteworthy given the great uncertainty after the abrupt withdrawal of the first licensed rotavirus vaccine.

• #32 Vaccine profiles: Rotavirusverifiedverifiedverifiedverifiedverifiedverifiedverifiedverifiedverifiedverified

  https://www.gavi.org/vaccineswork/routine-vaccines-extraordinary-impact-rotavirus

  Subsequent studies confirmed that this virus was the cause of the severe diarrhoeal illness that was claiming so many children’s lives – but also that once children had been infected, they were protected against future severe rotavirus illness. This discovery sparked hope that rotavirus could be prevented through vaccination. […] In 1983, the first rotavirus vaccine candidate entered clinical trials in human infants. Derived from a rotavirus strain that infects cattle, it proved to be safe and capable of stimulating an immune response that provided significant protection against severe disease in some, but not all, infants. […] The trials were enormous, involving more than 60,000 infants, and demonstrated that these vaccines were both safe and effective, protecting against severe disease or hospitalisation with an efficacy of 85% to 95%.

• #33 Rotavirus: The Disease & Vaccines | Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia

  https://www.chop.edu/vaccine-education-center/vaccine-details/rotavirus-vaccine

  The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) approved a rotavirus vaccine for use in all infants in the United States in 2006. […] The first rotavirus vaccine, RotaTeq, is made from a strain of rotavirus that was originally isolated from a calf. […] In 1999, a different rotavirus vaccine, called Rotashield, was removed from the market because it was found to cause a rare form of intestinal blockage (called intussusception), affecting about 1 in 10,000 to 1 in 30,000 children. […] The current rotavirus vaccines have also been found to be rare causes of intestinal blockage (intussusception) affecting about 1 in 100,000 children, usually occurring within a week after getting the first or second dose of vaccine. […] The first rotavirus vaccine, known as RotaShield, was approved for use in 1998; however, less than one year later it was removed from the market because of an increased risk of a rare form of intestinal blockage, called intussusception.

• #34

  https://historyofvaccines.org/diseases/rotavirus/

  Rotavirus is the most common cause of severe diarrhea in children and infants worldwide. […] Several species and subtypes of rotavirus cause disease in humans. […] The first vaccine for rotavirus, RotaShield, was licensed and recommended for routine childhood immunization in 1998. […] Scientists associated the vaccine with a rare intestinal problem called intussusception, a potentially fatal telescoping of part of the bowel. […] No rotavirus vaccine was available until 2006, when the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices recommended routine infant immunization with three doses of the recently licensed RotaTeq vaccine, developed by H. Fred Clark, PhD, Stanley A. Plotkin, MD, and Paul A. Offit, MD. […] The Food and Drug Administration licensed another rotavirus vaccine, Rotarix, for use in the United States in 2008. […] Efforts are being made to make the rotavirus vaccine available in the developing world, where deaths from rotavirus illness are more common.

• #35 Rotavirus: The Disease & Vaccines | Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia

  https://www.chop.edu/vaccine-education-center/vaccine-details/rotavirus-vaccine

  The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) approved a rotavirus vaccine for use in all infants in the United States in 2006. […] The first rotavirus vaccine, RotaTeq, is made from a strain of rotavirus that was originally isolated from a calf. […] In 1999, a different rotavirus vaccine, called Rotashield, was removed from the market because it was found to cause a rare form of intestinal blockage (called intussusception), affecting about 1 in 10,000 to 1 in 30,000 children. […] The current rotavirus vaccines have also been found to be rare causes of intestinal blockage (intussusception) affecting about 1 in 100,000 children, usually occurring within a week after getting the first or second dose of vaccine. […] The first rotavirus vaccine, known as RotaShield, was approved for use in 1998; however, less than one year later it was removed from the market because of an increased risk of a rare form of intestinal blockage, called intussusception.

• #36 VIS-Rotavirus Vaccine

  https://www.gdpeds.com/immunizations/Rotavirus-Vaccine-What-You-Need-to-Know-VIS

  Rotavirus vaccine can prevent rotavirus disease. […] Rotavirus commonly causes severe, watery diarrhea, mostly in babies and young children. […] Almost all babies who get rotavirus vaccine will be protected from severe rotavirus diarrhea. […] Another virus called „porcine circovirus” can be found in one brand of rotavirus vaccine (Rotarix). This virus does not infect people, and there is no known safety risk. […] There is also a small risk of intussusception from rotavirus vaccination, usually within a week after the first or second vaccine dose. This additional risk is estimated to range from about 1 in 20,000 U.S. infants to 1 in 100,000 U.S. infants who get rotavirus vaccine. […] As with any medicine, there is a very remote chance of a vaccine causing a severe allergic reaction, other serious injury, or death.

• #37 Diarrheal Etiology and Impact of Coinfections on Rotavirus Vaccine Efficacy Estimates in a Clinical Trial of a Monovalent Human–Bovine (116E) Oral Rotavirus Vaccine, Rotavac, India

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6603264/

  Rotavirus vaccine efficacy (VE) estimates in low-resource settings are lower than in developed countries. […] We detected coinfections in cases of severe rotavirus diarrhea in a rotavirus VE trial to determine whether these negatively impacted rotavirus VE estimates. […] A total of 1507 specimens from 1169 infants were tested for the presence of coinfections. Rotavirus was the leading cause of severe diarrhea even among vaccinated children, followed by adenovirus 40/41, Shigella/enteroinvasive Escherichia coli, norovirus GII, sapovirus, and Cryptosporidium species. […] Using the test-negative design, rotavirus VE against severe rotavirus gastroenteritis increased from 49.3% to 60.6% in the absence of coinfections (difference, 11.3%; 95% confidence interval, 10.3% to 30.2%). […] While rotavirus was the dominant etiology of severe diarrhea even in vaccinated children, a broad range of other etiologies was identified. Accounting for coinfections led to an 11.3% increase in the VE estimate.

• #38 Diarrheal Etiology and Impact of Coinfections on Rotavirus Vaccine Efficacy Estimates in a Clinical Trial of a Monovalent Human–Bovine (116E) Oral Rotavirus Vaccine, Rotavac, India

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6603264/

  Rotavirus vaccine efficacy (VE) estimates in low-resource settings are lower than in developed countries. […] We detected coinfections in cases of severe rotavirus diarrhea in a rotavirus VE trial to determine whether these negatively impacted rotavirus VE estimates. […] A total of 1507 specimens from 1169 infants were tested for the presence of coinfections. Rotavirus was the leading cause of severe diarrhea even among vaccinated children, followed by adenovirus 40/41, Shigella/enteroinvasive Escherichia coli, norovirus GII, sapovirus, and Cryptosporidium species. […] Using the test-negative design, rotavirus VE against severe rotavirus gastroenteritis increased from 49.3% to 60.6% in the absence of coinfections (difference, 11.3%; 95% confidence interval, 10.3% to 30.2%). […] While rotavirus was the dominant etiology of severe diarrhea even in vaccinated children, a broad range of other etiologies was identified. Accounting for coinfections led to an 11.3% increase in the VE estimate.

• #39 Differences of Rotavirus Vaccine Effectiveness by Country: Likely Causes and Contributing Factors

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/6/4/65

  Rotaviruses are a major cause of acute gastroenteritis in infants and young children worldwide and in many other mammalian and avian host species. Since 2006, two live-attenuated rotavirus vaccines, Rotarix and RotaTeq, have been licensed in >100 countries and are applied as part of extended program of vaccination (EPI) schemes of childhood vaccinations. Whereas the vaccines have been highly effective in high-income countries, they were shown to be considerably less potent in low- and middle-income countries. Rotavirus-associated disease was still the cause of death in >200,000 children of <5 years of age worldwide in 2013, and the mortality is concentrated in countries of sub-Saharan Africa and S.E. Asia. Various factors that have been identified or suggested as being involved in the differences of rotavirus vaccine effectiveness are reviewed here. Recognition of these factors will help to achieve gradual worldwide improvement of rotavirus vaccine effectiveness. [...]

• #40 Differences of Rotavirus Vaccine Effectiveness by Country: Likely Causes and Contributing Factors

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/6/4/65

  Rotaviruses are a major cause of acute gastroenteritis in infants and young children worldwide and in many other mammalian and avian host species. Since 2006, two live-attenuated rotavirus vaccines, Rotarix and RotaTeq, have been licensed in >100 countries and are applied as part of extended program of vaccination (EPI) schemes of childhood vaccinations. Whereas the vaccines have been highly effective in high-income countries, they were shown to be considerably less potent in low- and middle-income countries. Rotavirus-associated disease was still the cause of death in >200,000 children of <5 years of age worldwide in 2013, and the mortality is concentrated in countries of sub-Saharan Africa and S.E. Asia. Various factors that have been identified or suggested as being involved in the differences of rotavirus vaccine effectiveness are reviewed here. Recognition of these factors will help to achieve gradual worldwide improvement of rotavirus vaccine effectiveness. [...]

• #41 Diarrheal Etiology and Impact of Coinfections on Rotavirus Vaccine Efficacy Estimates in a Clinical Trial of a Monovalent Human–Bovine (116E) Oral Rotavirus Vaccine, Rotavac, India

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6603264/

  The presence of multiple coinfecting pathogens in diarrheal episodes, and failure to detect them, might be responsible for the lower-than-expected efficacy of rotavirus vaccines reported in clinical trials in settings where such coinfections are common. […] We then calculated VE as above but without including the interaction term, which we interpreted as the VE when the sum attribution to nonrotavirus enteropathogens was zero. […] The 11.3% increase observed in Rotavac efficacy against severe rotavirus gastroenteritis (49.3% to 60.6%) after accounting for coinfections is consistent with the vaccine effectiveness studies mentioned earlier. […] Despite the large sample size, the increase in VE was not statistically significant. This could be a function of the inherently wide CIs associated with a VE calculation. […] However, we would conclude, given the consistency with the above-mentioned studies, that coinfections do have an impact, explaining about 10% of the suboptimal rotavirus VE seen in LMIC settings with high transmission of enteropathogens.

• #42 Diarrheal Etiology and Impact of Coinfections on Rotavirus Vaccine Efficacy Estimates in a Clinical Trial of a Monovalent Human–Bovine (116E) Oral Rotavirus Vaccine, Rotavac, India

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6603264/

  The presence of multiple coinfecting pathogens in diarrheal episodes, and failure to detect them, might be responsible for the lower-than-expected efficacy of rotavirus vaccines reported in clinical trials in settings where such coinfections are common. […] We then calculated VE as above but without including the interaction term, which we interpreted as the VE when the sum attribution to nonrotavirus enteropathogens was zero. […] The 11.3% increase observed in Rotavac efficacy against severe rotavirus gastroenteritis (49.3% to 60.6%) after accounting for coinfections is consistent with the vaccine effectiveness studies mentioned earlier. […] Despite the large sample size, the increase in VE was not statistically significant. This could be a function of the inherently wide CIs associated with a VE calculation. […] However, we would conclude, given the consistency with the above-mentioned studies, that coinfections do have an impact, explaining about 10% of the suboptimal rotavirus VE seen in LMIC settings with high transmission of enteropathogens.

• #43 Diarrheal Etiology and Impact of Coinfections on Rotavirus Vaccine Efficacy Estimates in a Clinical Trial of a Monovalent Human–Bovine (116E) Oral Rotavirus Vaccine, Rotavac, India

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6603264/

  The presence of multiple coinfecting pathogens in diarrheal episodes, and failure to detect them, might be responsible for the lower-than-expected efficacy of rotavirus vaccines reported in clinical trials in settings where such coinfections are common. […] We then calculated VE as above but without including the interaction term, which we interpreted as the VE when the sum attribution to nonrotavirus enteropathogens was zero. […] The 11.3% increase observed in Rotavac efficacy against severe rotavirus gastroenteritis (49.3% to 60.6%) after accounting for coinfections is consistent with the vaccine effectiveness studies mentioned earlier. […] Despite the large sample size, the increase in VE was not statistically significant. This could be a function of the inherently wide CIs associated with a VE calculation. […] However, we would conclude, given the consistency with the above-mentioned studies, that coinfections do have an impact, explaining about 10% of the suboptimal rotavirus VE seen in LMIC settings with high transmission of enteropathogens.

• #44 Differences of Rotavirus Vaccine Effectiveness by Country: Likely Causes and Contributing Factors

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/6/4/65

  Whereas vaccine effectiveness was high in high-income countries with protection rates against severe RV-disease at 80–90%, it was 30–50% lower in low- and middle-income countries, mainly in sub-Saharan Africa and S.E. Asia, where the vaccine is needed most. The reasons for the lower effectiveness of RV vaccination in low-income countries are at present not fully understood. […] […] Malnutrition is associated with dysfunctions of innate and adaptive immunity and therefore is a major factor negatively affecting vaccine efficacy and effectiveness in low- and middle-income countries. Malnutrition has long been recognized as a determinant of adverse patient outcome in hospital. […] […] Zinc deficiency alters immune functions and is known to be a contributing factor to severe diarrhea. Zinc deficiency is a major cause of childhood morbidity and mortality in low-income countries, in particular since it occurs in parallel with deficiencies of other micronutrients and animal proteins. […]

• #45 Differences of Rotavirus Vaccine Effectiveness by Country: Likely Causes and Contributing Factors

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/6/4/65

  Whereas vaccine effectiveness was high in high-income countries with protection rates against severe RV-disease at 80–90%, it was 30–50% lower in low- and middle-income countries, mainly in sub-Saharan Africa and S.E. Asia, where the vaccine is needed most. The reasons for the lower effectiveness of RV vaccination in low-income countries are at present not fully understood. […] […] Malnutrition is associated with dysfunctions of innate and adaptive immunity and therefore is a major factor negatively affecting vaccine efficacy and effectiveness in low- and middle-income countries. Malnutrition has long been recognized as a determinant of adverse patient outcome in hospital. […] […] Zinc deficiency alters immune functions and is known to be a contributing factor to severe diarrhea. Zinc deficiency is a major cause of childhood morbidity and mortality in low-income countries, in particular since it occurs in parallel with deficiencies of other micronutrients and animal proteins. […]

• #46 Differences of Rotavirus Vaccine Effectiveness by Country: Likely Causes and Contributing Factors

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/6/4/65

  Whereas vaccine effectiveness was high in high-income countries with protection rates against severe RV-disease at 80–90%, it was 30–50% lower in low- and middle-income countries, mainly in sub-Saharan Africa and S.E. Asia, where the vaccine is needed most. The reasons for the lower effectiveness of RV vaccination in low-income countries are at present not fully understood. […] […] Malnutrition is associated with dysfunctions of innate and adaptive immunity and therefore is a major factor negatively affecting vaccine efficacy and effectiveness in low- and middle-income countries. Malnutrition has long been recognized as a determinant of adverse patient outcome in hospital. […] […] Zinc deficiency alters immune functions and is known to be a contributing factor to severe diarrhea. Zinc deficiency is a major cause of childhood morbidity and mortality in low-income countries, in particular since it occurs in parallel with deficiencies of other micronutrients and animal proteins. […]

• #47 Differences of Rotavirus Vaccine Effectiveness by Country: Likely Causes and Contributing Factors

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/6/4/65

  Whereas vaccine effectiveness was high in high-income countries with protection rates against severe RV-disease at 80–90%, it was 30–50% lower in low- and middle-income countries, mainly in sub-Saharan Africa and S.E. Asia, where the vaccine is needed most. The reasons for the lower effectiveness of RV vaccination in low-income countries are at present not fully understood. […] […] Malnutrition is associated with dysfunctions of innate and adaptive immunity and therefore is a major factor negatively affecting vaccine efficacy and effectiveness in low- and middle-income countries. Malnutrition has long been recognized as a determinant of adverse patient outcome in hospital. […] […] Zinc deficiency alters immune functions and is known to be a contributing factor to severe diarrhea. Zinc deficiency is a major cause of childhood morbidity and mortality in low-income countries, in particular since it occurs in parallel with deficiencies of other micronutrients and animal proteins. […]

• #48 Differences of Rotavirus Vaccine Effectiveness by Country: Likely Causes and Contributing Factors

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/6/4/65

  Sufficient concentrations of vitamins are vital for appropriate functions of the immune system. In this context, vitamins A and D are of particular importance. Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) is found in 33% of all preschool children globally, but in 44% of them in Africa and 50% in SE Asia. Vitamin A supplementation reduces morbidity and mortality from diarrhea. […] […] The gut microbiota of children in low-income countries are different from those of children in high- and middle-income countries: they are more diverse and more variable over time. The composition of gut microbiota affects the immune system in different ways. […] […] Similar to commensal gut microbiota, other infections can affect the outcome of RV vaccination. […] […] A newborn child’s immune system (both innate and acquired) is immature and develops during infancy and childhood. ‘Intrinsic reduced immunogenicity’ to RV vaccination and natural RV infection is a recognized condition in low-income countries, although it is not very well defined. […]

• #49 Differences of Rotavirus Vaccine Effectiveness by Country: Likely Causes and Contributing Factors

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/6/4/65

  Sufficient concentrations of vitamins are vital for appropriate functions of the immune system. In this context, vitamins A and D are of particular importance. Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) is found in 33% of all preschool children globally, but in 44% of them in Africa and 50% in SE Asia. Vitamin A supplementation reduces morbidity and mortality from diarrhea. […] […] The gut microbiota of children in low-income countries are different from those of children in high- and middle-income countries: they are more diverse and more variable over time. The composition of gut microbiota affects the immune system in different ways. […] […] Similar to commensal gut microbiota, other infections can affect the outcome of RV vaccination. […] […] A newborn child’s immune system (both innate and acquired) is immature and develops during infancy and childhood. ‘Intrinsic reduced immunogenicity’ to RV vaccination and natural RV infection is a recognized condition in low-income countries, although it is not very well defined. […]

• #50 Differences of Rotavirus Vaccine Effectiveness by Country: Likely Causes and Contributing Factors

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/6/4/65

  Sufficient concentrations of vitamins are vital for appropriate functions of the immune system. In this context, vitamins A and D are of particular importance. Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) is found in 33% of all preschool children globally, but in 44% of them in Africa and 50% in SE Asia. Vitamin A supplementation reduces morbidity and mortality from diarrhea. […] […] The gut microbiota of children in low-income countries are different from those of children in high- and middle-income countries: they are more diverse and more variable over time. The composition of gut microbiota affects the immune system in different ways. […] […] Similar to commensal gut microbiota, other infections can affect the outcome of RV vaccination. […] […] A newborn child’s immune system (both innate and acquired) is immature and develops during infancy and childhood. ‘Intrinsic reduced immunogenicity’ to RV vaccination and natural RV infection is a recognized condition in low-income countries, although it is not very well defined. […]

• #51 Differences of Rotavirus Vaccine Effectiveness by Country: Likely Causes and Contributing Factors

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/6/4/65

  Sufficient concentrations of vitamins are vital for appropriate functions of the immune system. In this context, vitamins A and D are of particular importance. Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) is found in 33% of all preschool children globally, but in 44% of them in Africa and 50% in SE Asia. Vitamin A supplementation reduces morbidity and mortality from diarrhea. […] […] The gut microbiota of children in low-income countries are different from those of children in high- and middle-income countries: they are more diverse and more variable over time. The composition of gut microbiota affects the immune system in different ways. […] […] Similar to commensal gut microbiota, other infections can affect the outcome of RV vaccination. […] […] A newborn child’s immune system (both innate and acquired) is immature and develops during infancy and childhood. ‘Intrinsic reduced immunogenicity’ to RV vaccination and natural RV infection is a recognized condition in low-income countries, although it is not very well defined. […]

• #52 Differences of Rotavirus Vaccine Effectiveness by Country: Likely Causes and Contributing Factors

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/6/4/65

  Environmental enteropathy (EE) is characterized by anatomical and functional abnormalities in the small intestine of children living in low-income countries. The response to RV vaccination is decreased in children presenting with biomarkers of EE. […] […] Rotaviruses bind to sialic acid residues or histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) as cellular attachment receptors in a strain-specific manner. The expression of HBGAs is genetically determined and developmentally regulated. Genetic differences of HBGA expression may affect susceptibility of infection by different RV strains and may impact the efficacy of RV vaccination.

• #53 Differences of Rotavirus Vaccine Effectiveness by Country: Likely Causes and Contributing Factors

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/6/4/65

  Environmental enteropathy (EE) is characterized by anatomical and functional abnormalities in the small intestine of children living in low-income countries. The response to RV vaccination is decreased in children presenting with biomarkers of EE. […] […] Rotaviruses bind to sialic acid residues or histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs) as cellular attachment receptors in a strain-specific manner. The expression of HBGAs is genetically determined and developmentally regulated. Genetic differences of HBGA expression may affect susceptibility of infection by different RV strains and may impact the efficacy of RV vaccination.

• #54 Rotavirus – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/rotavirus/symptoms-causes/syc-20351300

  Rotavirus is present in an infected person’s stool two days before symptoms appear and for up to 10 days after symptoms lessen. The virus spreads easily through hand-to-mouth contact throughout this time even if the infected person doesn’t have symptoms. […] It’s possible to be infected with rotavirus more than once, even if you’ve been vaccinated. However, repeat infections are typically less severe. […] The World Health Organization recommends that all countries give infants a rotavirus vaccine. There are two vaccines available: […] The vaccines are considered safe and effective, and studies show that they prevent thousands of children from developing rotavirus every year. However, rarely, they can cause a part of the intestine to fold back on itself (intussusception), resulting in possibly life-threatening intestinal blockage. […] For children who don’t have a history of intussusception, there is a very small risk that it can develop after the rotavirus vaccine is given. Even so, the benefits of the vaccine far outweigh the risks.

• #55 Rotavirus – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/rotavirus/symptoms-causes/syc-20351300

  Rotavirus is present in an infected person’s stool two days before symptoms appear and for up to 10 days after symptoms lessen. The virus spreads easily through hand-to-mouth contact throughout this time even if the infected person doesn’t have symptoms. […] It’s possible to be infected with rotavirus more than once, even if you’ve been vaccinated. However, repeat infections are typically less severe. […] The World Health Organization recommends that all countries give infants a rotavirus vaccine. There are two vaccines available: […] The vaccines are considered safe and effective, and studies show that they prevent thousands of children from developing rotavirus every year. However, rarely, they can cause a part of the intestine to fold back on itself (intussusception), resulting in possibly life-threatening intestinal blockage. […] For children who don’t have a history of intussusception, there is a very small risk that it can develop after the rotavirus vaccine is given. Even so, the benefits of the vaccine far outweigh the risks.

• #56 Rotavirus Vaccination | Rotavirus | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/rotavirus/vaccines/index.html

  Two or more doses of rotavirus vaccine are recommended for children by doctors as the best way to protect against rotavirus. […] The best way to protect against rotavirus disease is to get the rotavirus vaccine. […] Vaccinated children are less likely to get sick from rotavirus. […] There are two rotavirus vaccines licensed for use in infants in the United States. […] Rotavirus vaccine can be safely given during the same doctors visit with DTaP vaccine; Hib vaccine; polio vaccine; hepatitis B vaccine; and pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. […] Most infants should get rotavirus vaccine to protect against rotavirus disease. […] Rotavirus vaccine is very safe and is effective at preventing rotavirus. […] Before rotavirus vaccine was used in the United States, each year about 1,900 infants developed intussusception before 1 year of age. […] The risk of intussusception from rotavirus vaccine is about: 1 case in every 20,000 U.S. infants to […] 1 case in every 100,000 U.S. infants. […] Rotavirus causes common symptoms like watery diarrhea and vomiting, especially in children. Protect your child with rotavirus vaccine.

• #57 Rotavirus Vaccination | Rotavirus | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/rotavirus/vaccines/index.html

  Two or more doses of rotavirus vaccine are recommended for children by doctors as the best way to protect against rotavirus. […] The best way to protect against rotavirus disease is to get the rotavirus vaccine. […] Vaccinated children are less likely to get sick from rotavirus. […] There are two rotavirus vaccines licensed for use in infants in the United States. […] Rotavirus vaccine can be safely given during the same doctors visit with DTaP vaccine; Hib vaccine; polio vaccine; hepatitis B vaccine; and pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. […] Most infants should get rotavirus vaccine to protect against rotavirus disease. […] Rotavirus vaccine is very safe and is effective at preventing rotavirus. […] Before rotavirus vaccine was used in the United States, each year about 1,900 infants developed intussusception before 1 year of age. […] The risk of intussusception from rotavirus vaccine is about: 1 case in every 20,000 U.S. infants to […] 1 case in every 100,000 U.S. infants. […] Rotavirus causes common symptoms like watery diarrhea and vomiting, especially in children. Protect your child with rotavirus vaccine.

• #58 Rotavirus Vaccination | Rotavirus | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/rotavirus/vaccines/index.html

  Two or more doses of rotavirus vaccine are recommended for children by doctors as the best way to protect against rotavirus. […] The best way to protect against rotavirus disease is to get the rotavirus vaccine. […] Vaccinated children are less likely to get sick from rotavirus. […] There are two rotavirus vaccines licensed for use in infants in the United States. […] Rotavirus vaccine can be safely given during the same doctors visit with DTaP vaccine; Hib vaccine; polio vaccine; hepatitis B vaccine; and pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. […] Most infants should get rotavirus vaccine to protect against rotavirus disease. […] Rotavirus vaccine is very safe and is effective at preventing rotavirus. […] Before rotavirus vaccine was used in the United States, each year about 1,900 infants developed intussusception before 1 year of age. […] The risk of intussusception from rotavirus vaccine is about: 1 case in every 20,000 U.S. infants to […] 1 case in every 100,000 U.S. infants. […] Rotavirus causes common symptoms like watery diarrhea and vomiting, especially in children. Protect your child with rotavirus vaccine.

• #59 Rotavirus | The Australian Immunisation Handbook

  https://immunisationhandbook.health.gov.au/contents/vaccine-preventable-diseases/rotavirus

  Before rotavirus vaccines were available, rotavirus infection was the most common cause of severe gastroenteritis in infants and young children. […] Infants and children can be infected with rotavirus several times during their lives. Rotavirus vaccination significantly reduces rotavirus-specific and all-cause hospital presentations for gastroenteritis. […] All infants are recommended to receive a course of oral rotavirus vaccine before they are 6 months old. […] Rotavirus vaccination is associated with an increased risk of intussusception. […] The contraindications to rotavirus vaccines are: anaphylaxis after a previous dose of any rotavirus vaccine, anaphylaxis after any component of a rotavirus vaccine, history of intussusception, congenital abnormality that may predispose to intussusception, severe combined immunodeficiency in infants.

• #60 VIS-Rotavirus Vaccine | Oakhurst Pediatrics | DECATUR, GA

  https://www.oakhurstpediatrics.com/immunizations/Rotavirus-Vaccine-What-You-Need-to-Know-VIS

  Rotavirus vaccine can prevent rotavirus disease. […] Rotavirus commonly causes severe, watery diarrhea, mostly in babies and young children. Vomiting and fever are also common in babies with rotavirus. Children may become dehydrated and need to be hospitalized and can even die. […] Rotavirus vaccine is administered by putting drops in the child’s mouth. Babies should get 2 or 3 doses of rotavirus vaccine, depending on the brand of vaccine used. […] Almost all babies who get rotavirus vaccine will be protected from severe rotavirus diarrhea. […] Another virus called „porcine circovirus” can be found in one brand of rotavirus vaccine (Rotarix). This virus does not infect people, and there is no known safety risk. […] There is also a small risk of intussusception from rotavirus vaccination, usually within a week after the first or second vaccine dose. This additional risk is estimated to range from about 1 in 20,000 U.S. infants to 1 in 100,000 U.S. infants who get rotavirus vaccine. […] As with any medicine, there is a very remote chance of a vaccine causing a severe allergic reaction, other serious injury, or death.

• #61 Rotavirus vaccines: Canadian Immunization Guide – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/publications/healthy-living/canadian-immunization-guide-part-4-active-vaccines/page-19-rotavirus-vaccine.html

  The efficacy of RV vaccines is similar among infants who are breastfed and those who are not; therefore, breastfed infants can receive RV vaccine. […] RV vaccines are contraindicated in infants with SCID; previous history of intussusception; a history of anaphylaxis after previous administration of the vaccine; or proven immediate or anaphylactic hypersensitivity to any component of the vaccine or its container.

• #62 Rotavirus | The Australian Immunisation Handbook

  https://immunisationhandbook.health.gov.au/contents/vaccine-preventable-diseases/rotavirus

  Before rotavirus vaccines were available, rotavirus infection was the most common cause of severe gastroenteritis in infants and young children. […] Infants and children can be infected with rotavirus several times during their lives. Rotavirus vaccination significantly reduces rotavirus-specific and all-cause hospital presentations for gastroenteritis. […] All infants are recommended to receive a course of oral rotavirus vaccine before they are 6 months old. […] Rotavirus vaccination is associated with an increased risk of intussusception. […] The contraindications to rotavirus vaccines are: anaphylaxis after a previous dose of any rotavirus vaccine, anaphylaxis after any component of a rotavirus vaccine, history of intussusception, congenital abnormality that may predispose to intussusception, severe combined immunodeficiency in infants.

• #63 Rotavirus Vaccine | Vaccine Knowledge Project

  https://vaccineknowledge.ox.ac.uk/rotavirus-vaccine

  The rotavirus vaccine should also not be given to babies of mothers that used medication that impacts the immune system (immunosuppressive biological therapy) during their pregnancy because this could influence the infants immune status. […] In the UK, when the rotavirus vaccine was introduced, experts predicted that the vaccine would halve the number of rotavirus cases seen by GPs each year.

• #64 Rotavirus vaccine – what you need to know Information | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/special-topic/rotavirus-vaccine-what-you-need-to-know

  Rotavirus vaccine can prevent rotavirus disease. […] Rotavirus commonly causes severe, watery diarrhea, mostly in babies and young children. Vomiting and fever are also common in babies with rotavirus. […] Almost all babies who get rotavirus vaccine will be protected from severe rotavirus diarrhea. […] There is also a small risk of intussusception from rotavirus vaccination, usually within a week after the first or second vaccine dose. This additional risk is estimated to range from about 1 in 20,000 U.S. infants to 1 in 100,000 U.S. infants who get rotavirus vaccine. […] As with any medicine, there is a very remote chance of a vaccine causing a severe allergic reaction, other serious injury, or death.

• #65 Rotavirus | The Australian Immunisation Handbook

  https://immunisationhandbook.health.gov.au/contents/vaccine-preventable-diseases/rotavirus

  Before rotavirus vaccines were available, rotavirus infection was the most common cause of severe gastroenteritis in infants and young children. […] Infants and children can be infected with rotavirus several times during their lives. Rotavirus vaccination significantly reduces rotavirus-specific and all-cause hospital presentations for gastroenteritis. […] All infants are recommended to receive a course of oral rotavirus vaccine before they are 6 months old. […] Rotavirus vaccination is associated with an increased risk of intussusception. […] The contraindications to rotavirus vaccines are: anaphylaxis after a previous dose of any rotavirus vaccine, anaphylaxis after any component of a rotavirus vaccine, history of intussusception, congenital abnormality that may predispose to intussusception, severe combined immunodeficiency in infants.

• #66 Vaccine profiles: Rotavirusverifiedverifiedverifiedverifiedverifiedverifiedverifiedverifiedverifiedverified

  https://www.gavi.org/vaccineswork/routine-vaccines-extraordinary-impact-rotavirus

  In 2006, these vaccines, known as Rotarix and RotaTeq, were licensed for use in Europe and/or the US and Canada. Both are oral vaccines containing live viral particles that have been weakened, meaning they still trigger an immune response but cannot cause disease. […] According to a recent Cochrane Review, which assessed the efficacy of all four WHO prequalified vaccines, rotavirus vaccines prevent more than 90% of severe cases of rotavirus diarrhoea in countries with low child mortality rates, more than 75% in countries with medium child mortality rates, and 35% to 58% in countries with high child mortality rates. […] Rotavirus vaccine and improved sanitation have dramatically reduced the toll from diarrhoeal illness in recent decades, but too many children still die from the dehydration it causes. The next-generation of rotavirus vaccines may address key barriers to their uptake, and further reduce this toll.

• #67 Rotavirus Vaccine (RV): Schedule and Side Effects

  https://www.webmd.com/children/vaccines/rotavirus-rv-vaccine

  If it’s severe enough, the diarrhea can cause dehydration, and it’s the dehydration that’s responsible for the hospitalizations and deaths associated with this disease. […] Studies of the rotavirus vaccine have shown that it can prevent about 74% of rotavirus infections. […] More importantly, it can prevent approximately 98% of severe infections and 96% of hospitalizations from rotavirus. […] Before being approved, the rotavirus vaccine was tested on more than 70,000 children and found to be safe. […] However, an earlier vaccine, called RotaShield, was removed from the market after being used for two years, because it was found to slightly increase the risk of intussusception — a condition in which the small bowel folds back inside another part of the intestine, causing a bowel obstruction.

• #68 Rotavirus vaccines: Canadian Immunization Guide – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/publications/healthy-living/canadian-immunization-guide-part-4-active-vaccines/page-19-rotavirus-vaccine.html

  In Canada, RV is a common cause of gastroenteritis in children, accounting for 10% to 40% of all childhood gastroenteritis. […] RV vaccine efficacy against RV diarrhea of any severity in developed world settings is 74% to 87 %, and efficacy against severe diarrhea due to RV is 85% to 98%. […] Countries with routine RV immunization programs, such as the United States of America (USA), Australia, Brazil and Mexico have seen reductions in the number of infants and children needing hospitalization or emergency department care for RV disease by about 85%. […] The burden of illness from RV disease in Canada before RV vaccine availability is documented in studies by the Canadian Immunization Monitoring Program, Active (IMPACT). […] In Ontario, when comparing RV-specific gastroenteritis hospitalization in the post-RV vaccine period (August 2011 to March 2013) to the pre-RV vaccine period (January 2003 to July 2006), there was a 75% decrease in hospitalizations.

• #69 Rotavirus vaccines: Canadian Immunization Guide – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/publications/healthy-living/canadian-immunization-guide-part-4-active-vaccines/page-19-rotavirus-vaccine.html

  In Canada, RV is a common cause of gastroenteritis in children, accounting for 10% to 40% of all childhood gastroenteritis. […] RV vaccine efficacy against RV diarrhea of any severity in developed world settings is 74% to 87 %, and efficacy against severe diarrhea due to RV is 85% to 98%. […] Countries with routine RV immunization programs, such as the United States of America (USA), Australia, Brazil and Mexico have seen reductions in the number of infants and children needing hospitalization or emergency department care for RV disease by about 85%. […] The burden of illness from RV disease in Canada before RV vaccine availability is documented in studies by the Canadian Immunization Monitoring Program, Active (IMPACT). […] In Ontario, when comparing RV-specific gastroenteritis hospitalization in the post-RV vaccine period (August 2011 to March 2013) to the pre-RV vaccine period (January 2003 to July 2006), there was a 75% decrease in hospitalizations.

• #70 Rotavirus – Infectious Disease Advisor

  https://www.infectiousdiseaseadvisor.com/ddi/rotavirus/

  Rotavirus is a highly contagious infection that causes diarrhea and vomiting. It is the leading cause of severe diarrhea in infants and young children worldwide. […] The first licensed modern rotavirus vaccine was introduced in 2006. Since then, rates of severe rotavirus infection have decreased, averting approximately 45,000 hospitalizations annually. […] Rotavirus is mainly spread through feces. An individual may become infected by touching contaminated surfaces and then putting their hands in their mouth, consuming contaminated food or water, or not washing their hands after going to the bathroom and then touching their face. […] Some of the risk factors associated with severe illness due to rotavirus include the following: Infants with birth weight less than 5.5 pounds (approximately 2500 grams); Another child younger than age 24 months in the same household; and Immunodeficiency.

• #71 Rotavirus vaccines: Canadian Immunization Guide – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/publications/healthy-living/canadian-immunization-guide-part-4-active-vaccines/page-19-rotavirus-vaccine.html

  In Canada, RV is a common cause of gastroenteritis in children, accounting for 10% to 40% of all childhood gastroenteritis. […] RV vaccine efficacy against RV diarrhea of any severity in developed world settings is 74% to 87 %, and efficacy against severe diarrhea due to RV is 85% to 98%. […] Countries with routine RV immunization programs, such as the United States of America (USA), Australia, Brazil and Mexico have seen reductions in the number of infants and children needing hospitalization or emergency department care for RV disease by about 85%. […] The burden of illness from RV disease in Canada before RV vaccine availability is documented in studies by the Canadian Immunization Monitoring Program, Active (IMPACT). […] In Ontario, when comparing RV-specific gastroenteritis hospitalization in the post-RV vaccine period (August 2011 to March 2013) to the pre-RV vaccine period (January 2003 to July 2006), there was a 75% decrease in hospitalizations.

• #72 Rotavirus | The Australian Immunisation Handbook

  https://immunisationhandbook.health.gov.au/contents/vaccine-preventable-diseases/rotavirus

  Rotavirus vaccines were added to the National Immunisation Program in 2007. Before this, about 10,000 children <5 years of age were hospitalised because of rotavirus each year in Australia. [...] Since 2007, both rotavirus-specific and all-cause hospital presentations for gastroenteritis have reduced by more than 70%.

• #73 Rotavirus: The Disease and The Vaccine

  https://www.hse.ie/eng/health/immunisation/hcpinfo/othervaccines/rotavirus/

  Worldwide, rotaviruses are the commonest cause of community-acquired gastroenteritis in children. […] Approximately 37 percent of childhood diarrhoeal deaths and 3.4 percent of all deaths in children under five are due to rotavirus infection. […] Rotavirus disease is prevented by vaccination. All children born on or after 1 October 2016 are given rotavirus oral vaccine at 2 and 4 months of age. […] With the introduction of rotavirus vaccine to the primary immunisation schedule for all infants born on or after 1st October 2016, the number of cases of rotavirus infection reported in Ireland has fallen from 2305 cases in 2017 to 636 cases in 2018 (72%). […] Rotavirus oral vaccine protects against gastrointestinal diseases caused by rotavirus infection. […] Rotavirus oral vaccine is very effective in preventing rotavirus disease in young infants.

• #74 Rotavirus Vaccine Injury | Law Offices | Vaccine Injury

  https://vaccinelaw.com/vaccine-side-effects/rotavirus-vaccine-injury/

  Rotavirus is a contagious virus that causes nausea and diarrhea, and is the leading cause of severe infectious diarrhea in children. […] The most common injuries associated with rotavirus vaccines are severe allergic reaction and intussusception. […] Intussusception is a serious condition in which part of the intestine slides into an adjacent part of the intestine, which blocks food or fluid from passing through. […] The costs of treating a severe allergic reaction or intussusception caused by the rotavirus vaccine can be substantial.

• #75 Rotavirus Vaccine Injury | Law Offices | Vaccine Injury

  https://vaccinelaw.com/vaccine-side-effects/rotavirus-vaccine-injury/

  Rotavirus is a contagious virus that causes nausea and diarrhea, and is the leading cause of severe infectious diarrhea in children. […] The most common injuries associated with rotavirus vaccines are severe allergic reaction and intussusception. […] Intussusception is a serious condition in which part of the intestine slides into an adjacent part of the intestine, which blocks food or fluid from passing through. […] The costs of treating a severe allergic reaction or intussusception caused by the rotavirus vaccine can be substantial.

• #76 Rotavirus vaccine – what you need to know Information | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/special-topic/rotavirus-vaccine-what-you-need-to-know

  Rotavirus vaccine can prevent rotavirus disease. […] Rotavirus commonly causes severe, watery diarrhea, mostly in babies and young children. Vomiting and fever are also common in babies with rotavirus. […] Almost all babies who get rotavirus vaccine will be protected from severe rotavirus diarrhea. […] There is also a small risk of intussusception from rotavirus vaccination, usually within a week after the first or second vaccine dose. This additional risk is estimated to range from about 1 in 20,000 U.S. infants to 1 in 100,000 U.S. infants who get rotavirus vaccine. […] As with any medicine, there is a very remote chance of a vaccine causing a severe allergic reaction, other serious injury, or death.

• #77 Intussusception: A Very Rare Risk After Rotavirus Vaccination

  https://www.medsafe.govt.nz/profs/PUArticles/September%202018/IntussusceptionRotavirusVaccination.htm

  About 16 in 100,000 children may experience intussusception due to vaccination with rotavirus vaccine. […] Rotavirus vaccine is the only medicine associated with the development of intussusception. A low level risk of 16 excess cases per 100,000 vaccinated infants has been documented in some countries. […] The benefits of rotavirus vaccination continue to outweigh the risks of harm, but the vaccine should not be given to children with a history of intussusception or an uncorrected congenital malformation of the gastrointestinal tract.

• #78 Intussusception Injury: Symptoms, Causes, and Legal Help

  https://www.myvaccinelawyer.com/vaccine-injury-lawyer/resources/vaccine/injury/intussusception/

  Intussusception occurs when the Rotavirus vaccine has an adverse effect on infants. […] The most common vaccine that can trigger Intussusception is the Rotavirus vaccine. […] Studies suggest a causal relationship between the two, pointing at increased gut motility as a result of a mimicked viral infection in many cases of intussusception. […] The National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program (VICP) is paired with the Vaccine Injury Table, which lists vaccines covered by the program and each severe illness associated with every vaccine. […] According to the Table, the appropriate time frame for the first intussusception symptoms or onset manifestation is between 1 and 21 days following the first or second (but not third) dose of the vaccine. […] The benefits of rotavirus vaccination greatly outweigh the risks of not receiving it and contracting the rotavirus infection itself, but infants should not receive the rotavirus vaccine if they have had previous episodes of intussusception, intestinal obstruction, bowel obstruction or have moderate to severe diarrhea or vomiting. […] While rare, there is a documented association between the rotavirus vaccine and intussusception in infants. […] Individuals who suffer vaccine-related injuries, including intussusception, may be eligible for compensation through the National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program (VICP).

• #79 Intussusception Injury: Symptoms, Causes, and Legal Help

  https://www.myvaccinelawyer.com/vaccine-injury-lawyer/resources/vaccine/injury/intussusception/

  Intussusception occurs when the Rotavirus vaccine has an adverse effect on infants. […] The most common vaccine that can trigger Intussusception is the Rotavirus vaccine. […] Studies suggest a causal relationship between the two, pointing at increased gut motility as a result of a mimicked viral infection in many cases of intussusception. […] The National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program (VICP) is paired with the Vaccine Injury Table, which lists vaccines covered by the program and each severe illness associated with every vaccine. […] According to the Table, the appropriate time frame for the first intussusception symptoms or onset manifestation is between 1 and 21 days following the first or second (but not third) dose of the vaccine. […] The benefits of rotavirus vaccination greatly outweigh the risks of not receiving it and contracting the rotavirus infection itself, but infants should not receive the rotavirus vaccine if they have had previous episodes of intussusception, intestinal obstruction, bowel obstruction or have moderate to severe diarrhea or vomiting. […] While rare, there is a documented association between the rotavirus vaccine and intussusception in infants. […] Individuals who suffer vaccine-related injuries, including intussusception, may be eligible for compensation through the National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program (VICP).

• #80 Intussusception: A Very Rare Risk After Rotavirus Vaccination

  https://www.medsafe.govt.nz/profs/PUArticles/September%202018/IntussusceptionRotavirusVaccination.htm

  About 16 in 100,000 children may experience intussusception due to vaccination with rotavirus vaccine. […] Rotavirus vaccine is the only medicine associated with the development of intussusception. A low level risk of 16 excess cases per 100,000 vaccinated infants has been documented in some countries. […] The benefits of rotavirus vaccination continue to outweigh the risks of harm, but the vaccine should not be given to children with a history of intussusception or an uncorrected congenital malformation of the gastrointestinal tract.

• #81 Rotavirus – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/rotavirus/symptoms-causes/syc-20351300

  Rotavirus is present in an infected person’s stool two days before symptoms appear and for up to 10 days after symptoms lessen. The virus spreads easily through hand-to-mouth contact throughout this time even if the infected person doesn’t have symptoms. […] It’s possible to be infected with rotavirus more than once, even if you’ve been vaccinated. However, repeat infections are typically less severe. […] The World Health Organization recommends that all countries give infants a rotavirus vaccine. There are two vaccines available: […] The vaccines are considered safe and effective, and studies show that they prevent thousands of children from developing rotavirus every year. However, rarely, they can cause a part of the intestine to fold back on itself (intussusception), resulting in possibly life-threatening intestinal blockage. […] For children who don’t have a history of intussusception, there is a very small risk that it can develop after the rotavirus vaccine is given. Even so, the benefits of the vaccine far outweigh the risks.

• #82 Does Your Child Really Need the Rotavirus Vaccine?

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/rotavirus-vaccine-8715245

  Data from large surveillance studies of intussusception indicate that for every intussusception hospitalization caused by rotavirus vaccination, the vaccine prevents hundreds to more than 1,000 hospitalizations. […] The first rotavirus vaccine was approved in 1998. […] Despite clinical data from before it was licensed indicating its safety, RotaShield caused a high rate of intussusception in some babies under 12 months old. […] The rotavirus vaccine is advised for all healthy infants, starting at 2 months of age. […] The vaccine is the best way to protect your child from the rotavirus and its severe complications.

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