Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Preeclampsia: Causes, Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Treatment | Scientist.com

  https://app.scientist.com/blog/2023/04/10/preeclampsia-causes-risk-factors-diagnosis-and-treatment

  Preeclampsia is a serious complication during pregnancy that affects 2-8% of all pregnancies globally. It is characterized by high blood pressure and damage to organs, most commonly the liver and kidneys, after 20 weeks of pregnancy. The exact cause of preeclampsia is not fully understood, but it is thought to be related to abnormal placental development and dysfunction. During normal pregnancy, the placenta forms a network of blood vessels that supply nutrients and oxygen to the fetus. In preeclampsia, the placenta fails to form these blood vessels properly, leading to reduced blood flow to the placenta and increased oxidative stress and inflammation. This, in turn, can cause damage to the blood vessels and organs of the mother, leading to the symptoms of preeclampsia. […] Several factors increase the risk of developing preeclampsia, including maternal age (younger than 20 or older than 35), first pregnancy, multiple gestation, obesity, pre existing medical conditions such as hypertension or diabetes and a family history of preeclampsia. Women who have had preeclampsia in a previous pregnancy are at particularly high risk of developing it again in subsequent pregnancies. Certain ethnic groups, such as African Americans and South Asians, are also at increased risk of developing preeclampsia.

• #2 What causes preeclampsia? – Sanford Health News

  https://news.sanfordhealth.org/womens/what-causes-preeclampsia/

  High blood pressure in pregnancy is a common medical problem. However, what causes preeclampsia seems to depend on a variety of factors. Preeclampsia — or extraordinarily high blood pressure combined with protein in the urine — affects 5% to 10% of pregnant women. […] It is not fully known what causes preeclampsia but it can affect the patient’s body in a variety of ways. […] Although specific causes of preeclampsia are unknown, research has developed a variety of theories, including: abnormal placenta implantation into the uterus early in the pregnancy, abnormal blood vessel development, blood clotting defects, blood vessel damage, the mother’s immune system, genetics, and overactive inflammation response.

• #3 What Is Preeclampsia

  https://www.preeclampsia.org/what-is-preeclampsia

  Preeclampsia is persistent high blood pressure that develops during pregnancy or the postpartum period and is often associated with high levels of protein in the urine OR the new development of decreased blood platelets, trouble with the kidneys or liver, fluid in the lungs, or signs of brain trouble such as seizures and/or visual disturbances. […] Preeclampsia is diagnosed by the elevation of the expectant patient’s blood pressure usually after the 20th week of pregnancy and is unique to human pregnancy. […] According to guidelines released by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, the diagnosis of preeclampsia no longer requires the detection of high levels of protein in the urine (proteinuria). […] Evidence shows that problems with the kidneys and liver can occur without signs of protein in the urine.

• #4 Pre-eclampsia | Nature Reviews Disease Primers

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-023-00417-6

  Pre-eclampsia is a life-threatening disease of pregnancy unique to humans and a leading cause of maternal and neonatal morbidity and mortality. […] Despite decades of research, the aetiology of pre-eclampsia, particularly of term and postpartum pre-eclampsia, remains poorly defined. […] A comprehensive review of our understanding of the aetiology of pre-eclampsia that encompasses both preterm and term physiology. […] This publication identified that spiral artery remodelling was impaired in preterm pre-eclampsia. […] Publication demonstrating the importance of sFLT1 in the aetiology of pre-eclampsia.

• #5

  https://newsroom.uw.edu/blog/study-immune-systems-changes-with-preeclampsia

  Doctors dont know what triggers the condition, which causes 70,000 maternal and 500,00 fetal deaths each year globally. […] Currently, no pregnancy screening tests can predict the onset of preeclampsia. […] Currently, no pregnancy screening tests can predict the onset of preeclampsia, nor is there a known way to fully prevent the condition. […] Preeclampsia usually starts after 20 weeks of pregnancy. It can lead to seizure, stroke, preterm birth or even death for the mother and/or fetus. Risk factors for preeclampsia include first pregnancy, a history of preeclampsia, a history of hypertension and chronic kidney disease. […] In addition to causing high blood pressure, the condition can damage the kidneys and liver, among other structures. Preeclampsia and associated complications are serious health problems for women around the world, causing 10 to 15% of all maternal deaths worldwide. In the United States, it affects 5 to 8% of pregnancies and in most cases leads to preterm birth, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

• #6 Pre-eclampsia | Nature Reviews Disease Primers

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-023-00417-6

  Pre-eclampsia is a life-threatening disease of pregnancy unique to humans and a leading cause of maternal and neonatal morbidity and mortality. […] Despite decades of research, the aetiology of pre-eclampsia, particularly of term and postpartum pre-eclampsia, remains poorly defined. […] A comprehensive review of our understanding of the aetiology of pre-eclampsia that encompasses both preterm and term physiology. […] This publication identified that spiral artery remodelling was impaired in preterm pre-eclampsia. […] Publication demonstrating the importance of sFLT1 in the aetiology of pre-eclampsia.

• #7 Cause Of Preeclampsia

  https://www.preeclampsia.org/cause-of-preeclampsia

  Preeclampsia was once called “the disease of theories,” but research efforts this past decade have produced exciting breakthroughs that may bring us closer to causality, improve diagnosis and even prediction, and lead to prevention and/or specific treatments. […] The most plausible theories on the cause of preeclampsia focus on the placenta and describe the disorder in two stages. […] A promising area of recent research involves the role of proteins produced by the placenta that inhibit angiogenesis (the production of new blood vessels). […] Preeclampsia may have multiple causes, and other leads are being investigated, including prostaglandins, digoxin-like molecules, immunological mechanisms, autoantibodies that trigger receptors that lead to vessel constriction (agonistic autoantibodies to the angiotensin-1 receptor), oxidative stress, mitochondrial pathology, the impact of hypertension and prehypertension on endovascular health, and genes sensitive to low-oxygen environments. […] While we are moving closer to historically elusive answers, the true cause of preeclampsia remains unknown.

• #8 The etiology of preeclampsia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8988238/

  A fundamental task in medicine is the understanding of the causes of diseases. Preeclampsia and eclampsia, an enigmatic and elusive disorder, have been labeled the disease of theories. Preeclampsia is one of the great obstetrical syndromes in which multiple and sometimes overlapping pathologic processes activate a common pathway composed of endothelial cell activation, intravascular inflammation, and syncytiotrophoblast stress. This article addresses the potential etiologies, or causal explanations, for preeclampsia. The role of uteroplacental ischemia is well established, based upon a solid body of clinical and experimental evidence. A causal role for microorganisms has gained recognition through the realization that periodontal disease and maternal gut dysbiosis are linked to atherosclerosis, thus possibly to a subset of patients with preeclampsia.

• #9 Preeclampsia: Clinical features and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/preeclampsia-clinical-features-and-diagnosis

  Some autoimmune disorders, such as systemic lupus erythematosus and antiphospholipid syndrome, increase the risk for developing preeclampsia. […] The pathogenesis of preeclampsia likely involves both placental and maternal factors. […] Abnormal development of the placental vasculature early in pregnancy is a key event that results in relative placental underperfusion, hypoxia, ischemia, and oxidative stress, leading to release of antiangiogenic factors into the maternal circulation.

• #10

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/pre-eclampsia/

  Pre-eclampsia is a condition that affects some pregnant women, usually during the second half of pregnancy (from 20 weeks) or soon after their baby is delivered. […] Although the exact cause of pre-eclampsia is not known, it’s thought to occur when there’s a problem with the placenta, the organ that links the baby’s blood supply to the mother’s.

• #11 Preeclampsia: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1476919-overview

  Preeclampsia is part of a spectrum of hypertensive disorders that complicate pregnancy. […] Although each of these disorders can appear in isolation, they are thought of as progressive manifestations of a single process and are believed to share a common etiology. […] The mechanisms by which preeclampsia occurs is not certain, and numerous maternal, paternal, and fetal factors have been implicated in its development. The factors considered to be the most important include the following: Maternal immunologic intolerance, Abnormal placental implantation, Genetic, nutritional, and environmental factors, Cardiovascular and inflammatory changes. […] Immunologic factors have long been considered to be key players in preeclampsia. One important component is a poorly understood dysregulation of maternal tolerance to paternally derived placental and fetal antigens.

• #12 The etiology of preeclampsia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8988238/

  Particular etiological factors, such as the breakdown of maternal-fetal immune tolerance, thought to account for the excess of preeclampsia in primipaternity and egg donation may operate, in part, through uteroplacental ischemia, while another, such as placental aging, may operate largely through syncytiotrophoblast stress. This article also examines the nature of the association between gestational diabetes mellitus and maternal obesity in preeclampsia. The various roles of autoimmunity, fetal diseases, and endocrine disorders are also discussed. A greater understanding of the etiologic factors of preeclampsia is essential to improve treatment and prevention. […] Multiple etiologies implicated in preeclampsia. Uteroplacental ischemia, maternal infection and inflammation (eg periodontal disease, urinary tract infection, COVID-19), maternal intestinal dysbiosis, maternal obesity, sleep disorders, hydatidiform mole, fetal diseases (eg hydrops fetalis, viral infection, Trisomy 13, and unique complications of multiple gestation), autoimmune disorders, placental aging, breakdown of maternal-fetal immune tolerance, and endocrine disorders (eg hyperparathyroidism, Cushings syndrome, hyperaldosteronism).

• #13 Preeclampsia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK570611/

  Preeclampsia, with or without severe features, is a disorder of pregnancy associated with new-onset hypertension, usually with accompanying proteinuria, which occurs most often after 20 weeks of gestation and frequently near term. […] The principal mechanism of disease implicated in the etiology of preeclampsia and eclampsia is uteroplacental ischemia. […] While there are numerous supporting research investigations, the following evidence supports, and is the most widely accepted to support, a causal link between placental ischemia and the development of preeclampsia: experimentally induced ischemia in several animal models leads to hypertension and proteinuria […] uterine blood flow is lower in patients with preeclampsia than in pregnant women without preeclampsia […] placental histopathologic lesions indicative of ischemia are frequent and consistent findings in preeclampsia and eclampsia

• #14 Preeclampsia: From Etiopathology to Organ Dysfunction | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/79809

  Preeclampsia is a hypertensive disorder of pregnancy affecting 612% of the population. The proposed etiologies for preeclampsia are abnormal placentation, immunological intolerance, endothelial damage, and genetic inheritance. […] The exact cause of initiation and progress of the disease process is not known, with placenta being the focus in pathogenesis. Following theories have been proposed to explain mechanics causing preeclampsia. Abnormal placentation with failure of trophoblast invasion of uterine vessels. Immunological intolerance between maternal, paternal (placental), and fetal tissues. Vascular endothelial damage. Genetic-inherited predisposition and polygenic disorders. […] In preeclampsia, endovascular cytotrophoblast invasion may be incomplete and only the decidual vessels undergo change, while the deeper myometrial arterioles do not lose their endothelial lining and musculoelastic tissue, resulting in narrowing of maternal spiral arterioles, thus impairing placental blood flow and remaining hyperresponsive to vasomotor stimuli.

• #15 Preeclampsia: From Etiopathology to Organ Dysfunction | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/79809

  Preeclampsia is a hypertensive disorder of pregnancy affecting 612% of the population. The proposed etiologies for preeclampsia are abnormal placentation, immunological intolerance, endothelial damage, and genetic inheritance. […] The exact cause of initiation and progress of the disease process is not known, with placenta being the focus in pathogenesis. Following theories have been proposed to explain mechanics causing preeclampsia. Abnormal placentation with failure of trophoblast invasion of uterine vessels. Immunological intolerance between maternal, paternal (placental), and fetal tissues. Vascular endothelial damage. Genetic-inherited predisposition and polygenic disorders. […] In preeclampsia, endovascular cytotrophoblast invasion may be incomplete and only the decidual vessels undergo change, while the deeper myometrial arterioles do not lose their endothelial lining and musculoelastic tissue, resulting in narrowing of maternal spiral arterioles, thus impairing placental blood flow and remaining hyperresponsive to vasomotor stimuli.

• #16

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/pre-eclampsia/causes/

  Pre-eclampsia is thought to be caused by the placenta not developing properly due to a problem with the blood vessels supplying it. The exact cause isn’t fully understood. […] In pre-eclampsia, the placenta doesn’t get enough blood. This could be because the placenta didn’t develop properly as it was forming during the first half of the pregnancy. […] If the blood vessels don’t fully transform, it’s likely that the placenta won’t develop properly because it won’t get enough nutrients. This may lead to pre-eclampsia. […] It’s likely that inherited changes in your genes have some sort of role, as the condition often runs in families. But this only explains some cases.

• #17 Preeclampsia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK570611/

  failure of physiologic transformation of the spiral arteries and atherosis are typical features of preeclampsia […] the pulsatility index of the uterine artery (a parameter to assess resistance to flow) is higher in patients with preeclampsia than in women with unaffected pregnancies. […] Although there is a certain consensus on this proposed main etiology, further research aims to clarify this primary mechanism of uteroplacental ischemia implicated in PIH and preeclampsia.

• #18 Oxidative stress-induced impairment of trophoblast function causes preeclampsia through the unfolded protein response pathway | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-97799-y

  Preeclampsia (PE) is a pregnancy-specific disorder, characterized by hypertension and proteinuria. […] The etiology of PE is still enigmatic. Multiple factors are known to contribute to this condition, such as poor placentation, improper trophoblast invasion leading to endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress, altered local and systemic immune regulation. […] The pathophysiology of PE initiates in early pregnancy when there are deficient maternal spiral artery remodeling and insufficient placental perfusion due to inadequate or defective placentation. This gives rise to placental ischemic reperfusion injury resulting in oxidative stress and generation of reactive oxygen species, thereby contributing to the clinical manifestations of PE. […] Oxidative stress can pose various threats to cells, such as DNA damage, cell cycle arrest, senescence, oncogenic transformation and proliferation.

• #19 Modern concepts of etiology, pathogenesis and risk factors for preeclampsia – Abramova – Journal of obstetrics and women’s diseases

  https://journals.eco-vector.com/jowd/article/view/77046

  Preeclampsia is a serious complication of pregnancy and complicates its course in 2-8% of all cases. […] Of particular interest is the study of the molecular mechanisms of etiopathogenesis and risk factors for preeclampsia, which, unfortunately, are currently poorly studied and understood, thus dictating the need for further study of this complication of pregnancy. This article discusses the current understanding of the etiology, pathogenesis and risk factors for preeclampsia. […] The mechanisms of PE occurrence are extensively studied worldwide, and 30 hypotheses for the development of this pregnancy complication were reported, most of which placentation disorders are the most significant. […] Early-onset was noted in 12% of PE cases and is associated with extensive placental lesions and a higher risk of maternal and fetal complications. A trigger factor for early PE is a placentation impairment at the initial gestational stages.

• #20 Cause Of Preeclampsia

  https://www.preeclampsia.org/cause-of-preeclampsia

  Preeclampsia was once called “the disease of theories,” but research efforts this past decade have produced exciting breakthroughs that may bring us closer to causality, improve diagnosis and even prediction, and lead to prevention and/or specific treatments. […] The most plausible theories on the cause of preeclampsia focus on the placenta and describe the disorder in two stages. […] A promising area of recent research involves the role of proteins produced by the placenta that inhibit angiogenesis (the production of new blood vessels). […] Preeclampsia may have multiple causes, and other leads are being investigated, including prostaglandins, digoxin-like molecules, immunological mechanisms, autoantibodies that trigger receptors that lead to vessel constriction (agonistic autoantibodies to the angiotensin-1 receptor), oxidative stress, mitochondrial pathology, the impact of hypertension and prehypertension on endovascular health, and genes sensitive to low-oxygen environments. […] While we are moving closer to historically elusive answers, the true cause of preeclampsia remains unknown.

• #21 Preeclampsia: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1476919-overview

  Placental implantation with abnormal trophoblastic invasion of uterine vessels is a major cause of hypertension associated with preeclampsia syndrome. […] The primary cause for the failure of these invasive cytotrophoblasts to undergo pseudovascularization and invade maternal blood vessels is not clear. However, immunologic and genetic factors have been proposed. […] Data show that an imbalance of proangiogenic and antiangiogenic factors produced by the placenta may play a major role in mediating endothelial dysfunction. […] Preeclampsia has been shown to involve multiple genes. Over 100 maternal and paternal genes have been studied for their association with preeclampsia, including those known to play a role in vascular diseases, BP regulation, diabetes, and immunologic functions. […] Other substances that have been proposed, but not proven, to contribute to preeclampsia include tumor necrosis factor, interleukins, various lipid molecules, and syncytial knots.

• #22 Pre-eclampsia | Nature Reviews Disease Primers

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41572-023-00417-6

  Pre-eclampsia is a life-threatening disease of pregnancy unique to humans and a leading cause of maternal and neonatal morbidity and mortality. […] Despite decades of research, the aetiology of pre-eclampsia, particularly of term and postpartum pre-eclampsia, remains poorly defined. […] A comprehensive review of our understanding of the aetiology of pre-eclampsia that encompasses both preterm and term physiology. […] This publication identified that spiral artery remodelling was impaired in preterm pre-eclampsia. […] Publication demonstrating the importance of sFLT1 in the aetiology of pre-eclampsia.

• #23 Pre-eclampsia | Endocrine Conditions

  https://www.yourhormones.info/endocrine-conditions/pre-eclampsia/

  Pre-eclampsia is a medical condition that occurs in around 5% of all pregnancies. […] The cause of pre-eclampsia is unknown, but studies support a number of possible theories. […] The mother having an immune response to the placenta in her womb. […] The blood vessels in the mothers womb (that take blood to the placenta) may not widen enough to allow essential oxygen and nutrients to reach the developing baby. […] Studies have shown that the levels of growth factors that normally promote healthy blood vessel formation and maintenance, including placental growth factor and vascular endothelial growth factor, are reduced in women who develop pre-eclampsia. […] Another theory is that pre-existing autoimmune conditions may worsen or trigger the changes in the womb that lead to the development of pre-eclampsia. […] It is likely that there are multiple causes of pre-eclampsia, which vary among individuals, but result in the similar set of symptoms that characterise this condition.

• #24 What Causes Preeclampsia? – Doctors ExplainMediBot AI – Healthcare AssistantQuantum Radio Player

  https://doctorsexplain.net/what-causes-preeclampsia/

  Preeclampsia is a complex hypertensive disorder that complicates approximately 2–8% of pregnancies globally. […] The pathogenesis of preeclampsia is multifaceted, involving genetic predispositions, immunological factors, endothelial dysfunction, and aberrant placental development. […] The etiology of preeclampsia has been the subject of extensive research; however, no single causative pathway has been identified. […] Recent advancements in genomics, immunology, and pharmacology have shed light on potential triggers and biological mechanisms. […] One of the most widely recognized theories suggests that preeclampsia arises due to abnormal placentation. […] Research by Roberts and Hubel (2022) highlights the role of hypoxic conditions in the placenta that trigger a cascade of pro-inflammatory and anti-angiogenic factors, contributing to maternal endothelial dysfunction.

• #25 Preeclampsia: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1476919-overview

  Preeclampsia is part of a spectrum of hypertensive disorders that complicate pregnancy. […] Although each of these disorders can appear in isolation, they are thought of as progressive manifestations of a single process and are believed to share a common etiology. […] The mechanisms by which preeclampsia occurs is not certain, and numerous maternal, paternal, and fetal factors have been implicated in its development. The factors considered to be the most important include the following: Maternal immunologic intolerance, Abnormal placental implantation, Genetic, nutritional, and environmental factors, Cardiovascular and inflammatory changes. […] Immunologic factors have long been considered to be key players in preeclampsia. One important component is a poorly understood dysregulation of maternal tolerance to paternally derived placental and fetal antigens.

• #26 Preeclampsia: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1476919-overview

  Preeclampsia is part of a spectrum of hypertensive disorders that complicate pregnancy. […] Although each of these disorders can appear in isolation, they are thought of as progressive manifestations of a single process and are believed to share a common etiology. […] The mechanisms by which preeclampsia occurs is not certain, and numerous maternal, paternal, and fetal factors have been implicated in its development. The factors considered to be the most important include the following: Maternal immunologic intolerance, Abnormal placental implantation, Genetic, nutritional, and environmental factors, Cardiovascular and inflammatory changes. […] Immunologic factors have long been considered to be key players in preeclampsia. One important component is a poorly understood dysregulation of maternal tolerance to paternally derived placental and fetal antigens.

• #27 What Causes Preeclampsia? – Doctors ExplainMediBot AI – Healthcare AssistantQuantum Radio Player

  https://doctorsexplain.net/what-causes-preeclampsia/

  Genetic studies, such as those by Triche et al. (2021), indicate that specific polymorphisms in genes related to the angiotensinogen and renin-angiotensin systems may predispose individuals to preeclampsia. […] The immunological theory proposes that preeclampsia results from an imbalance between maternal immune tolerance and alloreactivity to paternal antigens. […] According to studies by Redman and Sargent (2023), an insufficient adaptation of maternal immune cells—such as regulatory T cells (Tregs)—to fetal antigens may lead to systemic inflammation. […] Preeclampsia remains a condition of significant clinical importance, with a multifactorial etiology involving genetic, immunological, and environmental factors.

• #28 What Causes Preeclampsia: Preeclampsia Diagnosis and Symptoms | Comprehensive OB/GYN of the Palm Beaches

  https://www.toplinemd.com/comprehensive-obgyn-palm-beaches/what-causes-preeclampsia-preeclampsia-diagnosis-and-symptoms/

  Immune System Dysfunction: Some researchers suggest that preeclampsia may result from the body’s immune response to the placenta. An abnormal immune response could cause inflammation and damage to blood vessels. […] Genetic Factors: There may be a genetic component to preeclampsia. Women with a family history of preeclampsia may be at a higher risk of developing the condition. Certain genetic variations may make some individuals more susceptible to preeclampsia. […] First Pregnancy: Preeclampsia is more common in first pregnancies, suggesting that the maternal immune system’s reaction to the placenta may play a role. The risk tends to decrease in subsequent pregnancies. […] Multiple Pregnancies: Carrying twins, triplets, or more can increase the risk of preeclampsia, likely because of the increased demands on the placenta.

• #29 Preeclampsia: Pathophysiology and the Maternal-Fetal Risk

  https://clinmedjournals.org/articles/jhm/journal-of-hypertension-and-management-jhm-3-024.php?jid=jhm

  Preeclampsia complicates about 5% of all pregnancies worldwide and is one of the leading causes of maternal and fetal morbidity and even mortality. […] The exact pathophysiology of preeclampsia remains unknown. However, there are several theories that have been put forth that may explain most of the abnormalities seen in this disease process. […] Preeclampsia is primarily a disease of the placenta as it may be encountered in molar pregnancies. One of the most accepted theories in preeclampsia revolves around abnormal placentation. […] Preeclampsia tends to affect the first pregnancy (naïve to the paternal/fetal antigens) and repeat exposure to paternal/fetal antigens tends to lower the risk of the disease. […] Signs of inflammation are seen in normal pregnancies at term, but these changes are exaggerated in women with preeclampsia.

• #30 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/Pre-eclampsia-Causes.aspx

  A gap of more than 10 years between two pregnancies […] A history of preeclampsia in previous pregnancies […] Women with a first degree female relative such as a mother or sister who has had preeclampsia are at a greater risk of this condition […] Women carrying more than one baby in a single pregnancy are at a greater risk of preeclampsia […] Women who are obese or have had other conditions such as kidney disease, diabetes or high blood pressure since before pregnancy are at an increased risk […] An imbalance between the blood coagulants prostacyclin and thromboxane […] Other factors include pollution, exposure to harmful chemicals and vitamin deficiencies.

• #31 The etiology of preeclampsia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8988238/

  A hydatidiform mole, a gestational trophoblastic disease characterized by abnormal proliferation of trophoblast and hydropic changes of the chorionic villi, is associated with preeclampsia and sometimes presents before 20 weeks of gestation. […] Preeclampsia is not traditionally considered an autoimmune disorder. However, a role for autoimmune mechanisms of disease has been investigated for several decades, given that patients with a systemic autoimmune disease, such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) or antiphospholipid syndrome (APS), were at an increased risk for preeclampsia. […] An association among several endocrine disorders and preeclampsia has been reported, yet the evidence for causality is the weakest among those reviewed in this article.

• #32 Cause Of Preeclampsia

  https://www.preeclampsia.org/cause-of-preeclampsia

  Preeclampsia was once called “the disease of theories,” but research efforts this past decade have produced exciting breakthroughs that may bring us closer to causality, improve diagnosis and even prediction, and lead to prevention and/or specific treatments. […] The most plausible theories on the cause of preeclampsia focus on the placenta and describe the disorder in two stages. […] A promising area of recent research involves the role of proteins produced by the placenta that inhibit angiogenesis (the production of new blood vessels). […] Preeclampsia may have multiple causes, and other leads are being investigated, including prostaglandins, digoxin-like molecules, immunological mechanisms, autoantibodies that trigger receptors that lead to vessel constriction (agonistic autoantibodies to the angiotensin-1 receptor), oxidative stress, mitochondrial pathology, the impact of hypertension and prehypertension on endovascular health, and genes sensitive to low-oxygen environments. […] While we are moving closer to historically elusive answers, the true cause of preeclampsia remains unknown.

• #33

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/pre-eclampsia/causes/

  Pre-eclampsia is thought to be caused by the placenta not developing properly due to a problem with the blood vessels supplying it. The exact cause isn’t fully understood. […] In pre-eclampsia, the placenta doesn’t get enough blood. This could be because the placenta didn’t develop properly as it was forming during the first half of the pregnancy. […] If the blood vessels don’t fully transform, it’s likely that the placenta won’t develop properly because it won’t get enough nutrients. This may lead to pre-eclampsia. […] It’s likely that inherited changes in your genes have some sort of role, as the condition often runs in families. But this only explains some cases.

• #34 Preeclampsia And Eclampsia – Harvard Health

  https://www.health.harvard.edu/a_to_z/preeclampsia-and-eclampsia-a-to-z

  The following conditions increase the chance that a woman will develop preeclampsia: chronic (long-lasting) high blood pressure, obesity, diabetes, kidney disease, being under 15 years old or over 35 years old, being a woman’s first pregnancy, having had preeclampsia in a previous pregnancy, multiple gestations: twins, triplets, or a greater number of multiples, certain autoimmune conditions, including antiphospholipid antibody syndrome and some autoimmune arthritis conditions, African American or Hispanic ethnicity, having a sister, mother, or daughter who had preeclampsia or high blood pressure during pregnancy, having a male partner whose previous partner had preeclampsia, having a male partner with whom you were sexually active for only a short length of time prior to becoming pregnant.

• #35 Preeclampsia: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1476919-overview

  Placental implantation with abnormal trophoblastic invasion of uterine vessels is a major cause of hypertension associated with preeclampsia syndrome. […] The primary cause for the failure of these invasive cytotrophoblasts to undergo pseudovascularization and invade maternal blood vessels is not clear. However, immunologic and genetic factors have been proposed. […] Data show that an imbalance of proangiogenic and antiangiogenic factors produced by the placenta may play a major role in mediating endothelial dysfunction. […] Preeclampsia has been shown to involve multiple genes. Over 100 maternal and paternal genes have been studied for their association with preeclampsia, including those known to play a role in vascular diseases, BP regulation, diabetes, and immunologic functions. […] Other substances that have been proposed, but not proven, to contribute to preeclampsia include tumor necrosis factor, interleukins, various lipid molecules, and syncytial knots.

• #36 Pre-eclampsia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-eclampsia

  Abnormal chromosome 19 microRNA cluster (C19MC) impairs extravillus trophoblast cell invasion to the spiral arteries, causing high resistance, low blood flow, and low nutrient supply to the fetus. […] Despite a lack of knowledge on specific causal mechanisms of pre-eclampsia, there is strong evidence to suggest it results from both environmental and heritable factors. […] The onset of pre-eclampsia is thought to be caused by several complex interactions between genetics and environmental factors. […] The irregular expression of these factors is thought to be controlled by multiple loci on different chromosomes. […] One known effector of pre-eclampsia is the fetal locus FLT1. […] Beyond fetal loci, there have been some maternal loci identified as effectors of pre-eclampsia. […] While the current understanding suggests that maternal alleles are the main hereditary cause of pre-eclampsia, paternal loci have also been implicated.

• #37 Modern concepts of etiology, pathogenesis and risk factors for preeclampsia – Abramova – Journal of obstetrics and women’s diseases

  https://journals.eco-vector.com/jowd/article/view/77046

  Not only hypoxia has a pathogenic effect, but also systematically repeated episodes of ischemia and reperfusion, which are accompanied by increased reactive oxygen species production, thereby creating a favorable environment for oxidative stress development. […] Evidence on the involvement of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system in PE pathogenesis has been obtained. […] Immune maladjustment of the mothers body also contributes to PE development. […] One of the components of the pathogenesis of PE is the deregulation of the complement system, which is most often associated with the presence of mutations in genes that control the biosynthesis of complement activation regulators. […] The main component of the arterial hypertension pathophysiology in PE is the biologically imbalanced active substances produced by endothelial cells, which are involved in vascular tone regulation.

• #38 What Causes Preeclampsia? – Doctors ExplainMediBot AI – Healthcare AssistantQuantum Radio Player

  https://doctorsexplain.net/what-causes-preeclampsia/

  Genetic studies, such as those by Triche et al. (2021), indicate that specific polymorphisms in genes related to the angiotensinogen and renin-angiotensin systems may predispose individuals to preeclampsia. […] The immunological theory proposes that preeclampsia results from an imbalance between maternal immune tolerance and alloreactivity to paternal antigens. […] According to studies by Redman and Sargent (2023), an insufficient adaptation of maternal immune cells—such as regulatory T cells (Tregs)—to fetal antigens may lead to systemic inflammation. […] Preeclampsia remains a condition of significant clinical importance, with a multifactorial etiology involving genetic, immunological, and environmental factors.

• #39 Pre-eclampsia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-eclampsia

  Abnormal chromosome 19 microRNA cluster (C19MC) impairs extravillus trophoblast cell invasion to the spiral arteries, causing high resistance, low blood flow, and low nutrient supply to the fetus. […] Despite a lack of knowledge on specific causal mechanisms of pre-eclampsia, there is strong evidence to suggest it results from both environmental and heritable factors. […] The onset of pre-eclampsia is thought to be caused by several complex interactions between genetics and environmental factors. […] The irregular expression of these factors is thought to be controlled by multiple loci on different chromosomes. […] One known effector of pre-eclampsia is the fetal locus FLT1. […] Beyond fetal loci, there have been some maternal loci identified as effectors of pre-eclampsia. […] While the current understanding suggests that maternal alleles are the main hereditary cause of pre-eclampsia, paternal loci have also been implicated.

• #40 Pre-eclampsia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-eclampsia

  Abnormal chromosome 19 microRNA cluster (C19MC) impairs extravillus trophoblast cell invasion to the spiral arteries, causing high resistance, low blood flow, and low nutrient supply to the fetus. […] Despite a lack of knowledge on specific causal mechanisms of pre-eclampsia, there is strong evidence to suggest it results from both environmental and heritable factors. […] The onset of pre-eclampsia is thought to be caused by several complex interactions between genetics and environmental factors. […] The irregular expression of these factors is thought to be controlled by multiple loci on different chromosomes. […] One known effector of pre-eclampsia is the fetal locus FLT1. […] Beyond fetal loci, there have been some maternal loci identified as effectors of pre-eclampsia. […] While the current understanding suggests that maternal alleles are the main hereditary cause of pre-eclampsia, paternal loci have also been implicated.

• #41 The etiology of preeclampsia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8988238/

  The principal mechanism of disease implicated in the etiology of preeclampsia and eclampsia is uteroplacental ischemia. […] The role of placental ischemia in the pathogenesis of preeclampsia is now well established. […] The first in vivo evidence indicating that women with preeclampsia had decreased maternal-placental blood flow was reported by McClure Browne and Veall, who described the injection of radioactive sodium into the choriodecidual space of women with a normal pregnancy and in those affected by preeclampsia. […] Maternal infection has been implicated in the etiology for preeclampsia and eclampsia since the beginning of the 20th century. […] The best evidence to support a relationship between microorganisms and preeclampsia derives from studies of periodontal disease, which increases the risk of developing this pregnancy-related syndrome.

• #42 The etiology of preeclampsia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8988238/

  The principal mechanism of disease implicated in the etiology of preeclampsia and eclampsia is uteroplacental ischemia. […] The role of placental ischemia in the pathogenesis of preeclampsia is now well established. […] The first in vivo evidence indicating that women with preeclampsia had decreased maternal-placental blood flow was reported by McClure Browne and Veall, who described the injection of radioactive sodium into the choriodecidual space of women with a normal pregnancy and in those affected by preeclampsia. […] Maternal infection has been implicated in the etiology for preeclampsia and eclampsia since the beginning of the 20th century. […] The best evidence to support a relationship between microorganisms and preeclampsia derives from studies of periodontal disease, which increases the risk of developing this pregnancy-related syndrome.

• #43 The etiology of preeclampsia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8988238/

  The principal mechanism of disease implicated in the etiology of preeclampsia and eclampsia is uteroplacental ischemia. […] The role of placental ischemia in the pathogenesis of preeclampsia is now well established. […] The first in vivo evidence indicating that women with preeclampsia had decreased maternal-placental blood flow was reported by McClure Browne and Veall, who described the injection of radioactive sodium into the choriodecidual space of women with a normal pregnancy and in those affected by preeclampsia. […] Maternal infection has been implicated in the etiology for preeclampsia and eclampsia since the beginning of the 20th century. […] The best evidence to support a relationship between microorganisms and preeclampsia derives from studies of periodontal disease, which increases the risk of developing this pregnancy-related syndrome.

• #44 The etiology of preeclampsia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8988238/

  The relationship between microbial colonization of the maternal urinary tract and preeclampsia has also been reported. […] A recent meta-analysis demonstrated that SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy is associated with a significant increase in the odds of developing preeclampsia. […] Gestational diabetes mellitus is an independent risk factor for preeclampsia, after adjusting for confounders. […] Obesity, defined by a body mass index (BMI) of 30.0 kg/m2 or more, is strongly associated with preeclampsia. […] The term metabolic syndrome refers to a cluster of metabolic abnormalities that includes central obesity, insulin resistance, atherogenic dyslipidemia, and hypertension. […] Sleep-disordered breathing, a term encompassing obstructive sleep apnea, snoring, periodic episodes of hypoxia, central apnea, and sleep hypopnea, during pregnancy is a risk factor of preeclampsia.

• #45 The etiology of preeclampsia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8988238/

  The relationship between microbial colonization of the maternal urinary tract and preeclampsia has also been reported. […] A recent meta-analysis demonstrated that SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy is associated with a significant increase in the odds of developing preeclampsia. […] Gestational diabetes mellitus is an independent risk factor for preeclampsia, after adjusting for confounders. […] Obesity, defined by a body mass index (BMI) of 30.0 kg/m2 or more, is strongly associated with preeclampsia. […] The term metabolic syndrome refers to a cluster of metabolic abnormalities that includes central obesity, insulin resistance, atherogenic dyslipidemia, and hypertension. […] Sleep-disordered breathing, a term encompassing obstructive sleep apnea, snoring, periodic episodes of hypoxia, central apnea, and sleep hypopnea, during pregnancy is a risk factor of preeclampsia.

• #46 The etiology of preeclampsia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8988238/

  Particular etiological factors, such as the breakdown of maternal-fetal immune tolerance, thought to account for the excess of preeclampsia in primipaternity and egg donation may operate, in part, through uteroplacental ischemia, while another, such as placental aging, may operate largely through syncytiotrophoblast stress. This article also examines the nature of the association between gestational diabetes mellitus and maternal obesity in preeclampsia. The various roles of autoimmunity, fetal diseases, and endocrine disorders are also discussed. A greater understanding of the etiologic factors of preeclampsia is essential to improve treatment and prevention. […] Multiple etiologies implicated in preeclampsia. Uteroplacental ischemia, maternal infection and inflammation (eg periodontal disease, urinary tract infection, COVID-19), maternal intestinal dysbiosis, maternal obesity, sleep disorders, hydatidiform mole, fetal diseases (eg hydrops fetalis, viral infection, Trisomy 13, and unique complications of multiple gestation), autoimmune disorders, placental aging, breakdown of maternal-fetal immune tolerance, and endocrine disorders (eg hyperparathyroidism, Cushings syndrome, hyperaldosteronism).

• #47 The etiology of preeclampsia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8988238/

  The relationship between microbial colonization of the maternal urinary tract and preeclampsia has also been reported. […] A recent meta-analysis demonstrated that SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy is associated with a significant increase in the odds of developing preeclampsia. […] Gestational diabetes mellitus is an independent risk factor for preeclampsia, after adjusting for confounders. […] Obesity, defined by a body mass index (BMI) of 30.0 kg/m2 or more, is strongly associated with preeclampsia. […] The term metabolic syndrome refers to a cluster of metabolic abnormalities that includes central obesity, insulin resistance, atherogenic dyslipidemia, and hypertension. […] Sleep-disordered breathing, a term encompassing obstructive sleep apnea, snoring, periodic episodes of hypoxia, central apnea, and sleep hypopnea, during pregnancy is a risk factor of preeclampsia.

• #48 The etiology of preeclampsia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8988238/

  The relationship between microbial colonization of the maternal urinary tract and preeclampsia has also been reported. […] A recent meta-analysis demonstrated that SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy is associated with a significant increase in the odds of developing preeclampsia. […] Gestational diabetes mellitus is an independent risk factor for preeclampsia, after adjusting for confounders. […] Obesity, defined by a body mass index (BMI) of 30.0 kg/m2 or more, is strongly associated with preeclampsia. […] The term metabolic syndrome refers to a cluster of metabolic abnormalities that includes central obesity, insulin resistance, atherogenic dyslipidemia, and hypertension. […] Sleep-disordered breathing, a term encompassing obstructive sleep apnea, snoring, periodic episodes of hypoxia, central apnea, and sleep hypopnea, during pregnancy is a risk factor of preeclampsia.

• #49 Preeclampsia: Clinical features and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/preeclampsia-clinical-features-and-diagnosis

  Preeclampsia is a multisystem progressive disorder characterized by the new onset of hypertension and proteinuria or the new onset of hypertension plus significant end-organ dysfunction with or without proteinuria, typically presenting after 20 weeks of gestation or postpartum. […] The pathogenesis involves both abnormal placentation and maternal systemic vascular dysfunction. […] Several subtypes of preeclampsia may exist, with a variety of pathophysiological pathways leading to maternal and fetal mortality and morbidity. […] For this reason, it has been hypothesized that the two phenotypes have different origins and pathophysiologies. […] The severity of preeclampsia in the first pregnancy strongly impacts the risk of developing preeclampsia in the next pregnancy. […] The risk of preeclampsia appears to double with each 5 to 7 kg/m² increase in prepregnancy body mass index.

• #50 Preeclampsia in Pregnancy: Symptoms, Causes &Treatments | Ada

  https://ada.com/conditions/preeclampsia/

  Preeclampsia, also spelled pre-eclampsia and formerly sometimes called toxemia, is a potentially serious condition that affects only pregnant women after the 20th week of pregnancy or shortly after delivery. […] It is not yet known for certain what causes preeclampsia, but it may have something to do with abnormalities of the placental blood supply. […] The cause of preeclampsia is not yet completely understood by doctors. It appears to involve inflammation of maternal blood vessels, particularly those in the kidneys. This may be due to abnormalities in the way that the placental blood supply develops, which can impact the effectiveness of the attachment of the placenta to the uterine wall. […] There is some evidence that preeclampsia and heart disease share some risk factors, namely: endothelial dysfunction, obesity, hypertension, hyperglycemia, insulin resistance, and dyslipidemia.

• #51 The etiology of preeclampsia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8988238/

  The relationship between microbial colonization of the maternal urinary tract and preeclampsia has also been reported. […] A recent meta-analysis demonstrated that SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy is associated with a significant increase in the odds of developing preeclampsia. […] Gestational diabetes mellitus is an independent risk factor for preeclampsia, after adjusting for confounders. […] Obesity, defined by a body mass index (BMI) of 30.0 kg/m2 or more, is strongly associated with preeclampsia. […] The term metabolic syndrome refers to a cluster of metabolic abnormalities that includes central obesity, insulin resistance, atherogenic dyslipidemia, and hypertension. […] Sleep-disordered breathing, a term encompassing obstructive sleep apnea, snoring, periodic episodes of hypoxia, central apnea, and sleep hypopnea, during pregnancy is a risk factor of preeclampsia.

• #52 Preeclampsia in Pregnancy: Symptoms, Causes &Treatments | Ada

  https://ada.com/conditions/preeclampsia/

  Preeclampsia, also spelled pre-eclampsia and formerly sometimes called toxemia, is a potentially serious condition that affects only pregnant women after the 20th week of pregnancy or shortly after delivery. […] It is not yet known for certain what causes preeclampsia, but it may have something to do with abnormalities of the placental blood supply. […] The cause of preeclampsia is not yet completely understood by doctors. It appears to involve inflammation of maternal blood vessels, particularly those in the kidneys. This may be due to abnormalities in the way that the placental blood supply develops, which can impact the effectiveness of the attachment of the placenta to the uterine wall. […] There is some evidence that preeclampsia and heart disease share some risk factors, namely: endothelial dysfunction, obesity, hypertension, hyperglycemia, insulin resistance, and dyslipidemia.

• #53 The etiology of preeclampsia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8988238/

  The relationship between microbial colonization of the maternal urinary tract and preeclampsia has also been reported. […] A recent meta-analysis demonstrated that SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy is associated with a significant increase in the odds of developing preeclampsia. […] Gestational diabetes mellitus is an independent risk factor for preeclampsia, after adjusting for confounders. […] Obesity, defined by a body mass index (BMI) of 30.0 kg/m2 or more, is strongly associated with preeclampsia. […] The term metabolic syndrome refers to a cluster of metabolic abnormalities that includes central obesity, insulin resistance, atherogenic dyslipidemia, and hypertension. […] Sleep-disordered breathing, a term encompassing obstructive sleep apnea, snoring, periodic episodes of hypoxia, central apnea, and sleep hypopnea, during pregnancy is a risk factor of preeclampsia.

• #54 Preeclampsia and Eclampsia – Gynecology and Obstetrics – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/gynecology-and-obstetrics/antenatal-complications/preeclampsia-and-eclampsia

  Etiology of preeclampsia is unknown. […] However, high-risk and moderate-risk factors have been identified. […] High-risk factors include Previous pregnancy with preeclampsia, Multiple gestation, Kidney disorders, Autoimmune disorders, Type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus, Chronic hypertension. […] Moderate-risk factors include First pregnancy, Maternal age 35 years, Prepregnancy body mass index 30, Family history of preeclampsia (in a first-degree relative), Non-Hispanic Black and American Indian or Alaskan Native women, Lower income.

• #55 What Causes Preeclampsia: Preeclampsia Diagnosis and Symptoms | Comprehensive OB/GYN of the Palm Beaches

  https://www.toplinemd.com/comprehensive-obgyn-palm-beaches/what-causes-preeclampsia-preeclampsia-diagnosis-and-symptoms/

  Immune System Dysfunction: Some researchers suggest that preeclampsia may result from the body’s immune response to the placenta. An abnormal immune response could cause inflammation and damage to blood vessels. […] Genetic Factors: There may be a genetic component to preeclampsia. Women with a family history of preeclampsia may be at a higher risk of developing the condition. Certain genetic variations may make some individuals more susceptible to preeclampsia. […] First Pregnancy: Preeclampsia is more common in first pregnancies, suggesting that the maternal immune system’s reaction to the placenta may play a role. The risk tends to decrease in subsequent pregnancies. […] Multiple Pregnancies: Carrying twins, triplets, or more can increase the risk of preeclampsia, likely because of the increased demands on the placenta.

• #56 The etiology of preeclampsia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8988238/

  The relationship between microbial colonization of the maternal urinary tract and preeclampsia has also been reported. […] A recent meta-analysis demonstrated that SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy is associated with a significant increase in the odds of developing preeclampsia. […] Gestational diabetes mellitus is an independent risk factor for preeclampsia, after adjusting for confounders. […] Obesity, defined by a body mass index (BMI) of 30.0 kg/m2 or more, is strongly associated with preeclampsia. […] The term metabolic syndrome refers to a cluster of metabolic abnormalities that includes central obesity, insulin resistance, atherogenic dyslipidemia, and hypertension. […] Sleep-disordered breathing, a term encompassing obstructive sleep apnea, snoring, periodic episodes of hypoxia, central apnea, and sleep hypopnea, during pregnancy is a risk factor of preeclampsia.

• #57 Preeclampsia > Fact Sheets > Yale Medicine

  https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/preeclampsia

  Preeclampsia is a potentially life-threatening form of hypertension that can occur during the second half of pregnancy. […] The exact cause of preeclampsia is unknown. It is likely related to abnormalities in the placental development taking place early in the pregnancy, leading to a lack of the normal dilation (enlargement) of the small arteries in the placenta, and reduced blood flow to the placenta, fetus, and pregnant woman’s organs. […] Certain conditions increase a woman’s risk of developing preeclampsia, such as a personal or family history of preeclampsia, carrying twins or other multiple gestation, chronic hypertension, diabetes, lupus or other autoimmune diseases, kidney disease, sleep apnea, a first pregnancy, being overweight or obese, being over age 35, in-vitro fertilization (IVF), becoming pregnant again after 10 or more years, and previously delivering a low-birthweight baby.

• #58 The etiology of preeclampsia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8988238/

  A hydatidiform mole, a gestational trophoblastic disease characterized by abnormal proliferation of trophoblast and hydropic changes of the chorionic villi, is associated with preeclampsia and sometimes presents before 20 weeks of gestation. […] Preeclampsia is not traditionally considered an autoimmune disorder. However, a role for autoimmune mechanisms of disease has been investigated for several decades, given that patients with a systemic autoimmune disease, such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) or antiphospholipid syndrome (APS), were at an increased risk for preeclampsia. […] An association among several endocrine disorders and preeclampsia has been reported, yet the evidence for causality is the weakest among those reviewed in this article.

• #59 The etiology of preeclampsia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8988238/

  Particular etiological factors, such as the breakdown of maternal-fetal immune tolerance, thought to account for the excess of preeclampsia in primipaternity and egg donation may operate, in part, through uteroplacental ischemia, while another, such as placental aging, may operate largely through syncytiotrophoblast stress. This article also examines the nature of the association between gestational diabetes mellitus and maternal obesity in preeclampsia. The various roles of autoimmunity, fetal diseases, and endocrine disorders are also discussed. A greater understanding of the etiologic factors of preeclampsia is essential to improve treatment and prevention. […] Multiple etiologies implicated in preeclampsia. Uteroplacental ischemia, maternal infection and inflammation (eg periodontal disease, urinary tract infection, COVID-19), maternal intestinal dysbiosis, maternal obesity, sleep disorders, hydatidiform mole, fetal diseases (eg hydrops fetalis, viral infection, Trisomy 13, and unique complications of multiple gestation), autoimmune disorders, placental aging, breakdown of maternal-fetal immune tolerance, and endocrine disorders (eg hyperparathyroidism, Cushings syndrome, hyperaldosteronism).

• #60 The etiology of preeclampsia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8988238/

  Particular etiological factors, such as the breakdown of maternal-fetal immune tolerance, thought to account for the excess of preeclampsia in primipaternity and egg donation may operate, in part, through uteroplacental ischemia, while another, such as placental aging, may operate largely through syncytiotrophoblast stress. This article also examines the nature of the association between gestational diabetes mellitus and maternal obesity in preeclampsia. The various roles of autoimmunity, fetal diseases, and endocrine disorders are also discussed. A greater understanding of the etiologic factors of preeclampsia is essential to improve treatment and prevention. […] Multiple etiologies implicated in preeclampsia. Uteroplacental ischemia, maternal infection and inflammation (eg periodontal disease, urinary tract infection, COVID-19), maternal intestinal dysbiosis, maternal obesity, sleep disorders, hydatidiform mole, fetal diseases (eg hydrops fetalis, viral infection, Trisomy 13, and unique complications of multiple gestation), autoimmune disorders, placental aging, breakdown of maternal-fetal immune tolerance, and endocrine disorders (eg hyperparathyroidism, Cushings syndrome, hyperaldosteronism).

• #61 The etiology of preeclampsia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8988238/

  Particular etiological factors, such as the breakdown of maternal-fetal immune tolerance, thought to account for the excess of preeclampsia in primipaternity and egg donation may operate, in part, through uteroplacental ischemia, while another, such as placental aging, may operate largely through syncytiotrophoblast stress. This article also examines the nature of the association between gestational diabetes mellitus and maternal obesity in preeclampsia. The various roles of autoimmunity, fetal diseases, and endocrine disorders are also discussed. A greater understanding of the etiologic factors of preeclampsia is essential to improve treatment and prevention. […] Multiple etiologies implicated in preeclampsia. Uteroplacental ischemia, maternal infection and inflammation (eg periodontal disease, urinary tract infection, COVID-19), maternal intestinal dysbiosis, maternal obesity, sleep disorders, hydatidiform mole, fetal diseases (eg hydrops fetalis, viral infection, Trisomy 13, and unique complications of multiple gestation), autoimmune disorders, placental aging, breakdown of maternal-fetal immune tolerance, and endocrine disorders (eg hyperparathyroidism, Cushings syndrome, hyperaldosteronism).

• #62 Preeclampsia: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1476919-overview

  Risk factors for preeclampsia include the following: Nulliparity, Multifetal gestations, Preeclampsia in a previous pregnancy, Chronic hypertension, Pregestational diabetes, Gestational diabetes, Thrombophilia, Systemic lupus erythematosus, Prepregnancy body mass index greater than 30, Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome, Maternal age 35 years or older, Kidney disease, Assisted reproductive technology, Obstructive sleep apnea.

• #63 What Causes Preeclampsia: Preeclampsia Diagnosis and Symptoms | Comprehensive OB/GYN of the Palm Beaches

  https://www.toplinemd.com/comprehensive-obgyn-palm-beaches/what-causes-preeclampsia-preeclampsia-diagnosis-and-symptoms/

  Immune System Dysfunction: Some researchers suggest that preeclampsia may result from the body’s immune response to the placenta. An abnormal immune response could cause inflammation and damage to blood vessels. […] Genetic Factors: There may be a genetic component to preeclampsia. Women with a family history of preeclampsia may be at a higher risk of developing the condition. Certain genetic variations may make some individuals more susceptible to preeclampsia. […] First Pregnancy: Preeclampsia is more common in first pregnancies, suggesting that the maternal immune system’s reaction to the placenta may play a role. The risk tends to decrease in subsequent pregnancies. […] Multiple Pregnancies: Carrying twins, triplets, or more can increase the risk of preeclampsia, likely because of the increased demands on the placenta.

• #64 The etiology of preeclampsia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8988238/

  A hydatidiform mole, a gestational trophoblastic disease characterized by abnormal proliferation of trophoblast and hydropic changes of the chorionic villi, is associated with preeclampsia and sometimes presents before 20 weeks of gestation. […] Preeclampsia is not traditionally considered an autoimmune disorder. However, a role for autoimmune mechanisms of disease has been investigated for several decades, given that patients with a systemic autoimmune disease, such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) or antiphospholipid syndrome (APS), were at an increased risk for preeclampsia. […] An association among several endocrine disorders and preeclampsia has been reported, yet the evidence for causality is the weakest among those reviewed in this article.

• #65 The etiology of preeclampsia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8988238/

  A hydatidiform mole, a gestational trophoblastic disease characterized by abnormal proliferation of trophoblast and hydropic changes of the chorionic villi, is associated with preeclampsia and sometimes presents before 20 weeks of gestation. […] Preeclampsia is not traditionally considered an autoimmune disorder. However, a role for autoimmune mechanisms of disease has been investigated for several decades, given that patients with a systemic autoimmune disease, such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) or antiphospholipid syndrome (APS), were at an increased risk for preeclampsia. […] An association among several endocrine disorders and preeclampsia has been reported, yet the evidence for causality is the weakest among those reviewed in this article.

• #66 The etiology of preeclampsia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8988238/

  A hydatidiform mole, a gestational trophoblastic disease characterized by abnormal proliferation of trophoblast and hydropic changes of the chorionic villi, is associated with preeclampsia and sometimes presents before 20 weeks of gestation. […] Preeclampsia is not traditionally considered an autoimmune disorder. However, a role for autoimmune mechanisms of disease has been investigated for several decades, given that patients with a systemic autoimmune disease, such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) or antiphospholipid syndrome (APS), were at an increased risk for preeclampsia. […] An association among several endocrine disorders and preeclampsia has been reported, yet the evidence for causality is the weakest among those reviewed in this article.

• #67 The etiology of preeclampsia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8988238/

  A hydatidiform mole, a gestational trophoblastic disease characterized by abnormal proliferation of trophoblast and hydropic changes of the chorionic villi, is associated with preeclampsia and sometimes presents before 20 weeks of gestation. […] Preeclampsia is not traditionally considered an autoimmune disorder. However, a role for autoimmune mechanisms of disease has been investigated for several decades, given that patients with a systemic autoimmune disease, such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) or antiphospholipid syndrome (APS), were at an increased risk for preeclampsia. […] An association among several endocrine disorders and preeclampsia has been reported, yet the evidence for causality is the weakest among those reviewed in this article.

• #68 Preeclampsia: MedlinePlus Medical EncyclopediaLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000898.htm

  Preeclampsia is high blood pressure and signs of liver or kidney damage that occur in women after the 20th week of pregnancy. […] The exact cause of preeclampsia is unknown. It occurs in 3% to 7% of all pregnancies. The condition is thought to start in the placenta. Factors that may lead to preeclampsia developing include: Autoimmune disorders such as lupus, Blood vessel problems, Your diet, Your genes. […] Risk factors for the condition include: First pregnancy, Past history of preeclampsia, Past history of a growth-impaired baby, Multiple pregnancy (twins or more), Family history of preeclampsia, Obesity, Being older than age 35, Being African American, Being pregnant more than 10 years after a previous pregnancy, History of diabetes, high blood pressure, or kidney disease, History of thyroid disease, IVF pregnancy, especially after a frozen embryo transfer.

• #69 Modern concepts of etiology, pathogenesis and risk factors for preeclampsia – Abramova – Journal of obstetrics and women’s diseases

  https://journals.eco-vector.com/jowd/article/view/77046

  To date, a large number of studies have been conducted that comprise the information about 130 possible PE risk factors, covering a large list of comorbidities, biomarkers, environmental factors, and genetic determinants. […] A hereditary predisposition is significant in PE formation. […] Therefore, as studied in the international and Russian literature, we can conclude that, firstly, despite numerous studies, no consensus was found on the molecular mechanisms of PE etiopathogenesis. Secondly, the key role in the development of this pregnancy complication is attributed to the processes of placentation disturbance, immune maladjustment of the mothers body, endothelial dysfunction, angiogenic imbalance, and others; however, their significance in the formation of early and late PE is considerably different. Thirdly, 130 different risk factors were identified for PE development (family history of PE, DM, CAH, hereditary thrombophilia, etc.), but the available data are often ambiguous and vary depending on the studied population. Thus, the existing contradictions and insufficient consensus of certain biological processes involved in PE development necessitate a further study of this pregnancy complication.

• #70 Preeclampsia: Clinical features and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/preeclampsia-clinical-features-and-diagnosis

  Preeclampsia is a multisystem progressive disorder characterized by the new onset of hypertension and proteinuria or the new onset of hypertension plus significant end-organ dysfunction with or without proteinuria, typically presenting after 20 weeks of gestation or postpartum. […] The pathogenesis involves both abnormal placentation and maternal systemic vascular dysfunction. […] Several subtypes of preeclampsia may exist, with a variety of pathophysiological pathways leading to maternal and fetal mortality and morbidity. […] For this reason, it has been hypothesized that the two phenotypes have different origins and pathophysiologies. […] The severity of preeclampsia in the first pregnancy strongly impacts the risk of developing preeclampsia in the next pregnancy. […] The risk of preeclampsia appears to double with each 5 to 7 kg/m² increase in prepregnancy body mass index.

• #71 Preeclampsia: Pathophysiology and the Maternal-Fetal Risk

  https://clinmedjournals.org/articles/jhm/journal-of-hypertension-and-management-jhm-3-024.php?jid=jhm

  Genetic factors are thought to have a role in getting the disease. […] To summarize, placental hypoxia and ischemia are the ultimate pathways in the pathogenesis of preeclampsia by release of vasoactive factors into the maternal circulation and endothelial cell dysfunction leading to the signs and symptoms of preeclampsia. […] Preeclampsia increases the risk of recurrent disease in a subsequent pregnancy. Approximately 20% of women with preeclampsia will develop pregnancy-related hypertension and 16% will be diagnosed with preeclampsia in subsequent pregnancies. […] Preeclampsia and pregnancy-related hypertensive disorders have been recognized as major risk factors for the development of future cardiovascular disease. […] Preeclampsia is new onset of hypertension along with proteinuria after 20 weeks of gestation which may be associated with multiple organ dysfunctions. The precise etiology of preeclampsia remains known, however, several theories that have been put forth.

• #72 Preeclampsia: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1476919-overview

  Risk factors for preeclampsia include the following: Nulliparity, Multifetal gestations, Preeclampsia in a previous pregnancy, Chronic hypertension, Pregestational diabetes, Gestational diabetes, Thrombophilia, Systemic lupus erythematosus, Prepregnancy body mass index greater than 30, Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome, Maternal age 35 years or older, Kidney disease, Assisted reproductive technology, Obstructive sleep apnea.

• #73 Preeclampsia and Eclampsia – Gynecology and Obstetrics – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/gynecology-and-obstetrics/antenatal-complications/preeclampsia-and-eclampsia

  Etiology of preeclampsia is unknown. […] However, high-risk and moderate-risk factors have been identified. […] High-risk factors include Previous pregnancy with preeclampsia, Multiple gestation, Kidney disorders, Autoimmune disorders, Type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus, Chronic hypertension. […] Moderate-risk factors include First pregnancy, Maternal age 35 years, Prepregnancy body mass index 30, Family history of preeclampsia (in a first-degree relative), Non-Hispanic Black and American Indian or Alaskan Native women, Lower income.

• #74 Pre-eclampsia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-eclampsia

  The cause of preeclampsia is not fully understood. It is likely related factors such as: […] While the exact cause of pre-eclampsia remains unclear, there is strong evidence that a major cause predisposing a susceptible woman to pre-eclampsia is an abnormally implanted placenta. […] The underlying mechanisms are complex and involve abnormal formation of blood vessels in the placenta amongst other factors. […] Those with long-term high blood pressure have a 7 to 8 times higher risk than those without. […] Physiologically, research has linked pre-eclampsia to the following physiologic changes: alterations in the interaction between the maternal immune response and the placenta, placental injury, endothelial cell injury, altered vascular reactivity, oxidative stress, imbalance among vasoactive substances, decreased intravascular volume, and disseminated intravascular coagulation.

• #75 Preeclampsia and Eclampsia – Gynecology and Obstetrics – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/gynecology-and-obstetrics/antenatal-complications/preeclampsia-and-eclampsia

  Etiology of preeclampsia is unknown. […] However, high-risk and moderate-risk factors have been identified. […] High-risk factors include Previous pregnancy with preeclampsia, Multiple gestation, Kidney disorders, Autoimmune disorders, Type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus, Chronic hypertension. […] Moderate-risk factors include First pregnancy, Maternal age 35 years, Prepregnancy body mass index 30, Family history of preeclampsia (in a first-degree relative), Non-Hispanic Black and American Indian or Alaskan Native women, Lower income.

• #76 Preeclampsia and Eclampsia – Gynecology and Obstetrics – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/gynecology-and-obstetrics/antenatal-complications/preeclampsia-and-eclampsia

  Etiology of preeclampsia is unknown. […] However, high-risk and moderate-risk factors have been identified. […] High-risk factors include Previous pregnancy with preeclampsia, Multiple gestation, Kidney disorders, Autoimmune disorders, Type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus, Chronic hypertension. […] Moderate-risk factors include First pregnancy, Maternal age 35 years, Prepregnancy body mass index 30, Family history of preeclampsia (in a first-degree relative), Non-Hispanic Black and American Indian or Alaskan Native women, Lower income.

• #77 Preeclampsia: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1476919-overview

  Risk factors for preeclampsia include the following: Nulliparity, Multifetal gestations, Preeclampsia in a previous pregnancy, Chronic hypertension, Pregestational diabetes, Gestational diabetes, Thrombophilia, Systemic lupus erythematosus, Prepregnancy body mass index greater than 30, Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome, Maternal age 35 years or older, Kidney disease, Assisted reproductive technology, Obstructive sleep apnea.

• #78 Preeclampsia and Eclampsia – Gynecology and Obstetrics – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/gynecology-and-obstetrics/antenatal-complications/preeclampsia-and-eclampsia

  Etiology of preeclampsia is unknown. […] However, high-risk and moderate-risk factors have been identified. […] High-risk factors include Previous pregnancy with preeclampsia, Multiple gestation, Kidney disorders, Autoimmune disorders, Type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus, Chronic hypertension. […] Moderate-risk factors include First pregnancy, Maternal age 35 years, Prepregnancy body mass index 30, Family history of preeclampsia (in a first-degree relative), Non-Hispanic Black and American Indian or Alaskan Native women, Lower income.

• #79 Preeclampsia: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1476919-overview

  Risk factors for preeclampsia include the following: Nulliparity, Multifetal gestations, Preeclampsia in a previous pregnancy, Chronic hypertension, Pregestational diabetes, Gestational diabetes, Thrombophilia, Systemic lupus erythematosus, Prepregnancy body mass index greater than 30, Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome, Maternal age 35 years or older, Kidney disease, Assisted reproductive technology, Obstructive sleep apnea.

• #80 Preeclampsia and Eclampsia – Gynecology and Obstetrics – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/gynecology-and-obstetrics/antenatal-complications/preeclampsia-and-eclampsia

  Etiology of preeclampsia is unknown. […] However, high-risk and moderate-risk factors have been identified. […] High-risk factors include Previous pregnancy with preeclampsia, Multiple gestation, Kidney disorders, Autoimmune disorders, Type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus, Chronic hypertension. […] Moderate-risk factors include First pregnancy, Maternal age 35 years, Prepregnancy body mass index 30, Family history of preeclampsia (in a first-degree relative), Non-Hispanic Black and American Indian or Alaskan Native women, Lower income.

• #81 Preeclampsia: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1476919-overview

  Risk factors for preeclampsia include the following: Nulliparity, Multifetal gestations, Preeclampsia in a previous pregnancy, Chronic hypertension, Pregestational diabetes, Gestational diabetes, Thrombophilia, Systemic lupus erythematosus, Prepregnancy body mass index greater than 30, Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome, Maternal age 35 years or older, Kidney disease, Assisted reproductive technology, Obstructive sleep apnea.

• #82 High Blood Pressure During Pregnancy | High Blood Pressure | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/high-blood-pressure/about/high-blood-pressure-during-pregnancy.html

  Preeclampsia occurs when a woman who previously had normal blood pressure suddenly develops high blood pressure and protein is found in her urine or has other problems after 20 weeks of pregnancy. Women who have chronic hypertension can also get preeclampsia. […] Preeclampsia is one of the leading causes of pregnancy-related death. It occurs in about 2% to 8% of all pregnancies. Some women with preeclampsia can develop seizures. This is called eclampsia, which is a medical emergency. […] You are more at risk for preeclampsia if: This is the first time you have given birth. You had preeclampsia during a previous pregnancy. You have chronic (long-term) high blood pressure, chronic kidney disease, or both. You have a history of thrombophilia (a condition that increases risk of blood clots). You are pregnant with multiple babies (such as twins or triplets). You became pregnant using in vitro fertilization. You have a family history of preeclampsia. You have type 1 or type 2 diabetes. You have obesity. You have lupus (an autoimmune disease). You are older than 40. […] In rare cases, preeclampsia can happen after you have given birth. This is a serious medical condition known as postpartum preeclampsia. It can happen in women without any history of preeclampsia during pregnancy.

• #83 Preeclampsia: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1476919-overview

  Risk factors for preeclampsia include the following: Nulliparity, Multifetal gestations, Preeclampsia in a previous pregnancy, Chronic hypertension, Pregestational diabetes, Gestational diabetes, Thrombophilia, Systemic lupus erythematosus, Prepregnancy body mass index greater than 30, Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome, Maternal age 35 years or older, Kidney disease, Assisted reproductive technology, Obstructive sleep apnea.

• #84 Preeclampsia and Eclampsia – Gynecology and Obstetrics – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/gynecology-and-obstetrics/antenatal-complications/preeclampsia-and-eclampsia

  Etiology of preeclampsia is unknown. […] However, high-risk and moderate-risk factors have been identified. […] High-risk factors include Previous pregnancy with preeclampsia, Multiple gestation, Kidney disorders, Autoimmune disorders, Type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus, Chronic hypertension. […] Moderate-risk factors include First pregnancy, Maternal age 35 years, Prepregnancy body mass index 30, Family history of preeclampsia (in a first-degree relative), Non-Hispanic Black and American Indian or Alaskan Native women, Lower income.

• #85 What Causes Preeclampsia: Preeclampsia Diagnosis and Symptoms | Comprehensive OB/GYN of the Palm Beaches

  https://www.toplinemd.com/comprehensive-obgyn-palm-beaches/what-causes-preeclampsia-preeclampsia-diagnosis-and-symptoms/

  Maternal Age: Women under 20 and over 40 are at a higher risk for developing preeclampsia. […] Preexisting Conditions: If you have preexisting conditions such as high blood pressure, kidney disease, diabetes, or autoimmune disorders like lupus, your risk of developing preeclampsia may be higher. […] Obesity: Obesity is associated with an increased risk of preeclampsia. […] In Vitro Fertilization (IVF): Some studies have suggested a higher incidence of preeclampsia in pregnancies resulting from IVF. The reasons for this association are not entirely clear.

• #86 Preeclampsia and Eclampsia – Gynecology and Obstetrics – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/gynecology-and-obstetrics/antenatal-complications/preeclampsia-and-eclampsia

  Etiology of preeclampsia is unknown. […] However, high-risk and moderate-risk factors have been identified. […] High-risk factors include Previous pregnancy with preeclampsia, Multiple gestation, Kidney disorders, Autoimmune disorders, Type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus, Chronic hypertension. […] Moderate-risk factors include First pregnancy, Maternal age 35 years, Prepregnancy body mass index 30, Family history of preeclampsia (in a first-degree relative), Non-Hispanic Black and American Indian or Alaskan Native women, Lower income.

• #87 Preeclampsia: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1476919-overview

  Risk factors for preeclampsia include the following: Nulliparity, Multifetal gestations, Preeclampsia in a previous pregnancy, Chronic hypertension, Pregestational diabetes, Gestational diabetes, Thrombophilia, Systemic lupus erythematosus, Prepregnancy body mass index greater than 30, Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome, Maternal age 35 years or older, Kidney disease, Assisted reproductive technology, Obstructive sleep apnea.

• #88 Preeclampsia and Eclampsia – Gynecology and Obstetrics – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/gynecology-and-obstetrics/antenatal-complications/preeclampsia-and-eclampsia

  Etiology of preeclampsia is unknown. […] However, high-risk and moderate-risk factors have been identified. […] High-risk factors include Previous pregnancy with preeclampsia, Multiple gestation, Kidney disorders, Autoimmune disorders, Type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus, Chronic hypertension. […] Moderate-risk factors include First pregnancy, Maternal age 35 years, Prepregnancy body mass index 30, Family history of preeclampsia (in a first-degree relative), Non-Hispanic Black and American Indian or Alaskan Native women, Lower income.

• #89 Preeclampsia And Eclampsia – Harvard Health

  https://www.health.harvard.edu/a_to_z/preeclampsia-and-eclampsia-a-to-z

  The following conditions increase the chance that a woman will develop preeclampsia: chronic (long-lasting) high blood pressure, obesity, diabetes, kidney disease, being under 15 years old or over 35 years old, being a woman’s first pregnancy, having had preeclampsia in a previous pregnancy, multiple gestations: twins, triplets, or a greater number of multiples, certain autoimmune conditions, including antiphospholipid antibody syndrome and some autoimmune arthritis conditions, African American or Hispanic ethnicity, having a sister, mother, or daughter who had preeclampsia or high blood pressure during pregnancy, having a male partner whose previous partner had preeclampsia, having a male partner with whom you were sexually active for only a short length of time prior to becoming pregnant.

• #90 Preeclampsia and Eclampsia – Gynecology and Obstetrics – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/gynecology-and-obstetrics/antenatal-complications/preeclampsia-and-eclampsia

  Etiology of preeclampsia is unknown. […] However, high-risk and moderate-risk factors have been identified. […] High-risk factors include Previous pregnancy with preeclampsia, Multiple gestation, Kidney disorders, Autoimmune disorders, Type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus, Chronic hypertension. […] Moderate-risk factors include First pregnancy, Maternal age 35 years, Prepregnancy body mass index 30, Family history of preeclampsia (in a first-degree relative), Non-Hispanic Black and American Indian or Alaskan Native women, Lower income.

• #91 Preeclampsia And Eclampsia – Harvard Health

  https://www.health.harvard.edu/a_to_z/preeclampsia-and-eclampsia-a-to-z

  The following conditions increase the chance that a woman will develop preeclampsia: chronic (long-lasting) high blood pressure, obesity, diabetes, kidney disease, being under 15 years old or over 35 years old, being a woman’s first pregnancy, having had preeclampsia in a previous pregnancy, multiple gestations: twins, triplets, or a greater number of multiples, certain autoimmune conditions, including antiphospholipid antibody syndrome and some autoimmune arthritis conditions, African American or Hispanic ethnicity, having a sister, mother, or daughter who had preeclampsia or high blood pressure during pregnancy, having a male partner whose previous partner had preeclampsia, having a male partner with whom you were sexually active for only a short length of time prior to becoming pregnant.

• #92 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/Pre-eclampsia-Causes.aspx

  A gap of more than 10 years between two pregnancies […] A history of preeclampsia in previous pregnancies […] Women with a first degree female relative such as a mother or sister who has had preeclampsia are at a greater risk of this condition […] Women carrying more than one baby in a single pregnancy are at a greater risk of preeclampsia […] Women who are obese or have had other conditions such as kidney disease, diabetes or high blood pressure since before pregnancy are at an increased risk […] An imbalance between the blood coagulants prostacyclin and thromboxane […] Other factors include pollution, exposure to harmful chemicals and vitamin deficiencies.

• #93 Preeclampsia: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1476919-overview

  Risk factors for preeclampsia include the following: Nulliparity, Multifetal gestations, Preeclampsia in a previous pregnancy, Chronic hypertension, Pregestational diabetes, Gestational diabetes, Thrombophilia, Systemic lupus erythematosus, Prepregnancy body mass index greater than 30, Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome, Maternal age 35 years or older, Kidney disease, Assisted reproductive technology, Obstructive sleep apnea.

• #94 What Causes Preeclampsia: Preeclampsia Diagnosis and Symptoms | Comprehensive OB/GYN of the Palm Beaches

  https://www.toplinemd.com/comprehensive-obgyn-palm-beaches/what-causes-preeclampsia-preeclampsia-diagnosis-and-symptoms/

  Immune System Dysfunction: Some researchers suggest that preeclampsia may result from the body’s immune response to the placenta. An abnormal immune response could cause inflammation and damage to blood vessels. […] Genetic Factors: There may be a genetic component to preeclampsia. Women with a family history of preeclampsia may be at a higher risk of developing the condition. Certain genetic variations may make some individuals more susceptible to preeclampsia. […] First Pregnancy: Preeclampsia is more common in first pregnancies, suggesting that the maternal immune system’s reaction to the placenta may play a role. The risk tends to decrease in subsequent pregnancies. […] Multiple Pregnancies: Carrying twins, triplets, or more can increase the risk of preeclampsia, likely because of the increased demands on the placenta.

• #95 Preeclampsia: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1476919-overview

  Risk factors for preeclampsia include the following: Nulliparity, Multifetal gestations, Preeclampsia in a previous pregnancy, Chronic hypertension, Pregestational diabetes, Gestational diabetes, Thrombophilia, Systemic lupus erythematosus, Prepregnancy body mass index greater than 30, Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome, Maternal age 35 years or older, Kidney disease, Assisted reproductive technology, Obstructive sleep apnea.

• #96 Preeclampsia And Eclampsia – Harvard Health

  https://www.health.harvard.edu/a_to_z/preeclampsia-and-eclampsia-a-to-z

  The following conditions increase the chance that a woman will develop preeclampsia: chronic (long-lasting) high blood pressure, obesity, diabetes, kidney disease, being under 15 years old or over 35 years old, being a woman’s first pregnancy, having had preeclampsia in a previous pregnancy, multiple gestations: twins, triplets, or a greater number of multiples, certain autoimmune conditions, including antiphospholipid antibody syndrome and some autoimmune arthritis conditions, African American or Hispanic ethnicity, having a sister, mother, or daughter who had preeclampsia or high blood pressure during pregnancy, having a male partner whose previous partner had preeclampsia, having a male partner with whom you were sexually active for only a short length of time prior to becoming pregnant.

• #97 Preeclampsia and Eclampsia – Gynecology and Obstetrics – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/gynecology-and-obstetrics/antenatal-complications/preeclampsia-and-eclampsia

  Etiology of preeclampsia is unknown. […] However, high-risk and moderate-risk factors have been identified. […] High-risk factors include Previous pregnancy with preeclampsia, Multiple gestation, Kidney disorders, Autoimmune disorders, Type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus, Chronic hypertension. […] Moderate-risk factors include First pregnancy, Maternal age 35 years, Prepregnancy body mass index 30, Family history of preeclampsia (in a first-degree relative), Non-Hispanic Black and American Indian or Alaskan Native women, Lower income.

• #98 Preeclampsia and Eclampsia – Gynecology and Obstetrics – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/gynecology-and-obstetrics/antenatal-complications/preeclampsia-and-eclampsia

  Etiology of preeclampsia is unknown. […] However, high-risk and moderate-risk factors have been identified. […] High-risk factors include Previous pregnancy with preeclampsia, Multiple gestation, Kidney disorders, Autoimmune disorders, Type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus, Chronic hypertension. […] Moderate-risk factors include First pregnancy, Maternal age 35 years, Prepregnancy body mass index 30, Family history of preeclampsia (in a first-degree relative), Non-Hispanic Black and American Indian or Alaskan Native women, Lower income.

• #99 The etiology of preeclampsia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8988238/

  A fundamental task in medicine is the understanding of the causes of diseases. Preeclampsia and eclampsia, an enigmatic and elusive disorder, have been labeled the disease of theories. Preeclampsia is one of the great obstetrical syndromes in which multiple and sometimes overlapping pathologic processes activate a common pathway composed of endothelial cell activation, intravascular inflammation, and syncytiotrophoblast stress. This article addresses the potential etiologies, or causal explanations, for preeclampsia. The role of uteroplacental ischemia is well established, based upon a solid body of clinical and experimental evidence. A causal role for microorganisms has gained recognition through the realization that periodontal disease and maternal gut dysbiosis are linked to atherosclerosis, thus possibly to a subset of patients with preeclampsia.

• #100 Preeclampsia: Clinical features and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/preeclampsia-clinical-features-and-diagnosis

  Some autoimmune disorders, such as systemic lupus erythematosus and antiphospholipid syndrome, increase the risk for developing preeclampsia. […] The pathogenesis of preeclampsia likely involves both placental and maternal factors. […] Abnormal development of the placental vasculature early in pregnancy is a key event that results in relative placental underperfusion, hypoxia, ischemia, and oxidative stress, leading to release of antiangiogenic factors into the maternal circulation.

• #101 Modern concepts of etiology, pathogenesis and risk factors for preeclampsia – Abramova – Journal of obstetrics and women’s diseases

  https://journals.eco-vector.com/jowd/article/view/77046

  Not only hypoxia has a pathogenic effect, but also systematically repeated episodes of ischemia and reperfusion, which are accompanied by increased reactive oxygen species production, thereby creating a favorable environment for oxidative stress development. […] Evidence on the involvement of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system in PE pathogenesis has been obtained. […] Immune maladjustment of the mothers body also contributes to PE development. […] One of the components of the pathogenesis of PE is the deregulation of the complement system, which is most often associated with the presence of mutations in genes that control the biosynthesis of complement activation regulators. […] The main component of the arterial hypertension pathophysiology in PE is the biologically imbalanced active substances produced by endothelial cells, which are involved in vascular tone regulation.

• #102 Preeclampsia Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment – Cura4U

  https://cura4u.com/conditions/preeclampsia

  There can be local areas of vasospasm which means less blood might reach certain parts of the body. […] For example, reduced blood flow to the kidneys that are particularly susceptible can cause glomerular damage, leading to oliguria, which means an abnormally low amount of urine production, and proteinuria, which means protein in the urine. Usually, the kidneys do a pretty good job of preventing proteinuria, so proteinuria will indicate glomerular damage and is classically seen in preeclampsia. Reduced blood flow to the eyes retina will cause blurred vision, a sensation of seeing flashing lights, and decreased vision. Reduced blood flow to the liver can cause severe liver damage. 10-20% of women with severe eclampsia have cardiovascular disease. […] Increased vascular permeability causes generalized edema. Pulmonary edema and cerebral edema are also seen.

• #103 Modern concepts of etiology, pathogenesis and risk factors for preeclampsia – Abramova – Journal of obstetrics and women’s diseases

  https://journals.eco-vector.com/jowd/article/view/77046

  Not only hypoxia has a pathogenic effect, but also systematically repeated episodes of ischemia and reperfusion, which are accompanied by increased reactive oxygen species production, thereby creating a favorable environment for oxidative stress development. […] Evidence on the involvement of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system in PE pathogenesis has been obtained. […] Immune maladjustment of the mothers body also contributes to PE development. […] One of the components of the pathogenesis of PE is the deregulation of the complement system, which is most often associated with the presence of mutations in genes that control the biosynthesis of complement activation regulators. […] The main component of the arterial hypertension pathophysiology in PE is the biologically imbalanced active substances produced by endothelial cells, which are involved in vascular tone regulation.

• #104 Oxidative stress-induced impairment of trophoblast function causes preeclampsia through the unfolded protein response pathway | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-97799-y

  However, the association between ROS and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress can also be considered as a major driving factor because ER has been recognized as a major center for the coordination of a vast array of cellular responses. […] Prolonged activation of the unfolded protein response (UPR) pathway may lead to apoptosis of trophoblasts during PE. […] Proper placentation is the outcome of trophoblast cells mediated adhesion, invasion, and spiral artery remodeling for adequate placental perfusion, with trophoblast differentiation. […] Improper and inappropriate eCTB invasion during the first half of pregnancy is found to be associated with early-onset preeclampsia due to a reduced blood flow to the placenta. […] Our findings suggest that ROS generated within the trophoblast cells leads to an initiation of a chain of events resulting in altered trophoblast function (invasion and differentiation).

• #105 Oxidative stress-induced impairment of trophoblast function causes preeclampsia through the unfolded protein response pathway | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-97799-y

  However, the association between ROS and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress can also be considered as a major driving factor because ER has been recognized as a major center for the coordination of a vast array of cellular responses. […] Prolonged activation of the unfolded protein response (UPR) pathway may lead to apoptosis of trophoblasts during PE. […] Proper placentation is the outcome of trophoblast cells mediated adhesion, invasion, and spiral artery remodeling for adequate placental perfusion, with trophoblast differentiation. […] Improper and inappropriate eCTB invasion during the first half of pregnancy is found to be associated with early-onset preeclampsia due to a reduced blood flow to the placenta. […] Our findings suggest that ROS generated within the trophoblast cells leads to an initiation of a chain of events resulting in altered trophoblast function (invasion and differentiation).

• #106 Preeclampsia: Toxemia, Causes, Symptoms & Risk Factors

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17952-preeclampsia

  If left untreated, preeclampsia can be potentially fatal to both you and the fetus. It can cause severe kidney and liver damage and interfere with your brain function. […] Preeclampsia can cause HELLP syndrome (hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes and low platelet count). This happens when preeclampsia damages your liver and red blood cells and interferes with blood clotting. […] Preeclampsia typically goes away within days to weeks following delivery.

• #107 Eclampsia: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/253960-overview

  The mechanism(s) responsible for the development of eclampsia remain(s) unclear. Genetic predisposition, immunology, endocrinology, nutrition, abnormal trophoblastic invasion, coagulation abnormalities, vascular endothelial damage, cardiovascular maladaptation, dietary deficiencies or excess, and infection have been proposed as etiologic factors for preeclampsia/eclampsia. […] Imbalanced prostanoid production and increased plasma antiphospholipids have also been implicated in eclampsia. […] In murine models, placental ischemia appears to be associated with an increased susceptibility to seizures and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) inflammation.

• #108 Cause Of Preeclampsia

  https://www.preeclampsia.org/cause-of-preeclampsia

  Preeclampsia was once called “the disease of theories,” but research efforts this past decade have produced exciting breakthroughs that may bring us closer to causality, improve diagnosis and even prediction, and lead to prevention and/or specific treatments. […] The most plausible theories on the cause of preeclampsia focus on the placenta and describe the disorder in two stages. […] A promising area of recent research involves the role of proteins produced by the placenta that inhibit angiogenesis (the production of new blood vessels). […] Preeclampsia may have multiple causes, and other leads are being investigated, including prostaglandins, digoxin-like molecules, immunological mechanisms, autoantibodies that trigger receptors that lead to vessel constriction (agonistic autoantibodies to the angiotensin-1 receptor), oxidative stress, mitochondrial pathology, the impact of hypertension and prehypertension on endovascular health, and genes sensitive to low-oxygen environments. […] While we are moving closer to historically elusive answers, the true cause of preeclampsia remains unknown.

• #109 What Causes Preeclampsia? | Conscious Pregnancy

  https://www.consciouspregnancy.ca/preeclampsiacauses

  Abnormal function of the mother’s immune system may also contribute to the development of preeclampsia. Women with pre-pregnancy chronic inflammatory diseases are at higher risk of developing preeclampsia. […] There is no one single cause of preeclampsia. Preeclampsia is a complex syndrome that scientists hypothesize involves the mother’s placenta, cardiovascular system and immune system.

• #110 Cause Of Preeclampsia

  https://www.preeclampsia.org/cause-of-preeclampsia

  Preeclampsia was once called “the disease of theories,” but research efforts this past decade have produced exciting breakthroughs that may bring us closer to causality, improve diagnosis and even prediction, and lead to prevention and/or specific treatments. […] The most plausible theories on the cause of preeclampsia focus on the placenta and describe the disorder in two stages. […] A promising area of recent research involves the role of proteins produced by the placenta that inhibit angiogenesis (the production of new blood vessels). […] Preeclampsia may have multiple causes, and other leads are being investigated, including prostaglandins, digoxin-like molecules, immunological mechanisms, autoantibodies that trigger receptors that lead to vessel constriction (agonistic autoantibodies to the angiotensin-1 receptor), oxidative stress, mitochondrial pathology, the impact of hypertension and prehypertension on endovascular health, and genes sensitive to low-oxygen environments. […] While we are moving closer to historically elusive answers, the true cause of preeclampsia remains unknown.

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