Listerioza
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Listeria monocytogenes to Gram-dodatnia, fakultatywnie wewnątrzkomórkowa bakteria odpowiedzialna za listeriozę, szeroko rozpowszechniona w środowisku i zdolna do namnażania się w niskich temperaturach, co sprzyja przenoszeniu przez żywność. Patogen wykorzystuje liczne czynniki wirulencji, takie jak internaliny (InlA, InlB), listeriolizynę O (LLO), fosfolipazy (PlcA, PlcB) oraz białko ActA, które umożliwiają inwazję, ucieczkę z fagosomu, namnażanie wewnątrzkomórkowe i rozprzestrzenianie się między komórkami. Ekspresja tych czynników jest regulowana przez PrfA oraz inne regulatory (SigB, Rex, VirR/S), co pozwala na adaptację do warunków środowiskowych i optymalizację patogenności w temperaturze 37°C. Dawka infekcyjna wynosi od 10⁴ do 10⁷ komórek u osób z obniżoną odpornością i powyżej 10⁷ u osób zdrowych. L. monocytogenes przekracza barierę jelitową głównie poprzez mechanizmy zależne od InlA, LAP oraz transcytozę przez komórki M, a następnie rozprzestrzenia się do wątroby, śledziony, OUN i łożyska, wykorzystując m.in. zakażone monocyty jako „konia trojańskiego”.

Patogeneza listeriozy

Listeria monocytogenes jest fakultatywną wewnątrzkomórkową bakterią Gram-dodatnią, która odpowiada za infekcję zwaną listeriozą. Jest to patogen pokarmowy szeroko rozpowszechniony w środowisku, występujący w glebie, wodzie, gnijącej materii roślinnej i u zwierząt. L. monocytogenes charakteryzuje się zdolnością do przetrwania i namnażania się w niskich temperaturach, nawet w warunkach chłodniczych, co czyni ją szczególnie niebezpiecznym patogenem przenoszonym przez żywność.12

Czynniki wirulencji

Wirulencja L. monocytogenes jest związana z licznymi czynnikami, które umożliwiają jej przetrwanie i namnażanie się w komórkach gospodarza. Główne czynniki wirulencji obejmują:

  • Internaliny (InlA, InlB) – białka powierzchniowe, które wiążą się z receptorami komórek nabłonkowych, umożliwiając wniknięcie do komórki gospodarza12
  • Listeriolizyna O (LLO) – toksyna tworząca pory, zależna od cholesterolu, umożliwiająca ucieczkę z fagolizosomu34
  • Fosfolipazy (PlcA, PlcB) – enzymy wspomagające ucieczkę z fagosomu3
  • Białko ActA – odpowiedzialne za polimeryzację aktyny, umożliwiające ruch wewnątrzkomórkowy i rozprzestrzenianie się między komórkami56
  • Listeria adhesion protein (LAP) – umożliwia przyleganie do komórek nabłonka jelitowego78

Ekspresja czynników wirulencji jest ściśle regulowana przez białko regulatorowe PrfA (Positive Regulatory Factor A), którego aktywność jest kontrolowana na poziomie transkrypcyjnym, translacyjnym i potranslacyjnym. PrfA jest kluczowym regulatorem genów wirulencji i jest niezbędny dla patogenności L. monocytogenes.91011

Wnikanie do komórek gospodarza

L. monocytogenes wnika do organizmu gospodarza poprzez przewód pokarmowy po spożyciu zanieczyszczonej żywności. Dawka infekcyjna jest szacowana na 10⁴ do 10⁷ komórek u osób z obniżoną odpornością i ponad 10⁷ u osób zdrowych.12 Po dotarciu do jelita, bakteria musi pokonać kilka barier obronnych:

  1. Oporność na kwas żołądkowy i sole żółciowe – dzięki systemowi dehydrogenazy glutaminianowej (GAD) i hydrolazy soli żółciowych (BSH)13
  2. Penetracja warstwy śluzu jelitowego – przy udziale białek powierzchniowych takich jak Listeria-mucin-binding invasin A (Lmo1413) i internaliny14
  3. Adhezja do komórek nabłonka jelitowego – L. monocytogenes posiada na powierzchni reszty galaktozy, kwasy lipotejchojowe i białka powierzchniowe, które umożliwiają przyleganie do komórek gospodarza1516

Istnieją trzy główne mechanizmy, przez które L. monocytogenes przekracza barierę nabłonka jelitowego:

  • Droga zależna od InlA – główna droga inwazji, w której internalina A (InlA) wiąże się z E-kadheryną, składnikiem połączeń adhezyjnych między komórkami nabłonka1718
  • Droga zależna od LAP (Listeria adhesion protein) – białko LAP oddziałuje z Hsp60 (Heat Shock Protein 60), co prowadzi do aktywacji szlaku NF-kB, powodującego zmiany w barierze jelitowej i umożliwiającego translokację bakterii1920
  • Transcytoza przez komórki M (microfold) – bakterie są transportowane przez wyspecjalizowane komórki nabłonka, które normalnie służą do prezentacji antygenów układowi odpornościowemu21

Cykl infekcji wewnątrzkomórkowej

Cykl życiowy L. monocytogenes wewnątrz komórki gospodarza jest złożonym i dobrze skoordynowanym procesem obejmującym kilka kluczowych etapów:2223

  1. Internalizacja – po przyłączeniu się do receptorów komórkowych (E-kadheryna, c-Met), bakteria zostaje wchłonięta przez komórkę na drodze endocytozy i zamknięta w fagosome2425
  2. Ucieczka z fagosomu – niskie pH w fagosomie aktywuje LLO, które wraz z fosfolipazami (PlcA i PlcB) powoduje lizę błony fagosomu, umożliwiając bakterii uwolnienie się do cytoplazmy komórki gospodarza2627
  3. Namnażanie w cytoplazmie – po uwolnieniu się do cytoplazmy, L. monocytogenes intensywnie się namnaża2829
  4. Ruch wewnątrzkomórkowy i rozprzestrzenianie się do sąsiednich komórek – bakteria wykorzystuje białko ActA do polimeryzacji aktyny gospodarza, tworząc charakterystyczne „ogony kometowe”, które umożliwiają jej przemieszczanie się w cytoplazmie3031
  5. Formowanie wypustek – bakteria jest popychana przez aktynę do błony komórkowej, tworząc wypustki (filopodia), które wnikają do sąsiednich komórek3233
  6. Przechodzenie do sąsiednich komórek – wypustki zawierające bakterie są fagocytowane przez sąsiednie komórki, a bakteria zostaje zamknięta w podwójnej wakuoli, z której uwalnia się przy pomocy LLO i PlcB, rozpoczynając cykl od nowa3435

Ten mechanizm rozprzestrzeniania się z komórki do komórki pozwala L. monocytogenes unikać kontaktu z przeciwciałami i innymi składnikami układu odpornościowego w przestrzeni międzykomórkowej, co jest kluczowym elementem jej strategii patogennej.3637

Rozprzestrzenianie się w organizmie

Po przekroczeniu bariery jelitowej, L. monocytogenes dostaje się do krwiobiegu i układu limfatycznego, skąd rozprzestrzenia się do różnych narządów, szczególnie do wątroby, śledziony i węzłów chłonnych krezkowych.38 Większość bakterii jest wychwytywana w wątrobie przez komórki Kupffera (wyspecjalizowane makrofagi wątrobowe), neutrofile i komórki dendrytyczne, które starają się je eliminować.39

L. monocytogenes wykazuje szczególne powinowactwo do dwóch narządów: ośrodkowego układu nerwowego (OUN) i łożyska u kobiet w ciąży. Ta zdolność do przekraczania bariery krew-mózg i bariery łożyskowej wiąże się z występowaniem kadheryny w tych strukturach, która jest receptorem dla internaliny A.40

Infekcja ośrodkowego układu nerwowego

L. monocytogenes może przedostawać się do OUN różnymi drogami, ale najnowsze badania wskazują na istotną rolę zainfekowanych monocytów zapalnych. Naukowcy odkryli, że:

  • Monocyty zapalne zakażone przez L. monocytogenes krążą we krwi i przylegają do komórek naczyń mózgowych, umożliwiając bakteriom przedostanie się do tkanki mózgowej4142
  • Białko powierzchniowe InlB umożliwia bakteriom unikanie niszczenia przez układ odpornościowy i przetrwanie w „ochronnej niszy” zakażonych monocytów43
  • InlB, poprzez interakcję z receptorem c-Met, blokuje śmierć komórki zakażonej bakteriami spowodowaną przez cytotoksyczne limfocyty T4445

Ten mechanizm wydłuża czas życia zakażonych komórek, zwiększa liczbę zakażonych monocytów we krwi i ułatwia rozprzestrzenianie się bakterii do tkanek gospodarza, w tym do mózgu.4647

Infekcja łożyskowa i płodowa

Zakażenie L. monocytogenes u kobiet w ciąży może prowadzić do chorioamnionitis (zapalenia błon płodowych), przedwczesnego porodu, poronienia lub urodzenia martwego płodu. Infekcja płodu może nastąpić przez przejście bakterii przez łożysko (transmisja przezłożyskowa) lub przez przejście przez zakażony kanał rodny lub przez wstępujące zakażenie przez pęknięte błony płodowe.48

L. monocytogenes ma zdolność do przekraczania bariery łożyskowej dzięki ekspresji internalin i innych czynników wirulencji. Po zakażeniu łożyska, bakterie mogą powodować zapalenie kosmków łożyskowych (villitis) z martwicą, co prowadzi do licznych mikroropni i ostatecznie może spowodować śmierć płodu.49

Adaptacja środowiskowa i regulacja genów

L. monocytogenes jest patogenem o podwójnym stylu życia – może żyć jako saprofit w środowisku oraz jako patogen wewnątrzkomórkowy w organizmie gospodarza. Ta zdolność do adaptacji do różnych środowisk jest kluczowa dla jej przetrwania i wirulencji.50

Adaptacja do stresu

Zdolność L. monocytogenes do adaptacji do różnych czynników stresowych (kwasowość, stres osmotyczny, niska temperatura, stres oksydacyjny) ma bezpośrednie znaczenie dla jej patogenności:51

  • Adaptacja do stresu kwasowego – umożliwia przetrwanie w kwaśnym środowisku żołądka52
  • Adaptacja do stresu osmotycznego – istotna dla przetrwania w przewodzie pokarmowym, gdzie karnityna jest ważnym osmoprotektantem53
  • Zdolność do wzrostu w niskich temperaturach – umożliwia namnażanie się w żywności przechowywanej w lodówce54

Regulacja ekspresji genów wirulencji

Ekspresja genów wirulencji L. monocytogenes jest ściśle regulowana w odpowiedzi na warunki środowiskowe:5556

  • Regulator PrfA – główny czynnik transkrypcyjny kontrolujący ekspresję genów wirulencji57
  • Czynnik sigma B (SigB) – alternatywny czynnik sigma regulujący geny odpowiedzi na stres i wirulencji w jelitach5859
  • Regulator Rex – regulator transkrypcyjny wrażliwy na potencjał redoks, który hamuje metabolizm fermentacyjny i jest wymagany do optymalnego wzrostu w obecności tlenu60
  • Regulator VirR/S – dodatkowy system regulacyjny61
  • Ryboregulatory i małe niekodujące RNA – istotne dla szybkiej adaptacji do różnych warunków fizjologicznych6263

Przejście z trybu saprofitycznego do wirulentnego jest kontrolowane przez nakładające się sieci transkrypcyjne związane z ogólną odpowiedzią na stres (regulowaną przez SigB) i wirulencją (regulowaną przez PrfA).64 Termoregulacja genów wirulencji pozwala na ich optymalną ekspresję w temperaturze ciała gospodarza (37°C).65

Interakcje z układem odpornościowym

L. monocytogenes wywołuje zarówno odpowiedź odporności wrodzonej, jak i nabytej, ale jednocześnie posiada mechanizmy umożliwiające jej unikanie i modulowanie odpowiedzi immunologicznej gospodarza.66

Odpowiedź immunologiczna gospodarza

Główne elementy odpowiedzi immunologicznej przeciwko L. monocytogenes obejmują:

  • Odporność wrodzona – neutrofile, komórki dendrytyczne, komórki NK i makrofagi stanowią pierwszą linię obrony6768
  • Odporność komórkowa – limfocyty T CD8+ odgrywają kluczową rolę w eliminacji zakażonych komórek6970
  • Odporność humoralna – przeciwciała mają ograniczoną rolę w zwalczaniu L. monocytogenes ze względu na jej wewnątrzkomórkową lokalizację7172

Odporność przeciwko L. monocytogenes jest głównie komórkowa, co potwierdza zwiększona podatność na listeriozę u osób z zaburzeniami odporności komórkowej, takich jak kobiety w ciąży, osoby w podeszłym wieku, pacjenci z AIDS, chłoniakami czy po przeszczepieniu narządów.73

Mechanizmy unikania układu odpornościowego

L. monocytogenes posiada szereg mechanizmów umożliwiających jej przetrwanie w obecności układu odpornościowego gospodarza:

  • Wewnątrzkomórkowa lokalizacja – chroni bakterie przed przeciwciałami i układem dopełniacza74
  • Rozprzestrzenianie się z komórki do komórki – pozwala uniknąć ekspozycji na środowisko zewnątrzkomórkowe75
  • Inaktywacja fagolizosomów – zapobiega niszczeniu bakterii przez mechanizmy wewnątrzkomórkowe76
  • Mechanizm „konia trojańskiego” – wykorzystanie monocytów jako „transporterów” do przekraczania barier biologicznych77
  • Modulacja śmierci komórkowej – InlB, poprzez oddziaływanie z receptorem c-Met, blokuje śmierć komórki indukowaną przez cytotoksyczne limfocyty T78

Nowo odkryty mechanizm ucieczki immunologicznej, związany z białkiem InlB, umożliwia bakteriom przetrwanie w monocytach zapalnych, co ułatwia zakażenie OUN przez wydłużenie czasu życia zakażonych komórek.7980

Hiperwirulentne szczepy Listeria

Niektóre szczepy L. monocytogenes charakteryzują się zwiększoną wirulencją i zdolnością do wywoływania infekcji inwazyjnych, szczególnie zakażeń OUN. Badania wykazały, że:

  • Szczepy związane z wybuchami epidemii są bardziej inwazyjne w komórkach ludzkich i bardziej wirulentne u myszy w porównaniu do laboratoryjnych szczepów L. monocytogenes81
  • Szczepy te wykazują zwiększoną zdolność do kolonizacji mózgu i innych narządów82
  • Niektóre „hiperwirulentne” szczepy mają większą zdolność do zakażania OUN dzięki specyficznym mechanizmom unikania układu odpornościowego8384

Badania nad szczepami izolowanymi z ognisk epidemicznych dostarczają cennych informacji o patogenezie L. monocytogenes i sugerują, że obecnie stosowane laboratoryjne szczepy bakterii mogą być niedoskonałymi modelami do badania patogenezy tego drobnoustroju.85

Różnice wirulencji między szczepami

L. monocytogenes wykazuje trzy odrębne linie filogenetyczne, różniące się historią ewolucyjną i potencjałem patogennym:86

  • Linia I – zawiera większość izolatów klinicznych od ludzi i wszystkie ludzkie szczepy epidemiczne
  • Linia II – jest nadreprezentowana w przypadkach zwierzęcych i przeważa w próbkach środowiskowych i żywnościowych
  • Linia III – występuje rzadko, ale znacznie częściej u zwierząt niż u ludzi

Chociaż istnieją ilościowe różnice w wirulencji między szczepami L. monocytogenes, wszystkie izolaty należy uznać za potencjalnie patogenne, o ile nie brakuje im istotnych czynników wirulencji, takich jak odpowiedni skład białkowy ściany komórkowej lub produkcja hemolizyny.87

Inne gatunki Listeria patogenne dla człowieka

Chociaż L. monocytogenes jest głównym gatunkiem Listeria wywołującym choroby u ludzi, istnieją doniesienia o zakażeniach wywołanych przez L. ivanovii, gatunek, który początkowo uważano za patogenny wyłącznie dla przeżuwaczy.88

L. ivanovii, podobnie jak L. monocytogenes, jest wewnątrzkomórkowym patogenem, który wnika do komórek gospodarza, namnaża się w cytoplazmie po ucieczce z fagosomu i rozprzestrzenia się z komórki do komórki przez polimeryzację aktyny. Te mechanizmy korelują z obecnością podobnych determinant genetycznych jak u L. monocytogenes:89

  • Locus internalizacji inlAB
  • Wyspa patogenności LIPI-1 odpowiedzialna za przetrwanie wewnątrzkomórkowe
  • Locus hpt odpowiedzialny za wzrost wewnątrzkomórkowy

Zmiany patologiczne związane z L. ivanovii u ludzi są podobne do tych u przeżuwaczy i obejmują infekcje łożyskowo-płodowe i posocznicę (często z towarzyszącym zapaleniem jelit).90

Inne gatunki Listeria, takie jak L. innocua, L. welshimeri i L. seeligeri, są uważane za niepatogenne.91

Podsumowanie mechanizmów patogenezy

Patogeneza listeriozy jest złożonym procesem obejmującym szereg etapów i mechanizmów:

  1. Wniknięcie do organizmu – zakażenie rozpoczyna się od spożycia zanieczyszczonej żywności i wniknięcia bakterii do komórek nabłonka jelitowego92
  2. Przekroczenie bariery jelitowej – bakterie przekraczają barierę jelitową poprzez mechanizmy zależne od InlA, LAP lub komórek M9394
  3. Rozprzestrzenianie się w organizmie – bakterie dostają się do krwiobiegu i układu limfatycznego, a następnie do różnych narządów, szczególnie do wątroby i śledziony95
  4. Infekcja wewnątrzkomórkowa – po wniknięciu do komórek gospodarza, bakterie uwalniają się z fagosomu, namnażają w cytoplazmie i rozprzestrzeniają do sąsiednich komórek9697
  5. Przekraczanie barier biologicznych – bakterie przekraczają barierę krew-mózg i barierę łożyskową, prowadząc do zakażenia OUN lub płodu9899
  6. Unikanie odpowiedzi immunologicznej – lokalizacja wewnątrzkomórkowa i rozprzestrzenianie się z komórki do komórki umożliwiają bakteriom unikanie układu odpornościowego gospodarza100101

Zrozumienie tych mechanizmów patogenezy ma kluczowe znaczenie dla opracowania skutecznych strategii zapobiegania i leczenia listeriozy, zwłaszcza w populacjach wysokiego ryzyka.102103

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Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Listeria Monocytogenes – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK534838/
    Listeria monocytogenes is a facultative, intracellular, gram-positive rod that is responsible for causing the infection listeriosis. […] L. monocytogenes virulence factors include but are not limited to intracellular mobility via actin polymerization and the ability to replicate at refrigerator temperatures. […] L. monocytogenes has cell-surface galactose residues, lipoteichoic acids, and surface proteins called „internalins” (internalin A and B) that binds primarily to gastrointestinal epithelial cells via host protein cadherin, allowing entry into the cell. […] Once free of the vacuole, the bacteria can disrupt the normal cellular processes by moving through the cell via actin polymerization. […] Cadherin is an epithelial attachment protein that is found in abundance in the blood-brain barrier as well as the placental-fetus barrier which may explain why the bacteria can infect neonates and cause meningitis.
  • #2 Listeria (Listeriosis) | FDA
    https://www.fda.gov/food/foodborne-pathogens/listeria-listeriosis
    Listeria monocytogenes (L. monocytogenes) is a type of disease-causing bacteria that can be found in many places, including soil, water, sewage, rotting vegetation, and animals. It can survive and grow even under refrigeration. L. monocytogenes can thrive in unsanitary food production conditions, leading to contamination of the food. When people eat food contaminated with L. monocytogenes, they may develop a disease called listeriosis. […] L. monocytogenes is generally transmitted when food is harvested, processed, prepared, packed, transported, or stored in manufacturing or production environments contaminated with L. monocytogenes. Environments can become contaminated by raw materials, water, soil, and incoming air. Pets can also spread the bacteria in the home if they eat food contaminated with L. monocytogenes. […] Unlike most bacteria, L. monocytogenes can grow at refrigeration temperatures and freezing will not eliminate or reduce the pathogen.
  • #2 Listeria monocytogenes—How This Pathogen Uses Its Virulence Mechanisms to Infect the Hosts
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/11/12/1491
    After overcoming host gastrointestinal barriers related to low pH and adverse bile activity, L. monocytogenes adheres to respective epithelial cell receptors and enters non-phagocytic epithelial cells. […] The bacteria possess several different factors that allow them to penetrate the mucus layer of the intestine, composed mainly of mucins secreted by the goblet cells, e.g., the Listeria-mucin-binding invasin A (Lmo1413) and internalins (InlB, InlC, InlJ, and InlL). […] L. monocytogenes possesses the ability to pass through intestinal, blood–brain, and fetoplacental host physiological barriers, but the gastrointestinal tract is the primary route of infection. […] The internalin proteins are secreted through the SecYEG translocase that transports proteins across and into the cytoplasmic membrane.
  • #3 Listeria monocytogenes – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listeria_monocytogenes
    Invasive infection by L. monocytogenes causes the disease listeriosis. […] The pathogenesis of L. monocytogenes centers on its ability to survive and multiply in phagocytic host cells. […] This process is known as the „Trojan Horse mechanism”. […] Once inside the cell, L. monocytogenes rapidly acidifies the lumen of the vacuole formed around it during cell entry to activate listeriolysin O, a cholesterol-dependent cytolysin capable of disrupting the vacuolar membrane. […] The ability of L. monocytogenes to successfully infect depends on its resistance to the high concentrations of bile encountered throughout the gastrointestinal tract. […] Following internalization, the bacterium must escape from the vacuole/phagosome before fusion with a lysosome can occur. […] Three main virulence factors that allow the bacterium to escape are listeriolysin O (LLO encoded by hly), phospholipase A (encoded by plcA), and phospholipase B (plcB).
  • #4 Listeria monocytogenes—How This Pathogen Uses Its Virulence Mechanisms to Infect the Hosts
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/11/12/1491
    L. monocytogenes adheres to the E-cadherin or c-Met host receptors is then covered by a phagocytic vacuole in macrophages and enters cells. […] L. monocytogenes, unlike other bacteria, is not destroyed inside the host cell vacuoles due to the production of endogenic factors, mainly listeriolysin O (LLO), a pH- and cholesterol-dependent toxin with pore-forming activity, and GILT (Gamma-interferon Inducible Lysosomal Thiol reductase), found inside the phagosome, which mediate vacuole degradation and bacteria escape to the cytosol. […] After crossing the intestinal barrier and multiplying in the small intestinal lamina propria, L. monocytogenes disseminates to the host organs such as the liver, the spleen, and the mesenteric lymph nodes. […] The majority of the cells are trapped in the liver, cleared from the blood circulatory system, and then inactivated through the host immune system, mainly with professional liver phagocytes (Kupffer cells), other mononuclear phagocytic cells, neutrophils, dendritic cells, and natural killer (NK) cells.
  • #5 Listeria Monocytogenes – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK534838/
    L. monocytogenes forms „rocket tails” via actin polymerization that allows the bacteria to move rapidly between cells, avoid antibody detection, and spread hematogenously. […] Once the infection has occurred, L. monocytogenes can cause amnionitis, sepsis, spontaneous abortion in pregnant women, granulomatosis infantiseptica, and meningitis.
  • #6 Listeria monocytogenes – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listeria_monocytogenes
    Once in the cytoplasm, L. monocytogenes exploits host actin for the second time. […] ActA proteins associated with the old bacterial cell pole are capable of binding the Arp2/3 complex, thereby inducing actin nucleation at a specific area of the bacterial cell surface. […] The protrusion formed may then be internalized by a neighboring cell, forming a double-membrane vacuole from which the bacterium must escape using LLO and PlcB.
  • #7 Listeria monocytogenes | SpringerLink
    https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4939-7349-1_13
    Listeria monocytogenes is an opportunistic intracellular pathogen. […] The intestinal phase of infection is a complex process, and the mechanism is not fully understood. […] L. monocytogenes crossing of the intestinal epithelial barrier, invasion into mammalian cells, survival inside the phagosome, and escape into the cytoplasm, growth, and cell-to-cell spread is well understood. […] These events are orchestrated by numerous virulence factors such as Listeria adhesion protein (LAP), internalin A (InlA), InlB, listeriolysin O (LLO), actin polymerization protein (ActA), phospholipase C (PLC), metalloprotease (Mpl), hexose phosphate transport permease (Hpt), and lipoprotein ligase (LpL). […] Immune response to L. monocytogenes is largely dependent on the innate immunity involving neutrophils, dendritic cells, NK cells, and macrophages and cell-mediated immunity involving CD8+ T-cell subsets.
  • #8 How do Listeria bacteria move from the intestine to other areas of the body?
    https://researchfeatures.com/how-do-listeria-bacteria-move-intestine-areas-body/
    The research group at Purdue University have discovered a novel pathway that signals to Listeria to begin the process of travelling from the intestine to other body tissues. This happens around 12-48 hours after infection. Prof Bhunia and his team identified a virulence factor a molecule produced by the bacteria that affects its ability to cause infection that promotes pathogenesis of Listeria, called Listeria adhesion protein (LAP). […] The researchers also found that LAP interacts with another protein: heat shock protein 60 (Hsp60). Using animal and laboratory cell models, Prof Bhunia and Dr Drolia showed that interactions between the two proteins initiate a cascade of cell signalling events that lead to the activation of another well-known signalling pathway, called the NF-kB signalling pathway.
  • #9 Azthena logo with the word Azthena
    https://www.news-medical.net/health/Listeria-Pathogenesis.aspx
    Factors involved in the intracellular cycle are tightly controlled by a specific PrfA protein, which is in turn regulated by different mechanisms operating at the transcriptional, translational and post-translational levels. Additionally, other regulatory mechanisms have also been described, such as sigma factor, antisense RNA and system VirR/S (although PrfA is still the most important control mechanism).
  • #10 Listeria monocytogenes Pathogenesis: The Role of Stress Adaptation
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2607/10/8/1522
    Adaptive stress tolerance responses are the driving force behind the survival ability of Listeria monocytogenes in different environmental niches, within foods, and ultimately, the ability to cause human infections. […] Some aspects of the stress responses are linked to bacterial pathogenesis. […] Food stress-induced adaptive tolerance responses to acid and osmotic stresses can protect the pathogen against similar stresses in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and, thus, directly aid its virulence potential. […] Once in the GIT, the reprogramming of gene expression from the stress survival-related genes to virulence-related genes allows L. monocytogenes to switch from an avirulent to a virulent state. […] This transition is controlled by two overlapping and interlinked transcriptional networks for general stress response (regulated by Sigma factor B, (SigB)) and virulence (regulated by the positive regulatory factor A (PrfA)).
  • #11 Probing the Role of Protein Surface Charge in the Activation of PrfA, the Central Regulator of Listeria monocytogenes Pathogenesis | PLOS One
    https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0023502
    Listeria monocytogenes is a food-borne intracellular bacterial pathogen capable of causing serious human disease. […] The expression of the gene products that enable L. monocytogenes to establish its intracellular replication niche is regulated by a transcriptional activator known as PrfA. […] PrfA is essential for L. monocytogenes virulence as mutants lacking this regulator are unable to cause disease in mouse models of infection. […] PrfA has been shown to be structurally similar to the most well studied member of this family, the Escherichia coli Crp protein. […] The nature of the cofactor that leads to PrfA activation is not presently known but has been speculated to be a host-derived small-molecule second messenger. […] Our data support a model in which the positive charge of the PrfA binding pocket plays a key role in cofactor binding and optimal PrfA activation within the cytosol of infected host cells.
  • #12 Listeria monocytogenes—How This Pathogen Uses Its Virulence Mechanisms to Infect the Hosts
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/11/12/1491
    Listeriosis is a serious food-borne illness, especially in susceptible populations, including children, pregnant women, and elderlies. […] The aim of this comprehensive review is to summarize the current knowledge on the epidemiology of listeriosis and L. monocytogenes virulence mechanisms that are involved in host infection, with a special focus on their molecular and cellular aspects. […] Listeria monocytogenes can colonize the gastrointestinal tract due to its resistance to gastric and biliary acids. […] The infective dose of L. monocytogenes for humans is difficult to experimentally assess, but it has been estimated at 10^4 to 10^7 cells in susceptible persons (e.g., immunocompromised people), to more than 10^7 bacteria in healthy individuals. […] L. monocytogenes adheres to respective epithelial cell receptors and enters non-phagocytic epithelial cells.
  • #13 Food poisoning by Listeria monocytogenes (Listeriosis)
    https://microbenotes.com/listeriosis/
    Listeria monocytogenes are gram-positive, non-sporing frequent veterinary pathogens widely spread in the environment (mostly in soil, water, sewage, and decaying plant matter) where they live as saprophytes. […] The pathogenicity and virulence of L. monocytogenes depend on the strain of the organism and host risk factors. […] The attachment of L. monocytogenes in the intestinal cell wall is mediated by the surface protein, InlA where it colonizes and translocates rapidly through the mucosal barrier to blood circulation and the lymphatic system. […] After the attachment of the bacteria to the intestinal tract, the glutamate decarboxylase(GAD) system protects the bacterium from stomach acid. […] Similarly, bile salt hydrolase (BSH) and the bile exclusion system (BilE) protect against bile salts then the bacterium enters through the mucosal layer and ruptures the intestinal epithelial barrier.
  • #14 Listeria monocytogenes—How This Pathogen Uses Its Virulence Mechanisms to Infect the Hosts
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/11/12/1491
    After overcoming host gastrointestinal barriers related to low pH and adverse bile activity, L. monocytogenes adheres to respective epithelial cell receptors and enters non-phagocytic epithelial cells. […] The bacteria possess several different factors that allow them to penetrate the mucus layer of the intestine, composed mainly of mucins secreted by the goblet cells, e.g., the Listeria-mucin-binding invasin A (Lmo1413) and internalins (InlB, InlC, InlJ, and InlL). […] L. monocytogenes possesses the ability to pass through intestinal, blood–brain, and fetoplacental host physiological barriers, but the gastrointestinal tract is the primary route of infection. […] The internalin proteins are secreted through the SecYEG translocase that transports proteins across and into the cytoplasmic membrane.
  • #15 Listeria Monocytogenes – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK534838/
    Listeria monocytogenes is a facultative, intracellular, gram-positive rod that is responsible for causing the infection listeriosis. […] L. monocytogenes virulence factors include but are not limited to intracellular mobility via actin polymerization and the ability to replicate at refrigerator temperatures. […] L. monocytogenes has cell-surface galactose residues, lipoteichoic acids, and surface proteins called „internalins” (internalin A and B) that binds primarily to gastrointestinal epithelial cells via host protein cadherin, allowing entry into the cell. […] Once free of the vacuole, the bacteria can disrupt the normal cellular processes by moving through the cell via actin polymerization. […] Cadherin is an epithelial attachment protein that is found in abundance in the blood-brain barrier as well as the placental-fetus barrier which may explain why the bacteria can infect neonates and cause meningitis.
  • #16 Virulence factors, Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Listeria monocytogenes
    https://microbenotes.com/virulence-factors-pathogenesis-and-clinical-manifestations-of-listeria-monocytogenes/
    Human infections may result if 106109 pathogens enter the gastrointestinal tract after ingestion of contaminated foods such as cheese, fruit, or vegetables. […] The organism has several adhesin proteins (Ami, Fbp A, and flagellin proteins) that facilitate bacterial binding to the host cells contributing to virulence. […] L. monocytogenes enters phagocytic and nonphagocytic cells and a listerial surface protein, internalin A and B that interact with E-cadherin, a receptor on epithelial cells, promoting phagocytosis into the epithelial cells. […] After phagocytosis, the bacterium is enclosed in a phagolysosome, where the low pH activates the bacterium to produce listeriolysin O. […] This enzyme, along with two phospholipases, lyses the membrane of the phagolysosome and allows the listeriae to escape into the cytoplasm of the epithelial cell and the organisms proliferate.
  • #17 Pathogenesis of Invasive Listeria monocytogenes Infections | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/25971
    The first step in the pathogenesis of invasive listeriosis is the ability of the pathogen to cross the intestinal epithelial barrier. Although the complete mechanisms are still not fully understood, three well-elucidated pathways have thus far been used to explain the process. These three pathways are the InlA-mediated transcytosis, the LAP-mediated translocation, and the microfold (M-cell)-mediated transcytosis. […] The InlA- mediated pathway is the primary route by which L. monocytogenes invades intestinal cells. InlA is a cell wall-anchored protein that mediates the uptake of L. monocytogenes into non-phagocytic cells through receptor-mediated endocytosis. InlA promotes pathogen adhesion and the invasion of the intestinal epithelium through an interaction with its receptor, E-cadherin (a component of adherens junctions).
  • #18 Listeria monocytogenes Pathogenesis: The Role of Stress Adaptation
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2607/10/8/1522
    The review gives a detailed background on the currently known mechanisms of pathogenesis and stress adaptation. […] The mechanisms responsible for the development of L. monocytogenes adaptive tolerance responses against the common environmental and food-related stresses (acid, osmotic, heat, cold, oxidative stress) have been elucidated. […] The first step in the pathogenesis of invasive listeriosis is the ability of the pathogen to cross the intestinal epithelial barrier. […] The binding of InlA induces the recruitment of other junctional proteins, α-catenin and β-catenin, as well as actin and p120 catenin, which facilitate E-cadherin clustering at the site of bacterial entry. […] The ability to cross the intestinal barrier provides the main gate of L. monocytogenes entry into the bloodstream.
  • #19 How do Listeria bacteria move from the intestine to other areas of the body?
    https://researchfeatures.com/how-do-listeria-bacteria-move-intestine-areas-body/
    The research group at Purdue University have discovered a novel pathway that signals to Listeria to begin the process of travelling from the intestine to other body tissues. This happens around 12-48 hours after infection. Prof Bhunia and his team identified a virulence factor a molecule produced by the bacteria that affects its ability to cause infection that promotes pathogenesis of Listeria, called Listeria adhesion protein (LAP). […] The researchers also found that LAP interacts with another protein: heat shock protein 60 (Hsp60). Using animal and laboratory cell models, Prof Bhunia and Dr Drolia showed that interactions between the two proteins initiate a cascade of cell signalling events that lead to the activation of another well-known signalling pathway, called the NF-kB signalling pathway.
  • #20 Pathogenesis of Invasive Listeria monocytogenes Infections | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/25971
    The surface protein, LAP, which was initially identified as an adhesin that facilitates the binding of L. monocytogenes to enterocytes, also contributes to the translocation of the pathogen across the intestinal epithelium. […] The microfold (M) cells are specialized epithelial cells that survey the intestinal mucosa for any antigens as part of the mucosal immune response. They readily take up antigens from the intestinal mucosa and transcytose them across the intestinal epithelium to the lymphoid tissues of the Peyer’s patches. […] The ability to cross the intestinal barrier provides the main gate of L. monocytogenes entry into the bloodstream. Due to its predilection for the CNS and the placenta in pregnant women, neurolisteriosis, maternofetal infection and septicemia are the main clinical manifestations of invasive listeriosis.
  • #21 Pathogenesis of Invasive Listeria monocytogenes Infections | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/25971
    The surface protein, LAP, which was initially identified as an adhesin that facilitates the binding of L. monocytogenes to enterocytes, also contributes to the translocation of the pathogen across the intestinal epithelium. […] The microfold (M) cells are specialized epithelial cells that survey the intestinal mucosa for any antigens as part of the mucosal immune response. They readily take up antigens from the intestinal mucosa and transcytose them across the intestinal epithelium to the lymphoid tissues of the Peyer’s patches. […] The ability to cross the intestinal barrier provides the main gate of L. monocytogenes entry into the bloodstream. Due to its predilection for the CNS and the placenta in pregnant women, neurolisteriosis, maternofetal infection and septicemia are the main clinical manifestations of invasive listeriosis.
  • #22 Azthena logo with the word Azthena
    https://www.news-medical.net/health/Listeria-Pathogenesis.aspx
    Listeria monocytogenes represent a universal, fast-growing, gram-positive bacterium with a diverse ecological niche and host range. Infection of humans and animals with this microorganism is traced to contaminated foods and can lead to a serious (often lethal) disease known as listeriosis. […] Disease-causing properties of Listeria monocytogenes can be traced to the ability of this bacterium to induce its own uptake by host cells, followed by replication within those cells and direct transfer to another cell. Since Listeria remains within host cells, it can spread throughout the body while protecting from many host defenses including antibodies. […] Such pathogenicity of Listeria is supported by a highly complex and coordinated intracellular life cycle that is composed of several crucial steps: host cell adhesion and invasion, intracellular multiplication and motility, and intercellular spread. The completion of each stage is dependent on the orchestrated activity of specialized bacterial virulence factors.
  • #23 Listeria monocytogenes: towards a complete picture of its physiology and pathogenesis | Nature Reviews Microbiology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro.2017.126
    Listeria monocytogenes is a food-borne pathogen that primarily afflicts immunocompromised individuals and can provoke septicaemia, meningitis and fetal infection or abortion in infected pregnant women. […] L. monocytogenes is an excellent model for intracellular infection, as it mediates its own uptake into non-phagocytic cells, subsequently escapes from the vacuole, polymerizes actin to spread from cell to cell and secretes factors that alter transcription, post-translational modifications, innate immune signalling and cytoskeletal rearrangements. […] L. monocytogenes can traverse three distinct epithelial barriers and competes for a niche in the dense intestinal microbiota through upregulation of metabolic pathways and the secretion of toxic bactericidal factors. […] L. monocytogenes utilizes a plethora of complex regulation strategies such as riboregulators and small non-coding RNAs to quickly adapt to and thrive in highly divergent physiological contexts.
  • #24 Virulence factors, Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Listeria monocytogenes
    https://microbenotes.com/virulence-factors-pathogenesis-and-clinical-manifestations-of-listeria-monocytogenes/
    Human infections may result if 106109 pathogens enter the gastrointestinal tract after ingestion of contaminated foods such as cheese, fruit, or vegetables. […] The organism has several adhesin proteins (Ami, Fbp A, and flagellin proteins) that facilitate bacterial binding to the host cells contributing to virulence. […] L. monocytogenes enters phagocytic and nonphagocytic cells and a listerial surface protein, internalin A and B that interact with E-cadherin, a receptor on epithelial cells, promoting phagocytosis into the epithelial cells. […] After phagocytosis, the bacterium is enclosed in a phagolysosome, where the low pH activates the bacterium to produce listeriolysin O. […] This enzyme, along with two phospholipases, lyses the membrane of the phagolysosome and allows the listeriae to escape into the cytoplasm of the epithelial cell and the organisms proliferate.
  • #25 Listeria monocytogenes—How This Pathogen Uses Its Virulence Mechanisms to Infect the Hosts
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/11/12/1491
    L. monocytogenes adheres to the E-cadherin or c-Met host receptors is then covered by a phagocytic vacuole in macrophages and enters cells. […] L. monocytogenes, unlike other bacteria, is not destroyed inside the host cell vacuoles due to the production of endogenic factors, mainly listeriolysin O (LLO), a pH- and cholesterol-dependent toxin with pore-forming activity, and GILT (Gamma-interferon Inducible Lysosomal Thiol reductase), found inside the phagosome, which mediate vacuole degradation and bacteria escape to the cytosol. […] After crossing the intestinal barrier and multiplying in the small intestinal lamina propria, L. monocytogenes disseminates to the host organs such as the liver, the spleen, and the mesenteric lymph nodes. […] The majority of the cells are trapped in the liver, cleared from the blood circulatory system, and then inactivated through the host immune system, mainly with professional liver phagocytes (Kupffer cells), other mononuclear phagocytic cells, neutrophils, dendritic cells, and natural killer (NK) cells.
  • #26 Listeria monocytogenes – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listeria_monocytogenes
    Invasive infection by L. monocytogenes causes the disease listeriosis. […] The pathogenesis of L. monocytogenes centers on its ability to survive and multiply in phagocytic host cells. […] This process is known as the „Trojan Horse mechanism”. […] Once inside the cell, L. monocytogenes rapidly acidifies the lumen of the vacuole formed around it during cell entry to activate listeriolysin O, a cholesterol-dependent cytolysin capable of disrupting the vacuolar membrane. […] The ability of L. monocytogenes to successfully infect depends on its resistance to the high concentrations of bile encountered throughout the gastrointestinal tract. […] Following internalization, the bacterium must escape from the vacuole/phagosome before fusion with a lysosome can occur. […] Three main virulence factors that allow the bacterium to escape are listeriolysin O (LLO encoded by hly), phospholipase A (encoded by plcA), and phospholipase B (plcB).
  • #27 Pathogenesis of Invasive Listeria monocytogenes Infections | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/25971
    Once internalized into the target cells in a primary vacuole, the next step in the infection cycle is the escape from the primary vacuole into the cell cytosol. This vacuolar escape is mediated by the production of LLO. This pore-forming cholesterol-dependent cytotoxin causes the rupture of the vacuole and release of the bacterial cells into the host cell cytosol.
  • #28 Listeria monocytogenes – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listeria_monocytogenes
    Once in the cytoplasm, L. monocytogenes exploits host actin for the second time. […] ActA proteins associated with the old bacterial cell pole are capable of binding the Arp2/3 complex, thereby inducing actin nucleation at a specific area of the bacterial cell surface. […] The protrusion formed may then be internalized by a neighboring cell, forming a double-membrane vacuole from which the bacterium must escape using LLO and PlcB.
  • #29 Virulence factors, Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Listeria monocytogenes
    https://microbenotes.com/virulence-factors-pathogenesis-and-clinical-manifestations-of-listeria-monocytogenes/
    In the host cell cytoplasm, where bacterial growth occurs, ActA, another listerial surface protein, induces host cell actin polymerization, which propels them to the cell membrane. […] The ability to polymerize actin preferentially on the older pole of the listeria cell with a surface protein (ActA) subverts the host cells cytoskeleton and confers intracellular motility to the bacterium. […] The resulting comet tail-like structure pushes the bacterium into an adjacent mammalian cell, where it again becomes encapsulated in a vacuole. […] Pushing against the host cell membrane, they cause formation of elongated protrusions called filopods. […] These filopods are ingested by adjacent epithelial cells, macrophages, and hepatocytes, the listeriae are released, and the cycle begins again.
  • #30 Listeria Monocytogenes – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK534838/
    L. monocytogenes forms „rocket tails” via actin polymerization that allows the bacteria to move rapidly between cells, avoid antibody detection, and spread hematogenously. […] Once the infection has occurred, L. monocytogenes can cause amnionitis, sepsis, spontaneous abortion in pregnant women, granulomatosis infantiseptica, and meningitis.
  • #31 Listeria – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listeria
    The bacteria then replicate inside the host cell’s cytoplasm. […] Listeria must then navigate to the cell’s periphery to spread the infection to other cells. Outside the body, Listeria has flagellar-driven motility, sometimes described as a „tumbling motility”. […] However, at 37 C, flagella cease to develop and the bacterium instead usurps the host cell’s cytoskeleton to move. […] Inventively, Listeria polymerizes an actin tail or „comet”, from actin monomers in the host’s cytoplasm with the promotion of virulence factor ActA. […] The comet forms in a polar manner and aids the bacterial migration to the host cell’s outer membrane. […] Once at the cell surface, the actin-propelled Listeria pushes against the cell’s membrane to form protrusions called filopods or „rockets”.
  • #32 Virulence factors, Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Listeria monocytogenes
    https://microbenotes.com/virulence-factors-pathogenesis-and-clinical-manifestations-of-listeria-monocytogenes/
    In the host cell cytoplasm, where bacterial growth occurs, ActA, another listerial surface protein, induces host cell actin polymerization, which propels them to the cell membrane. […] The ability to polymerize actin preferentially on the older pole of the listeria cell with a surface protein (ActA) subverts the host cells cytoskeleton and confers intracellular motility to the bacterium. […] The resulting comet tail-like structure pushes the bacterium into an adjacent mammalian cell, where it again becomes encapsulated in a vacuole. […] Pushing against the host cell membrane, they cause formation of elongated protrusions called filopods. […] These filopods are ingested by adjacent epithelial cells, macrophages, and hepatocytes, the listeriae are released, and the cycle begins again.
  • #33 Listeria – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listeria
    The bacteria then replicate inside the host cell’s cytoplasm. […] Listeria must then navigate to the cell’s periphery to spread the infection to other cells. Outside the body, Listeria has flagellar-driven motility, sometimes described as a „tumbling motility”. […] However, at 37 C, flagella cease to develop and the bacterium instead usurps the host cell’s cytoskeleton to move. […] Inventively, Listeria polymerizes an actin tail or „comet”, from actin monomers in the host’s cytoplasm with the promotion of virulence factor ActA. […] The comet forms in a polar manner and aids the bacterial migration to the host cell’s outer membrane. […] Once at the cell surface, the actin-propelled Listeria pushes against the cell’s membrane to form protrusions called filopods or „rockets”.
  • #34 Listeria monocytogenes – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listeria_monocytogenes
    Once in the cytoplasm, L. monocytogenes exploits host actin for the second time. […] ActA proteins associated with the old bacterial cell pole are capable of binding the Arp2/3 complex, thereby inducing actin nucleation at a specific area of the bacterial cell surface. […] The protrusion formed may then be internalized by a neighboring cell, forming a double-membrane vacuole from which the bacterium must escape using LLO and PlcB.
  • #35 Listeria – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listeria
    The protrusions are guided by the cell’s leading edge to contact adjacent cells, which then engulf the Listeria rocket and the process is repeated, perpetuating the infection. […] Once phagocytosed, the bacterium is never again extracellular: it is an intracellular parasite like S. flexneri, Rickettsia spp., and C. trachomatis.
  • #36 Listeria monocytogenes—How This Pathogen Uses Its Virulence Mechanisms to Infect the Hosts
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/11/12/1491
    After bacteria-containing finger-like protrusion membrane structures of more than ten microns long are formed, L. monocytogenes is ready to spread mainly to adjacent cells and, to a much less extent, to other non-adjacent cells. […] Direct cell-to-cell transfer of L. monocytogenes allows the pathogen to resist the humoral and the cytotoxic T cell host immune responses. […] The bacterium possesses several virulence factors, responsible for epithelial cell adhesion, cell-to-cell spread, intracellular multiplication, and crossing of natural host barriers.
  • #37 Virulence factors, Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Listeria monocytogenes
    https://microbenotes.com/virulence-factors-pathogenesis-and-clinical-manifestations-of-listeria-monocytogenes/
    L monocytogenes can move from cell to cell without being exposed to antibodies, complement, or polymorphonuclear cells. […] Iron is an important virulence factor and hence Listeria produce siderophores and are able to obtain iron from transferrin. […] If the T cellmediated immune response of the host is inadequate, Listeria monocytogenes can multiply in hepatocytes and macrophages freely, able to reach various organs via blood particularly the brain or uterus right through the bloodbrain barrier or the placental barrier. […] Immunity to L monocytogenes is primarily cell mediated, as demonstrated by the intracellular location of infection and by the marked association of infection with conditions of impaired cell-mediated immunity such as pregnancy, advanced age, AIDS, lymphoma, and organ transplantation. […] Immunity can be transferred by sensitized lymphocytes but not by antibodies.
  • #38 Listeria monocytogenes—How This Pathogen Uses Its Virulence Mechanisms to Infect the Hosts
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/11/12/1491
    L. monocytogenes adheres to the E-cadherin or c-Met host receptors is then covered by a phagocytic vacuole in macrophages and enters cells. […] L. monocytogenes, unlike other bacteria, is not destroyed inside the host cell vacuoles due to the production of endogenic factors, mainly listeriolysin O (LLO), a pH- and cholesterol-dependent toxin with pore-forming activity, and GILT (Gamma-interferon Inducible Lysosomal Thiol reductase), found inside the phagosome, which mediate vacuole degradation and bacteria escape to the cytosol. […] After crossing the intestinal barrier and multiplying in the small intestinal lamina propria, L. monocytogenes disseminates to the host organs such as the liver, the spleen, and the mesenteric lymph nodes. […] The majority of the cells are trapped in the liver, cleared from the blood circulatory system, and then inactivated through the host immune system, mainly with professional liver phagocytes (Kupffer cells), other mononuclear phagocytic cells, neutrophils, dendritic cells, and natural killer (NK) cells.
  • #39 Listeria monocytogenes—How This Pathogen Uses Its Virulence Mechanisms to Infect the Hosts
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/11/12/1491
    L. monocytogenes adheres to the E-cadherin or c-Met host receptors is then covered by a phagocytic vacuole in macrophages and enters cells. […] L. monocytogenes, unlike other bacteria, is not destroyed inside the host cell vacuoles due to the production of endogenic factors, mainly listeriolysin O (LLO), a pH- and cholesterol-dependent toxin with pore-forming activity, and GILT (Gamma-interferon Inducible Lysosomal Thiol reductase), found inside the phagosome, which mediate vacuole degradation and bacteria escape to the cytosol. […] After crossing the intestinal barrier and multiplying in the small intestinal lamina propria, L. monocytogenes disseminates to the host organs such as the liver, the spleen, and the mesenteric lymph nodes. […] The majority of the cells are trapped in the liver, cleared from the blood circulatory system, and then inactivated through the host immune system, mainly with professional liver phagocytes (Kupffer cells), other mononuclear phagocytic cells, neutrophils, dendritic cells, and natural killer (NK) cells.
  • #40 Listeria Monocytogenes – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK534838/
    Listeria monocytogenes is a facultative, intracellular, gram-positive rod that is responsible for causing the infection listeriosis. […] L. monocytogenes virulence factors include but are not limited to intracellular mobility via actin polymerization and the ability to replicate at refrigerator temperatures. […] L. monocytogenes has cell-surface galactose residues, lipoteichoic acids, and surface proteins called „internalins” (internalin A and B) that binds primarily to gastrointestinal epithelial cells via host protein cadherin, allowing entry into the cell. […] Once free of the vacuole, the bacteria can disrupt the normal cellular processes by moving through the cell via actin polymerization. […] Cadherin is an epithelial attachment protein that is found in abundance in the blood-brain barrier as well as the placental-fetus barrier which may explain why the bacteria can infect neonates and cause meningitis.
  • #41 Discovery of an immune escape mechanism promoting Listeria infection of the central nervous system
    https://www.pasteur.fr/en/press-area/press-documents/discovery-immune-escape-mechanism-promoting-listeria-infection-central-nervous-system?language=fr
    Some „hypervirulent” strains of Listeria monocytogenes have a greater capacity to infect the central nervous system. […] This mechanism provides infected cells circulating in the blood with a higher probability of adhering to and infecting cells of cerebral vessels, thereby enabling bacteria to cross the blood-brain barrier and infect the brain. […] Listeria monocytogenes is the bacterium responsible for human listeriosis, a severe foodborne illness that can lead to a central nervous system infection known as neurolisteriosis. […] The scientists first observed that inflammatory monocytes, a type of white blood cell, are infected by the bacteria. These infected monocytes circulate in the bloodstream and adhere to the cerebral vessels cells, allowing Listeria to infect the brain tissue.
  • #42 Discovery of an immune escape mechanism promoting Listeria infection of the central nervous system – Inserm Newsroom
    https://presse.inserm.fr/en/discovery-of-an-immune-escape-mechanism-promoting-listeria-infection-of-the-central-nervous-system/60523/
    Some hypervirulent strains of Listeria monocytogenes have a greater capacity to infect the central nervous system. Scientists from the Institut Pasteur, Universit Paris Cit, Inserm and the Paris Public Hospital Network (AP-HP) have discovered a mechanism that enables cells infected with Listeria monocytogenes to escape immune responses. This mechanism provides infected cells circulating in the blood with a higher probability of adhering to and infecting cells of cerebral vessels, thereby enabling bacteria to cross the blood-brain barrier and infect the brain. […] The scientists first observed that inflammatory monocytes, a type of white blood cell, are infected by the bacteria. These infected monocytes circulate in the bloodstream and adhere to the cerebral vessels cells, allowing Listeria to infect the brain tissue.
  • #43 Discovery of an immune escape mechanism promoting Listeria infection of the central nervous system
    https://www.pasteur.fr/en/press-area/press-documents/discovery-immune-escape-mechanism-promoting-listeria-infection-central-nervous-system?language=fr
    The research team then demonstrated that InIB, a Listeria monocytogenes surface protein, enables the bacteria to evade the immune system and survive in the protective niche provided by the infected monocytes. […] InIB therefore enables infected cells to survive cytotoxic T lymphocytes. […] This mechanism extends the life span of infected cells, raising the number of infected monocytes in the blood and facilitating bacterial spread to host tissues, including the brain. […] It is possible that other intracellular pathogens such as Toxoplasma gondii and Mycobacterium tuberculosis use similar mechanisms to infect the brain. Identifying and understanding the immune escape mechanisms of infected cells could give rise to new therapeutic strategies to prevent infection and also pave the way for new immunosuppressive approaches for organ transplantation.
  • #44 Discovery of an immune escape mechanism promoting Listeria infection of the central nervous system – Inserm Newsroom
    https://presse.inserm.fr/en/discovery-of-an-immune-escape-mechanism-promoting-listeria-infection-of-the-central-nervous-system/60523/
    The research team then demonstrated that InIB, a Listeria monocytogenes surface protein, enables the bacteria to evade the immune system and survive in the protective niche provided by the infected monocytes. The interaction between InlB and its cellular receptor c-Met blocks the cell death mediated by cytotoxic T lymphocytes, which specifically target Listeria-infected cells. InIB therefore enables infected cells to survive cytotoxic T lymphocytes. […] This mechanism extends the life span of infected cells, raising the number of infected monocytes in the blood and facilitating bacterial spread to host tissues, including the brain. It also favors the persistence of Listeria in the gut tissue, its fecal excretion and transmission back to the environment. […] We discovered a specific, unexpected mechanism by which a pathogen increases the life span of the cells it infects by specifically blocking an immune system function that is crucial for controlling infection, explains Marc Lecuit (Universit Paris Cit and Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital (AP-HP)), head of the Biology of Infection Unit at the Institut Pasteur (Universit Paris Cit, Inserm).
  • #45 Discovery of an immune escape mechanism promoting Listeria infection of the central nervous system | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/03/220316120827.htm
    The interaction between InlB and its cellular receptor c-Met blocks the cell death mediated by cytotoxic T lymphocytes, which specifically target Listeria-infected cells. […] InIB therefore enables infected cells to survive cytotoxic T lymphocytes. […] This mechanism extends the life span of infected cells, raising the number of infected monocytes in the blood and facilitating bacterial spread to host tissues, including the brain. […] „We discovered a specific, unexpected mechanism by which a pathogen increases the life span of the cells it infects by specifically blocking an immune system function that is crucial for controlling infection,” explains Marc Lecuit. […] It is possible that other intracellular pathogens such as Toxoplasma gondii and Mycobacterium tuberculosis use similar mechanisms to infect the brain.
  • #46 Discovery of an immune escape mechanism promoting Listeria infection of the central nervous system
    https://www.pasteur.fr/en/press-area/press-documents/discovery-immune-escape-mechanism-promoting-listeria-infection-central-nervous-system?language=fr
    The research team then demonstrated that InIB, a Listeria monocytogenes surface protein, enables the bacteria to evade the immune system and survive in the protective niche provided by the infected monocytes. […] InIB therefore enables infected cells to survive cytotoxic T lymphocytes. […] This mechanism extends the life span of infected cells, raising the number of infected monocytes in the blood and facilitating bacterial spread to host tissues, including the brain. […] It is possible that other intracellular pathogens such as Toxoplasma gondii and Mycobacterium tuberculosis use similar mechanisms to infect the brain. Identifying and understanding the immune escape mechanisms of infected cells could give rise to new therapeutic strategies to prevent infection and also pave the way for new immunosuppressive approaches for organ transplantation.
  • #47 Discovery of an immune escape mechanism promoting Listeria infection of the central nervous system
    https://medicalxpress.com/news/2022-03-discovery-immune-mechanism-listeria-infection.html
    Some hypervirulent strains of Listeria monocytogenes have a greater capacity to infect the central nervous system. […] Scientists from the Biology of Infection Unit at the Institut Pasteur (Université Paris Cité, Inserm) and the Listeria National Reference Center and WHO Collaborating Center led by Marc Lecuit (Université Paris Cité and Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital (AP-HP)) recently discovered the mechanism by which Listeria monocytogenes infects the central nervous system. […] The research team then demonstrated that InIB, a Listeria monocytogenes surface protein, enables the bacteria to evade the immune system and survive in the protective niche provided by the infected monocytes. […] „We discovered a specific, unexpected mechanism by which a pathogen increases the life span of the cells it infects by specifically blocking an immune system function that is crucial for controlling infection,” explains Marc Lecuit (Université Paris Cité and Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital (AP-HP)), head of the Biology of Infection Unit at the Institut Pasteur (Université Paris Cité, Inserm). […] It is possible that other intracellular pathogens such as Toxoplasma gondii and Mycobacterium tuberculosis use similar mechanisms to infect the brain.
  • #48 Listeria Infection: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/965841-overview
    Listeriosis is an infection caused by the gram-positive motile bacterium Listeria monocytogenes. L monocytogenes is acquired via the ingestion of contaminated food products. L monocytogenes is a gram-positive, motile, rod-shaped bacterium that is ubiquitous in the environment. The principal route of acquisition of Listeria is through the ingestion of contaminated food products. Ingestion of Listeria by pregnant women can result in nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, fever, malaise, back pain, and headache. Maternal infection with Listeria can result in chorioamnionitis, premature labor, spontaneous abortion, or stillbirth. Fetal infection can occur via transplacental transmission. Vertical transmission can also occur from mother to infant via passage through an infected birth canal or ascending infection through ruptured amniotic membranes. Two clinical presentations of neonatal infections occur: early onset ( 5 d) and late onset (5 d). Early onset neonatal listeriosis is usually associated with sepsis or meningitis. Late-onset neonatal listeriosis frequently presents with purulent meningitis. Listeriosis often involves many organs with microabscesses or granulomas. A disseminated rash with small, pale, granulomatous nodules is histologically characteristic of granulomatosis infantisepticum. Beyond the neonatal period, most children with Listeria infections have an underlying immunodeficiency or are immunocompromised. Older children with Listeria infections frequently develop meningitis.
  • #49 Food poisoning by Listeria monocytogenes (Listeriosis)
    https://microbenotes.com/listeriosis/
    The organism gets trapped by a phagosome after the entry into the host cell but it escapes with the help of an enzyme listeriolysin O (LLO) and phospholipase. […] These enzymes form monomer units in the membrane with the formation of pores resulting in the lysis of cells and inducing apoptosis leading to disruption of the membrane, releasing intracellular enzymes, and degrading DNA. […] During infection, 90% of the organism infects the liver and 10% infects the spleen. Neutrophils, Kupffer cells, and macrophages control the infection in the liver as soon as the organism enters the infected hepatocytes. […] ActA Actin polymerization protein (ActA) aids the bacterial movement within the cytoplasm and spreads cell to cell causing systemic listeriosis. […] The bacterial colonization in the uterus results in abortion and premature childbirth which gets accessed by hematogenous penetration of the placental barrier. […] This causes placental infection characterized by numerous microabscesses focal necrotizing villitis which subsequently causes the death of the fetus.
  • #50 Listeria monocytogenes: Microbiology, Sites of Infection and Treatment – Nova Science Publishers
    https://novapublishers.com/shop/listeria-monocytogenes-microbiology-sites-of-infection-and-treatment/
    Listeria monocytogenes is a Gram-positive soil bacterium that is ubiquitous. […] It is a pathogenic bacterium with a dual lifestyle: it develops as a full normal bacterium in the environment, but when it enters the human body, it grows as an intracellular invasive pathogen that causes listeriosis. […] Chapter 2. Pathogenesis of Listeria monocytogenes […] Chapter 6. Control and Prevention of Listeria monocytogenes and Its Infection […] Chapter 7. Treatment of Listeria monocytogenes Infection.
  • #51 Listeria monocytogenes Pathogenesis: The Role of Stress Adaptation
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2607/10/8/1522
    Adaptive stress tolerance responses are the driving force behind the survival ability of Listeria monocytogenes in different environmental niches, within foods, and ultimately, the ability to cause human infections. […] Some aspects of the stress responses are linked to bacterial pathogenesis. […] Food stress-induced adaptive tolerance responses to acid and osmotic stresses can protect the pathogen against similar stresses in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and, thus, directly aid its virulence potential. […] Once in the GIT, the reprogramming of gene expression from the stress survival-related genes to virulence-related genes allows L. monocytogenes to switch from an avirulent to a virulent state. […] This transition is controlled by two overlapping and interlinked transcriptional networks for general stress response (regulated by Sigma factor B, (SigB)) and virulence (regulated by the positive regulatory factor A (PrfA)).
  • #52 Listeria monocytogenes Pathogenesis: The Role of Stress Adaptation
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2607/10/8/1522
    The high tropism of L. monocytogenes for these tissues is unclear. […] The invasion of the CNS is facilitated by both InlA and InlB mechanisms. […] The ability of L. monocytogenes to sense and respond to environmental changes is essential to its survival. […] The successful colonization and subsequent GIT invasion by L. monocytogenes rely on the ability of the pathogen to overcome the harsh conditions associated with the innate defences of the GIT. […] The critical role of acid stress adaptation in L. monocytogenes pathogenesis has been demonstrated through in vitro infection models of enterocyte-like cells and mice models. […] The importance of carnitine as the preferred osmolyte in the GIT survival of L. monocytogenes is probably linked to its relative abundance in mammalian tissues. […] The regulatory overlap between the stress response and virulence serves as a point of coordination that facilitates a smooth transition from the avirulent saprophytic survival state to a virulent pathogenic state once inside the host.
  • #53 Listeria monocytogenes Pathogenesis: The Role of Stress Adaptation
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2607/10/8/1522
    The high tropism of L. monocytogenes for these tissues is unclear. […] The invasion of the CNS is facilitated by both InlA and InlB mechanisms. […] The ability of L. monocytogenes to sense and respond to environmental changes is essential to its survival. […] The successful colonization and subsequent GIT invasion by L. monocytogenes rely on the ability of the pathogen to overcome the harsh conditions associated with the innate defences of the GIT. […] The critical role of acid stress adaptation in L. monocytogenes pathogenesis has been demonstrated through in vitro infection models of enterocyte-like cells and mice models. […] The importance of carnitine as the preferred osmolyte in the GIT survival of L. monocytogenes is probably linked to its relative abundance in mammalian tissues. […] The regulatory overlap between the stress response and virulence serves as a point of coordination that facilitates a smooth transition from the avirulent saprophytic survival state to a virulent pathogenic state once inside the host.
  • #54 Listeria (Listeriosis) | FDA
    https://www.fda.gov/food/foodborne-pathogens/listeria-listeriosis
    Listeria monocytogenes (L. monocytogenes) is a type of disease-causing bacteria that can be found in many places, including soil, water, sewage, rotting vegetation, and animals. It can survive and grow even under refrigeration. L. monocytogenes can thrive in unsanitary food production conditions, leading to contamination of the food. When people eat food contaminated with L. monocytogenes, they may develop a disease called listeriosis. […] L. monocytogenes is generally transmitted when food is harvested, processed, prepared, packed, transported, or stored in manufacturing or production environments contaminated with L. monocytogenes. Environments can become contaminated by raw materials, water, soil, and incoming air. Pets can also spread the bacteria in the home if they eat food contaminated with L. monocytogenes. […] Unlike most bacteria, L. monocytogenes can grow at refrigeration temperatures and freezing will not eliminate or reduce the pathogen.
  • #55 Listeria monocytogenes Pathogenesis: The Role of Stress Adaptation
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2607/10/8/1522
    Adaptive stress tolerance responses are the driving force behind the survival ability of Listeria monocytogenes in different environmental niches, within foods, and ultimately, the ability to cause human infections. […] Some aspects of the stress responses are linked to bacterial pathogenesis. […] Food stress-induced adaptive tolerance responses to acid and osmotic stresses can protect the pathogen against similar stresses in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and, thus, directly aid its virulence potential. […] Once in the GIT, the reprogramming of gene expression from the stress survival-related genes to virulence-related genes allows L. monocytogenes to switch from an avirulent to a virulent state. […] This transition is controlled by two overlapping and interlinked transcriptional networks for general stress response (regulated by Sigma factor B, (SigB)) and virulence (regulated by the positive regulatory factor A (PrfA)).
  • #56 The redox-responsive transcriptional regulator Rex represses fermentative metabolism and is required for Listeria monocytogenes pathogenesis | PLOS Pathogens
    https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1009379
    The Gram-positive bacterium Listeria monocytogenes is the causative agent of the foodborne disease listeriosis, one of the deadliest bacterial infections known. […] In this study, we investigated the role of the redox-responsive transcriptional regulator Rex in L. monocytogenes growth and pathogenesis. […] Here, we demonstrated that L. monocytogenes Rex represses fermentative metabolism and is therefore required for optimal growth in the presence of oxygen. […] We also show that in vitro, Rex represses the production of virulence factors required for survival and invasion of the GI tract, as a strain lacking rex was more resistant to acidified bile and invaded host cells better than wild type. […] Taken together, these results demonstrated that Rex functions as a repressor of fermentative metabolism and suggests a role for Rex-dependent regulation in L. monocytogenes pathogenesis.
  • #57 Azthena logo with the word Azthena
    https://www.news-medical.net/health/Listeria-Pathogenesis.aspx
    Factors involved in the intracellular cycle are tightly controlled by a specific PrfA protein, which is in turn regulated by different mechanisms operating at the transcriptional, translational and post-translational levels. Additionally, other regulatory mechanisms have also been described, such as sigma factor, antisense RNA and system VirR/S (although PrfA is still the most important control mechanism).
  • #58 Listeria monocytogenes Pathogenesis: The Role of Stress Adaptation
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2607/10/8/1522
    Adaptive stress tolerance responses are the driving force behind the survival ability of Listeria monocytogenes in different environmental niches, within foods, and ultimately, the ability to cause human infections. […] Some aspects of the stress responses are linked to bacterial pathogenesis. […] Food stress-induced adaptive tolerance responses to acid and osmotic stresses can protect the pathogen against similar stresses in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and, thus, directly aid its virulence potential. […] Once in the GIT, the reprogramming of gene expression from the stress survival-related genes to virulence-related genes allows L. monocytogenes to switch from an avirulent to a virulent state. […] This transition is controlled by two overlapping and interlinked transcriptional networks for general stress response (regulated by Sigma factor B, (SigB)) and virulence (regulated by the positive regulatory factor A (PrfA)).
  • #59 Listeria – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listeria
    Listeria is responsible for listeriosis, a rare but potentially lethal foodborne illness. The case fatality rate for those with a severe form of infection may approach 25%. […] Although L. monocytogenes has low infectivity, it is hardy and can grow in temperatures from a refrigerator temperature of 4 C (39.2 F) up to the human body temperature of 37 C (98.6 F). Listeriosis may manifest as meningitis, and can affect newborns due to its ability to penetrate the endothelial layer of the placenta. […] Listeria uses the cellular machinery to move around inside the host cell. It induces directed polymerization of actin by the ActA transmembrane protein, thus pushing the bacterial cell around. […] Listeria monocytogenes, for example, encodes virulence genes that are thermoregulated. The expression of virulence factor is optimal at 39 C, and is controlled by a transcriptional activator, PrfA, whose expression is thermoregulated by the PrfA thermoregulator UTR element.
  • #60 The redox-responsive transcriptional regulator Rex represses fermentative metabolism and is required for Listeria monocytogenes pathogenesis | PLOS Pathogens
    https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1009379
    The Gram-positive bacterium Listeria monocytogenes is the causative agent of the foodborne disease listeriosis, one of the deadliest bacterial infections known. […] In this study, we investigated the role of the redox-responsive transcriptional regulator Rex in L. monocytogenes growth and pathogenesis. […] Here, we demonstrated that L. monocytogenes Rex represses fermentative metabolism and is therefore required for optimal growth in the presence of oxygen. […] We also show that in vitro, Rex represses the production of virulence factors required for survival and invasion of the GI tract, as a strain lacking rex was more resistant to acidified bile and invaded host cells better than wild type. […] Taken together, these results demonstrated that Rex functions as a repressor of fermentative metabolism and suggests a role for Rex-dependent regulation in L. monocytogenes pathogenesis.
  • #61 Azthena logo with the word Azthena
    https://www.news-medical.net/health/Listeria-Pathogenesis.aspx
    Factors involved in the intracellular cycle are tightly controlled by a specific PrfA protein, which is in turn regulated by different mechanisms operating at the transcriptional, translational and post-translational levels. Additionally, other regulatory mechanisms have also been described, such as sigma factor, antisense RNA and system VirR/S (although PrfA is still the most important control mechanism).
  • #62 Listeria monocytogenes: towards a complete picture of its physiology and pathogenesis | Nature Reviews Microbiology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro.2017.126
    Listeria monocytogenes is a food-borne pathogen that primarily afflicts immunocompromised individuals and can provoke septicaemia, meningitis and fetal infection or abortion in infected pregnant women. […] L. monocytogenes is an excellent model for intracellular infection, as it mediates its own uptake into non-phagocytic cells, subsequently escapes from the vacuole, polymerizes actin to spread from cell to cell and secretes factors that alter transcription, post-translational modifications, innate immune signalling and cytoskeletal rearrangements. […] L. monocytogenes can traverse three distinct epithelial barriers and competes for a niche in the dense intestinal microbiota through upregulation of metabolic pathways and the secretion of toxic bactericidal factors. […] L. monocytogenes utilizes a plethora of complex regulation strategies such as riboregulators and small non-coding RNAs to quickly adapt to and thrive in highly divergent physiological contexts.
  • #63 Listeria monocytogenes: towards a complete picture of its physiology and pathogenesis | Nature Reviews Microbiology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro.2017.126
    We describe unsuspected modes of hijacking host cell biology, ranging from changes in organelle morphology to direct effects on host transcription via a new class of bacterial effectors called nucleomodulins. […] Finally, we describe the complexity of bacterial regulation and physiology, incorporating new insights into the mechanisms of action of a series of riboregulators that are critical for efficient metabolic regulation, antibiotic resistance and interspecies competition. […] This study highlights the role of L. monocytogenes transcytosis of goblet cells for intestinal epithelial barrier crossing. […] This work reveals that the L. monocytogenes virulence factor InlC alters cell rigidity in order to facilitate bacterial cell-to-cell spread. […] This paper highlights the involvement of efferocytosis in the recipient cell during cell-to-cell spread.
  • #64 Listeria monocytogenes Pathogenesis: The Role of Stress Adaptation
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2607/10/8/1522
    Adaptive stress tolerance responses are the driving force behind the survival ability of Listeria monocytogenes in different environmental niches, within foods, and ultimately, the ability to cause human infections. […] Some aspects of the stress responses are linked to bacterial pathogenesis. […] Food stress-induced adaptive tolerance responses to acid and osmotic stresses can protect the pathogen against similar stresses in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and, thus, directly aid its virulence potential. […] Once in the GIT, the reprogramming of gene expression from the stress survival-related genes to virulence-related genes allows L. monocytogenes to switch from an avirulent to a virulent state. […] This transition is controlled by two overlapping and interlinked transcriptional networks for general stress response (regulated by Sigma factor B, (SigB)) and virulence (regulated by the positive regulatory factor A (PrfA)).
  • #65 Listeria – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listeria
    Listeria is responsible for listeriosis, a rare but potentially lethal foodborne illness. The case fatality rate for those with a severe form of infection may approach 25%. […] Although L. monocytogenes has low infectivity, it is hardy and can grow in temperatures from a refrigerator temperature of 4 C (39.2 F) up to the human body temperature of 37 C (98.6 F). Listeriosis may manifest as meningitis, and can affect newborns due to its ability to penetrate the endothelial layer of the placenta. […] Listeria uses the cellular machinery to move around inside the host cell. It induces directed polymerization of actin by the ActA transmembrane protein, thus pushing the bacterial cell around. […] Listeria monocytogenes, for example, encodes virulence genes that are thermoregulated. The expression of virulence factor is optimal at 39 C, and is controlled by a transcriptional activator, PrfA, whose expression is thermoregulated by the PrfA thermoregulator UTR element.
  • #66 Listeria monocytogenes | SpringerLink
    https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4939-7349-1_13
    Listeria monocytogenes is an opportunistic intracellular pathogen. […] The intestinal phase of infection is a complex process, and the mechanism is not fully understood. […] L. monocytogenes crossing of the intestinal epithelial barrier, invasion into mammalian cells, survival inside the phagosome, and escape into the cytoplasm, growth, and cell-to-cell spread is well understood. […] These events are orchestrated by numerous virulence factors such as Listeria adhesion protein (LAP), internalin A (InlA), InlB, listeriolysin O (LLO), actin polymerization protein (ActA), phospholipase C (PLC), metalloprotease (Mpl), hexose phosphate transport permease (Hpt), and lipoprotein ligase (LpL). […] Immune response to L. monocytogenes is largely dependent on the innate immunity involving neutrophils, dendritic cells, NK cells, and macrophages and cell-mediated immunity involving CD8+ T-cell subsets.
  • #67 Listeria monocytogenes | SpringerLink
    https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4939-7349-1_13
    Listeria monocytogenes is an opportunistic intracellular pathogen. […] The intestinal phase of infection is a complex process, and the mechanism is not fully understood. […] L. monocytogenes crossing of the intestinal epithelial barrier, invasion into mammalian cells, survival inside the phagosome, and escape into the cytoplasm, growth, and cell-to-cell spread is well understood. […] These events are orchestrated by numerous virulence factors such as Listeria adhesion protein (LAP), internalin A (InlA), InlB, listeriolysin O (LLO), actin polymerization protein (ActA), phospholipase C (PLC), metalloprotease (Mpl), hexose phosphate transport permease (Hpt), and lipoprotein ligase (LpL). […] Immune response to L. monocytogenes is largely dependent on the innate immunity involving neutrophils, dendritic cells, NK cells, and macrophages and cell-mediated immunity involving CD8+ T-cell subsets.
  • #68 Listeria monocytogenes—How This Pathogen Uses Its Virulence Mechanisms to Infect the Hosts
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/11/12/1491
    L. monocytogenes adheres to the E-cadherin or c-Met host receptors is then covered by a phagocytic vacuole in macrophages and enters cells. […] L. monocytogenes, unlike other bacteria, is not destroyed inside the host cell vacuoles due to the production of endogenic factors, mainly listeriolysin O (LLO), a pH- and cholesterol-dependent toxin with pore-forming activity, and GILT (Gamma-interferon Inducible Lysosomal Thiol reductase), found inside the phagosome, which mediate vacuole degradation and bacteria escape to the cytosol. […] After crossing the intestinal barrier and multiplying in the small intestinal lamina propria, L. monocytogenes disseminates to the host organs such as the liver, the spleen, and the mesenteric lymph nodes. […] The majority of the cells are trapped in the liver, cleared from the blood circulatory system, and then inactivated through the host immune system, mainly with professional liver phagocytes (Kupffer cells), other mononuclear phagocytic cells, neutrophils, dendritic cells, and natural killer (NK) cells.
  • #69 Listeria monocytogenes | SpringerLink
    https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4939-7349-1_13
    Listeria monocytogenes is an opportunistic intracellular pathogen. […] The intestinal phase of infection is a complex process, and the mechanism is not fully understood. […] L. monocytogenes crossing of the intestinal epithelial barrier, invasion into mammalian cells, survival inside the phagosome, and escape into the cytoplasm, growth, and cell-to-cell spread is well understood. […] These events are orchestrated by numerous virulence factors such as Listeria adhesion protein (LAP), internalin A (InlA), InlB, listeriolysin O (LLO), actin polymerization protein (ActA), phospholipase C (PLC), metalloprotease (Mpl), hexose phosphate transport permease (Hpt), and lipoprotein ligase (LpL). […] Immune response to L. monocytogenes is largely dependent on the innate immunity involving neutrophils, dendritic cells, NK cells, and macrophages and cell-mediated immunity involving CD8+ T-cell subsets.
  • #70 Virulence factors, Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Listeria monocytogenes
    https://microbenotes.com/virulence-factors-pathogenesis-and-clinical-manifestations-of-listeria-monocytogenes/
    L monocytogenes can move from cell to cell without being exposed to antibodies, complement, or polymorphonuclear cells. […] Iron is an important virulence factor and hence Listeria produce siderophores and are able to obtain iron from transferrin. […] If the T cellmediated immune response of the host is inadequate, Listeria monocytogenes can multiply in hepatocytes and macrophages freely, able to reach various organs via blood particularly the brain or uterus right through the bloodbrain barrier or the placental barrier. […] Immunity to L monocytogenes is primarily cell mediated, as demonstrated by the intracellular location of infection and by the marked association of infection with conditions of impaired cell-mediated immunity such as pregnancy, advanced age, AIDS, lymphoma, and organ transplantation. […] Immunity can be transferred by sensitized lymphocytes but not by antibodies.
  • #71 Listeria monocytogenes | SpringerLink
    https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4939-7349-1_13
    Humoral immunity possibly has limited or no role in the immunity. […] Drolia, R., Tenguria, S., Durkes, A.C., Turner, J.R., and Bhunia, A.K. (2018) Listeria adhesion protein induces intestinal epithelial barrier dysfunction for bacterial translocation. […] Radoshevich, L., and Cossart, P. (2018) Listeria monocytogenes: towards a complete picture of its physiology and pathogenesis.
  • #72 Virulence factors, Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Listeria monocytogenes
    https://microbenotes.com/virulence-factors-pathogenesis-and-clinical-manifestations-of-listeria-monocytogenes/
    L monocytogenes can move from cell to cell without being exposed to antibodies, complement, or polymorphonuclear cells. […] Iron is an important virulence factor and hence Listeria produce siderophores and are able to obtain iron from transferrin. […] If the T cellmediated immune response of the host is inadequate, Listeria monocytogenes can multiply in hepatocytes and macrophages freely, able to reach various organs via blood particularly the brain or uterus right through the bloodbrain barrier or the placental barrier. […] Immunity to L monocytogenes is primarily cell mediated, as demonstrated by the intracellular location of infection and by the marked association of infection with conditions of impaired cell-mediated immunity such as pregnancy, advanced age, AIDS, lymphoma, and organ transplantation. […] Immunity can be transferred by sensitized lymphocytes but not by antibodies.
  • #73 Virulence factors, Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Listeria monocytogenes
    https://microbenotes.com/virulence-factors-pathogenesis-and-clinical-manifestations-of-listeria-monocytogenes/
    L monocytogenes can move from cell to cell without being exposed to antibodies, complement, or polymorphonuclear cells. […] Iron is an important virulence factor and hence Listeria produce siderophores and are able to obtain iron from transferrin. […] If the T cellmediated immune response of the host is inadequate, Listeria monocytogenes can multiply in hepatocytes and macrophages freely, able to reach various organs via blood particularly the brain or uterus right through the bloodbrain barrier or the placental barrier. […] Immunity to L monocytogenes is primarily cell mediated, as demonstrated by the intracellular location of infection and by the marked association of infection with conditions of impaired cell-mediated immunity such as pregnancy, advanced age, AIDS, lymphoma, and organ transplantation. […] Immunity can be transferred by sensitized lymphocytes but not by antibodies.
  • #74 Virulence factors, Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Listeria monocytogenes
    https://microbenotes.com/virulence-factors-pathogenesis-and-clinical-manifestations-of-listeria-monocytogenes/
    L monocytogenes can move from cell to cell without being exposed to antibodies, complement, or polymorphonuclear cells. […] Iron is an important virulence factor and hence Listeria produce siderophores and are able to obtain iron from transferrin. […] If the T cellmediated immune response of the host is inadequate, Listeria monocytogenes can multiply in hepatocytes and macrophages freely, able to reach various organs via blood particularly the brain or uterus right through the bloodbrain barrier or the placental barrier. […] Immunity to L monocytogenes is primarily cell mediated, as demonstrated by the intracellular location of infection and by the marked association of infection with conditions of impaired cell-mediated immunity such as pregnancy, advanced age, AIDS, lymphoma, and organ transplantation. […] Immunity can be transferred by sensitized lymphocytes but not by antibodies.
  • #75 Listeria monocytogenes—How This Pathogen Uses Its Virulence Mechanisms to Infect the Hosts
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/11/12/1491
    After bacteria-containing finger-like protrusion membrane structures of more than ten microns long are formed, L. monocytogenes is ready to spread mainly to adjacent cells and, to a much less extent, to other non-adjacent cells. […] Direct cell-to-cell transfer of L. monocytogenes allows the pathogen to resist the humoral and the cytotoxic T cell host immune responses. […] The bacterium possesses several virulence factors, responsible for epithelial cell adhesion, cell-to-cell spread, intracellular multiplication, and crossing of natural host barriers.
  • #76 Virulence factors, Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Listeria monocytogenes
    https://microbenotes.com/virulence-factors-pathogenesis-and-clinical-manifestations-of-listeria-monocytogenes/
    Human infections may result if 106109 pathogens enter the gastrointestinal tract after ingestion of contaminated foods such as cheese, fruit, or vegetables. […] The organism has several adhesin proteins (Ami, Fbp A, and flagellin proteins) that facilitate bacterial binding to the host cells contributing to virulence. […] L. monocytogenes enters phagocytic and nonphagocytic cells and a listerial surface protein, internalin A and B that interact with E-cadherin, a receptor on epithelial cells, promoting phagocytosis into the epithelial cells. […] After phagocytosis, the bacterium is enclosed in a phagolysosome, where the low pH activates the bacterium to produce listeriolysin O. […] This enzyme, along with two phospholipases, lyses the membrane of the phagolysosome and allows the listeriae to escape into the cytoplasm of the epithelial cell and the organisms proliferate.
  • #77
    https://www.gbif.org/species/144093485
    Listeria monocytogenes causes the disease listeriosis. Invasive infection by L. monocytogenes causes the disease listeriosis. The manifestations of listeriosis include sepsis, meningitis (or meningoencephalitis), encephalitis, corneal ulcer, pneumonia, myocarditis, and intrauterine or cervical infections in pregnant women, which may result in spontaneous abortion (second to third trimester) or stillbirth. L. monocytogenes may invade the gastrointestinal epithelium. Once the bacterium enters the host’s monocytes, macrophages, or polymorphonuclear leukocytes, it becomes bloodborne (sepsis) and can grow. Its presence intracellularly in phagocytic cells also permits access to the brain and probably transplacental migration to the fetus in pregnant women. This process is known as the „Trojan Horse mechanism”. The pathogenesis of L. monocytogenes centers on its ability to survive and multiply in phagocytic host cells. It seems that Listeria originally evolved to invade membranes of the intestines, as an intracellular infection, and developed a chemical mechanism to do so. This involves a bacterial protein internalin (InlA/InlB), which attaches to a protein on the intestinal cell membrane „cadherin” and allows the bacteria to invade the cells through a zipper mechanism. Once inside the cell, L. monocytogenes rapidly acidifies the lumen of the vacuole formed around it during cell entry to activate listeriolysin O, a cholesterol-dependent cytolysin capable of disrupting the vacuolar membrane. This frees the pathogen and gives it access to the cytosol of the cell, where it continues its pathogenesis. Motility in the intracellular space is provided by actin assembly-inducing protein, which allows the bacteria to use the host cell’s actin polymerization machinery to polymerize the cytoskeleton to give a „boost” to the bacterial cell so it can move in the cell. The same mechanism also allows the bacteria to travel from cell to cell. L. monocytogenes can act as a saprophyte or a pathogen, depending on its environment. When this bacterium is present within a host organism, quorum sensing and other signals cause the up-regulation of several virulence genes. Depending on the location of the bacterium within the host organism, different activators up-regulate the virulence genes. SigB, an alternative sigma factor, up-regulates Vir genes in the intestines, whereas PrfA up-regulates gene expression when the bacterium is present in blood. L. monocytogenes also senses the entry to host by examining available nutrient sources. The infective dose of L. monocytogenes varies with the strain and with the susceptibility of the victim. L. monocytogenes has three distinct lineages, with differing evolutionary histories and pathogenic potentials. Lineage I strains contain the majority of human clinical isolates and all human epidemic clones, but are underrepresented in animal clinical isolates. Lineage II strains are overrepresented in animal cases and underrepresented in human clinical cases, and are more prevalent in environmental and food samples. Lineage III isolates are very rare, but significantly more common in animal than human isolates.
  • #78 Discovery of an immune escape mechanism promoting Listeria infection of the central nervous system – Inserm Newsroom
    https://presse.inserm.fr/en/discovery-of-an-immune-escape-mechanism-promoting-listeria-infection-of-the-central-nervous-system/60523/
    The research team then demonstrated that InIB, a Listeria monocytogenes surface protein, enables the bacteria to evade the immune system and survive in the protective niche provided by the infected monocytes. The interaction between InlB and its cellular receptor c-Met blocks the cell death mediated by cytotoxic T lymphocytes, which specifically target Listeria-infected cells. InIB therefore enables infected cells to survive cytotoxic T lymphocytes. […] This mechanism extends the life span of infected cells, raising the number of infected monocytes in the blood and facilitating bacterial spread to host tissues, including the brain. It also favors the persistence of Listeria in the gut tissue, its fecal excretion and transmission back to the environment. […] We discovered a specific, unexpected mechanism by which a pathogen increases the life span of the cells it infects by specifically blocking an immune system function that is crucial for controlling infection, explains Marc Lecuit (Universit Paris Cit and Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital (AP-HP)), head of the Biology of Infection Unit at the Institut Pasteur (Universit Paris Cit, Inserm).
  • #79 Discovery of an immune escape mechanism promoting Listeria infection of the central nervous system | ScienceDaily
    https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/03/220316120827.htm
    The interaction between InlB and its cellular receptor c-Met blocks the cell death mediated by cytotoxic T lymphocytes, which specifically target Listeria-infected cells. […] InIB therefore enables infected cells to survive cytotoxic T lymphocytes. […] This mechanism extends the life span of infected cells, raising the number of infected monocytes in the blood and facilitating bacterial spread to host tissues, including the brain. […] „We discovered a specific, unexpected mechanism by which a pathogen increases the life span of the cells it infects by specifically blocking an immune system function that is crucial for controlling infection,” explains Marc Lecuit. […] It is possible that other intracellular pathogens such as Toxoplasma gondii and Mycobacterium tuberculosis use similar mechanisms to infect the brain.
  • #80 Azthena logo with the word Azthena
    https://www.news-medical.net/news/20220316/Scientists-discover-mechanism-that-enables-Listeria-infected-cells-to-escape-immune-responses.aspx
    This mechanism extends the life span of infected cells, raising the number of infected monocytes in the blood and facilitating bacterial spread to host tissues, including the brain. It also favors the persistence of Listeria in the gut tissue, its fecal excretion and transmission back to the environment. […] We discovered a specific, unexpected mechanism by which a pathogen increases the life span of the cells it infects by specifically blocking an immune system function that is crucial for controlling infection.
  • #81 Characterization of the pathogenesis and immune response to Listeria monocytogenes strains isolated from a sustained national outbreak | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-56028-3
    is an intracellular pathogen responsible for listeriosis, a foodborne disease that can lead to life-threatening meningitis. […] We showed that LS741 and LS743 exhibited increased virulence, characterized by higher colonization of the brain and other organs in mice. […] These studies provide insights into the pathogenesis of clinical isolates linked to the 2011 cantaloupe outbreak and also indicate that currently utilized laboratory strains are imperfect models for studying pathogenesis. […] Our data demonstrated that the outbreak strains are highly invasive in human cells and more virulent in mice compared to the 10403S laboratory strain. […] The outbreak strains demonstrated a 2-3 log increase in bacterial burden compared to undetectable levels of 10403S in the brain following oral infection.
  • #82 Characterization of the pathogenesis and immune response to Listeria monocytogenes strains isolated from a sustained national outbreak | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-56028-3
    is an intracellular pathogen responsible for listeriosis, a foodborne disease that can lead to life-threatening meningitis. […] We showed that LS741 and LS743 exhibited increased virulence, characterized by higher colonization of the brain and other organs in mice. […] These studies provide insights into the pathogenesis of clinical isolates linked to the 2011 cantaloupe outbreak and also indicate that currently utilized laboratory strains are imperfect models for studying pathogenesis. […] Our data demonstrated that the outbreak strains are highly invasive in human cells and more virulent in mice compared to the 10403S laboratory strain. […] The outbreak strains demonstrated a 2-3 log increase in bacterial burden compared to undetectable levels of 10403S in the brain following oral infection.
  • #83 Discovery of an immune escape mechanism promoting Listeria infection of the central nervous system
    https://www.pasteur.fr/en/press-area/press-documents/discovery-immune-escape-mechanism-promoting-listeria-infection-central-nervous-system?language=fr
    Some „hypervirulent” strains of Listeria monocytogenes have a greater capacity to infect the central nervous system. […] This mechanism provides infected cells circulating in the blood with a higher probability of adhering to and infecting cells of cerebral vessels, thereby enabling bacteria to cross the blood-brain barrier and infect the brain. […] Listeria monocytogenes is the bacterium responsible for human listeriosis, a severe foodborne illness that can lead to a central nervous system infection known as neurolisteriosis. […] The scientists first observed that inflammatory monocytes, a type of white blood cell, are infected by the bacteria. These infected monocytes circulate in the bloodstream and adhere to the cerebral vessels cells, allowing Listeria to infect the brain tissue.
  • #84 Discovery of an immune escape mechanism promoting Listeria infection of the central nervous system
    https://medicalxpress.com/news/2022-03-discovery-immune-mechanism-listeria-infection.html
    Some hypervirulent strains of Listeria monocytogenes have a greater capacity to infect the central nervous system. […] Scientists from the Biology of Infection Unit at the Institut Pasteur (Université Paris Cité, Inserm) and the Listeria National Reference Center and WHO Collaborating Center led by Marc Lecuit (Université Paris Cité and Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital (AP-HP)) recently discovered the mechanism by which Listeria monocytogenes infects the central nervous system. […] The research team then demonstrated that InIB, a Listeria monocytogenes surface protein, enables the bacteria to evade the immune system and survive in the protective niche provided by the infected monocytes. […] „We discovered a specific, unexpected mechanism by which a pathogen increases the life span of the cells it infects by specifically blocking an immune system function that is crucial for controlling infection,” explains Marc Lecuit (Université Paris Cité and Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital (AP-HP)), head of the Biology of Infection Unit at the Institut Pasteur (Université Paris Cité, Inserm). […] It is possible that other intracellular pathogens such as Toxoplasma gondii and Mycobacterium tuberculosis use similar mechanisms to infect the brain.
  • #85 Characterization of the pathogenesis and immune response to Listeria monocytogenes strains isolated from a sustained national outbreak | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-56028-3
    These results suggest that the increased invasion and cell-to-cell spread capability of LS741 and LS743 mediates an enhanced ability to colonize multiple organs during infection of the host. […] Our studies do not preclude that expression differences or mutations in other identified or previously unknown virulence determinants play a role in the increased survival, invasion or cell-to-cell spread of the outbreak-associated strains. […] Our studies highlight that widely used laboratory strains may serve as incomplete models to study disease phenotypes relevant to infection in humans.
  • #86
    https://www.gbif.org/species/144093485
    Listeria monocytogenes causes the disease listeriosis. Invasive infection by L. monocytogenes causes the disease listeriosis. The manifestations of listeriosis include sepsis, meningitis (or meningoencephalitis), encephalitis, corneal ulcer, pneumonia, myocarditis, and intrauterine or cervical infections in pregnant women, which may result in spontaneous abortion (second to third trimester) or stillbirth. L. monocytogenes may invade the gastrointestinal epithelium. Once the bacterium enters the host’s monocytes, macrophages, or polymorphonuclear leukocytes, it becomes bloodborne (sepsis) and can grow. Its presence intracellularly in phagocytic cells also permits access to the brain and probably transplacental migration to the fetus in pregnant women. This process is known as the „Trojan Horse mechanism”. The pathogenesis of L. monocytogenes centers on its ability to survive and multiply in phagocytic host cells. It seems that Listeria originally evolved to invade membranes of the intestines, as an intracellular infection, and developed a chemical mechanism to do so. This involves a bacterial protein internalin (InlA/InlB), which attaches to a protein on the intestinal cell membrane „cadherin” and allows the bacteria to invade the cells through a zipper mechanism. Once inside the cell, L. monocytogenes rapidly acidifies the lumen of the vacuole formed around it during cell entry to activate listeriolysin O, a cholesterol-dependent cytolysin capable of disrupting the vacuolar membrane. This frees the pathogen and gives it access to the cytosol of the cell, where it continues its pathogenesis. Motility in the intracellular space is provided by actin assembly-inducing protein, which allows the bacteria to use the host cell’s actin polymerization machinery to polymerize the cytoskeleton to give a „boost” to the bacterial cell so it can move in the cell. The same mechanism also allows the bacteria to travel from cell to cell. L. monocytogenes can act as a saprophyte or a pathogen, depending on its environment. When this bacterium is present within a host organism, quorum sensing and other signals cause the up-regulation of several virulence genes. Depending on the location of the bacterium within the host organism, different activators up-regulate the virulence genes. SigB, an alternative sigma factor, up-regulates Vir genes in the intestines, whereas PrfA up-regulates gene expression when the bacterium is present in blood. L. monocytogenes also senses the entry to host by examining available nutrient sources. The infective dose of L. monocytogenes varies with the strain and with the susceptibility of the victim. L. monocytogenes has three distinct lineages, with differing evolutionary histories and pathogenic potentials. Lineage I strains contain the majority of human clinical isolates and all human epidemic clones, but are underrepresented in animal clinical isolates. Lineage II strains are overrepresented in animal cases and underrepresented in human clinical cases, and are more prevalent in environmental and food samples. Lineage III isolates are very rare, but significantly more common in animal than human isolates.
  • #87
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01639737
    In different mouse models the pathogenicity of various strains of Listeria monocytogenes and of other Listeria spp. was evaluated. […] Although quantitative differences of virulence among strains of L. monocytogenes are found, all isolates have to be regarded pathogenic unless essential virulence factors, such as protein composition of the cell wall or hemolysin production, are lacking. […] Only Listeria ivanovii is able to multiply in the murine host, though definitely to a lesser extent. […] The other Listeria spp., such as Listeria innocua, Listeria welshimeri and Listeria seeligeri, have to be regarded as non-pathogenic. […] All isolates of L. monocytogenes are more or less pathogenic, provided they still possess the main virulence factors, namely hemolysin production and protein content of the cell wall. […] Only Listeria ivanovii is still to be considered fundamentally pathogenic, although to a significantly lesser extent compared to L. monocytogenes.
  • #88 Human Listeriosis Caused by Listeria ivanovii – Volume 16, Number 1—January 2010 – Emerging Infectious Diseases journal – CDC
    https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/16/1/09-1155_article
    Two species of Listeria are pathogenic; L. monocytogenes infects humans and animals, and L. ivanovii has been considered to infect ruminants only. […] They both invade host cells, replicate in the cytosol after phagosomal escape, and spread from cell to cell by polymerizing actin. These mechanisms correlate with the presence in each species of genetic determinants called the inlAB internalization locus, the LIPI-1 intracellular survival pathogenicity island, and the hpt intracellular growth locus. […] The pathologic changes associated with L. ivanovii in humans appear similar to those in ruminants, i.e., fetoplacental infections and septicemia (often accompanied by enteritis). […] The specific pathogenic features of L. ivanovii may be caused by sequence differences in virulence genes shared with L. monocytogenes or by differences in the gene content of these 2 species. […] Simultaneous detection of L. ivanovii in the feces and blood of a human, together with previous association between L. ivanovii and human mesenteric adenitis, suggests that these bacteria can cross the intestinal barrier in humans, cause gastroenteritis, and disseminate into the bloodstream.
  • #89 Human Listeriosis Caused by Listeria ivanovii – Volume 16, Number 1—January 2010 – Emerging Infectious Diseases journal – CDC
    https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/16/1/09-1155_article
    Two species of Listeria are pathogenic; L. monocytogenes infects humans and animals, and L. ivanovii has been considered to infect ruminants only. […] They both invade host cells, replicate in the cytosol after phagosomal escape, and spread from cell to cell by polymerizing actin. These mechanisms correlate with the presence in each species of genetic determinants called the inlAB internalization locus, the LIPI-1 intracellular survival pathogenicity island, and the hpt intracellular growth locus. […] The pathologic changes associated with L. ivanovii in humans appear similar to those in ruminants, i.e., fetoplacental infections and septicemia (often accompanied by enteritis). […] The specific pathogenic features of L. ivanovii may be caused by sequence differences in virulence genes shared with L. monocytogenes or by differences in the gene content of these 2 species. […] Simultaneous detection of L. ivanovii in the feces and blood of a human, together with previous association between L. ivanovii and human mesenteric adenitis, suggests that these bacteria can cross the intestinal barrier in humans, cause gastroenteritis, and disseminate into the bloodstream.
  • #90 Human Listeriosis Caused by Listeria ivanovii – Volume 16, Number 1—January 2010 – Emerging Infectious Diseases journal – CDC
    https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/16/1/09-1155_article
    Two species of Listeria are pathogenic; L. monocytogenes infects humans and animals, and L. ivanovii has been considered to infect ruminants only. […] They both invade host cells, replicate in the cytosol after phagosomal escape, and spread from cell to cell by polymerizing actin. These mechanisms correlate with the presence in each species of genetic determinants called the inlAB internalization locus, the LIPI-1 intracellular survival pathogenicity island, and the hpt intracellular growth locus. […] The pathologic changes associated with L. ivanovii in humans appear similar to those in ruminants, i.e., fetoplacental infections and septicemia (often accompanied by enteritis). […] The specific pathogenic features of L. ivanovii may be caused by sequence differences in virulence genes shared with L. monocytogenes or by differences in the gene content of these 2 species. […] Simultaneous detection of L. ivanovii in the feces and blood of a human, together with previous association between L. ivanovii and human mesenteric adenitis, suggests that these bacteria can cross the intestinal barrier in humans, cause gastroenteritis, and disseminate into the bloodstream.
  • #91
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01639737
    In different mouse models the pathogenicity of various strains of Listeria monocytogenes and of other Listeria spp. was evaluated. […] Although quantitative differences of virulence among strains of L. monocytogenes are found, all isolates have to be regarded pathogenic unless essential virulence factors, such as protein composition of the cell wall or hemolysin production, are lacking. […] Only Listeria ivanovii is able to multiply in the murine host, though definitely to a lesser extent. […] The other Listeria spp., such as Listeria innocua, Listeria welshimeri and Listeria seeligeri, have to be regarded as non-pathogenic. […] All isolates of L. monocytogenes are more or less pathogenic, provided they still possess the main virulence factors, namely hemolysin production and protein content of the cell wall. […] Only Listeria ivanovii is still to be considered fundamentally pathogenic, although to a significantly lesser extent compared to L. monocytogenes.
  • #92 Epidemiology and pathogenesis of Listeria monocytogenes infection – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/epidemiology-and-pathogenesis-of-listeria-monocytogenes-infection/print
    Listeria is a facultative intracellular parasite. The primary habitat of Listeria is the soil and decaying vegetable matter. Most Listeria infections in adults are thought to result from oral ingestion and subsequent intestinal mucosal penetration and systemic infection.
  • #93 Pathogenesis of Invasive Listeria monocytogenes Infections | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/25971
    The first step in the pathogenesis of invasive listeriosis is the ability of the pathogen to cross the intestinal epithelial barrier. Although the complete mechanisms are still not fully understood, three well-elucidated pathways have thus far been used to explain the process. These three pathways are the InlA-mediated transcytosis, the LAP-mediated translocation, and the microfold (M-cell)-mediated transcytosis. […] The InlA- mediated pathway is the primary route by which L. monocytogenes invades intestinal cells. InlA is a cell wall-anchored protein that mediates the uptake of L. monocytogenes into non-phagocytic cells through receptor-mediated endocytosis. InlA promotes pathogen adhesion and the invasion of the intestinal epithelium through an interaction with its receptor, E-cadherin (a component of adherens junctions).
  • #94 Pathogenesis of Invasive Listeria monocytogenes Infections | Encyclopedia MDPI
    https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/25971
    The surface protein, LAP, which was initially identified as an adhesin that facilitates the binding of L. monocytogenes to enterocytes, also contributes to the translocation of the pathogen across the intestinal epithelium. […] The microfold (M) cells are specialized epithelial cells that survey the intestinal mucosa for any antigens as part of the mucosal immune response. They readily take up antigens from the intestinal mucosa and transcytose them across the intestinal epithelium to the lymphoid tissues of the Peyer’s patches. […] The ability to cross the intestinal barrier provides the main gate of L. monocytogenes entry into the bloodstream. Due to its predilection for the CNS and the placenta in pregnant women, neurolisteriosis, maternofetal infection and septicemia are the main clinical manifestations of invasive listeriosis.
  • #95 Listeria monocytogenes—How This Pathogen Uses Its Virulence Mechanisms to Infect the Hosts
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/11/12/1491
    L. monocytogenes adheres to the E-cadherin or c-Met host receptors is then covered by a phagocytic vacuole in macrophages and enters cells. […] L. monocytogenes, unlike other bacteria, is not destroyed inside the host cell vacuoles due to the production of endogenic factors, mainly listeriolysin O (LLO), a pH- and cholesterol-dependent toxin with pore-forming activity, and GILT (Gamma-interferon Inducible Lysosomal Thiol reductase), found inside the phagosome, which mediate vacuole degradation and bacteria escape to the cytosol. […] After crossing the intestinal barrier and multiplying in the small intestinal lamina propria, L. monocytogenes disseminates to the host organs such as the liver, the spleen, and the mesenteric lymph nodes. […] The majority of the cells are trapped in the liver, cleared from the blood circulatory system, and then inactivated through the host immune system, mainly with professional liver phagocytes (Kupffer cells), other mononuclear phagocytic cells, neutrophils, dendritic cells, and natural killer (NK) cells.
  • #96 Azthena logo with the word Azthena
    https://www.news-medical.net/health/Listeria-Pathogenesis.aspx
    Listeria monocytogenes represent a universal, fast-growing, gram-positive bacterium with a diverse ecological niche and host range. Infection of humans and animals with this microorganism is traced to contaminated foods and can lead to a serious (often lethal) disease known as listeriosis. […] Disease-causing properties of Listeria monocytogenes can be traced to the ability of this bacterium to induce its own uptake by host cells, followed by replication within those cells and direct transfer to another cell. Since Listeria remains within host cells, it can spread throughout the body while protecting from many host defenses including antibodies. […] Such pathogenicity of Listeria is supported by a highly complex and coordinated intracellular life cycle that is composed of several crucial steps: host cell adhesion and invasion, intracellular multiplication and motility, and intercellular spread. The completion of each stage is dependent on the orchestrated activity of specialized bacterial virulence factors.
  • #97 Listeria monocytogenes – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listeria_monocytogenes
    Invasive infection by L. monocytogenes causes the disease listeriosis. […] The pathogenesis of L. monocytogenes centers on its ability to survive and multiply in phagocytic host cells. […] This process is known as the „Trojan Horse mechanism”. […] Once inside the cell, L. monocytogenes rapidly acidifies the lumen of the vacuole formed around it during cell entry to activate listeriolysin O, a cholesterol-dependent cytolysin capable of disrupting the vacuolar membrane. […] The ability of L. monocytogenes to successfully infect depends on its resistance to the high concentrations of bile encountered throughout the gastrointestinal tract. […] Following internalization, the bacterium must escape from the vacuole/phagosome before fusion with a lysosome can occur. […] Three main virulence factors that allow the bacterium to escape are listeriolysin O (LLO encoded by hly), phospholipase A (encoded by plcA), and phospholipase B (plcB).
  • #98 Discovery of an immune escape mechanism promoting Listeria infection of the central nervous system
    https://www.pasteur.fr/en/press-area/press-documents/discovery-immune-escape-mechanism-promoting-listeria-infection-central-nervous-system?language=fr
    Some „hypervirulent” strains of Listeria monocytogenes have a greater capacity to infect the central nervous system. […] This mechanism provides infected cells circulating in the blood with a higher probability of adhering to and infecting cells of cerebral vessels, thereby enabling bacteria to cross the blood-brain barrier and infect the brain. […] Listeria monocytogenes is the bacterium responsible for human listeriosis, a severe foodborne illness that can lead to a central nervous system infection known as neurolisteriosis. […] The scientists first observed that inflammatory monocytes, a type of white blood cell, are infected by the bacteria. These infected monocytes circulate in the bloodstream and adhere to the cerebral vessels cells, allowing Listeria to infect the brain tissue.
  • #99 Listeria Monocytogenes – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK534838/
    Listeria monocytogenes is a facultative, intracellular, gram-positive rod that is responsible for causing the infection listeriosis. […] L. monocytogenes virulence factors include but are not limited to intracellular mobility via actin polymerization and the ability to replicate at refrigerator temperatures. […] L. monocytogenes has cell-surface galactose residues, lipoteichoic acids, and surface proteins called „internalins” (internalin A and B) that binds primarily to gastrointestinal epithelial cells via host protein cadherin, allowing entry into the cell. […] Once free of the vacuole, the bacteria can disrupt the normal cellular processes by moving through the cell via actin polymerization. […] Cadherin is an epithelial attachment protein that is found in abundance in the blood-brain barrier as well as the placental-fetus barrier which may explain why the bacteria can infect neonates and cause meningitis.
  • #100 Virulence factors, Pathogenesis and Clinical manifestations of Listeria monocytogenes
    https://microbenotes.com/virulence-factors-pathogenesis-and-clinical-manifestations-of-listeria-monocytogenes/
    L monocytogenes can move from cell to cell without being exposed to antibodies, complement, or polymorphonuclear cells. […] Iron is an important virulence factor and hence Listeria produce siderophores and are able to obtain iron from transferrin. […] If the T cellmediated immune response of the host is inadequate, Listeria monocytogenes can multiply in hepatocytes and macrophages freely, able to reach various organs via blood particularly the brain or uterus right through the bloodbrain barrier or the placental barrier. […] Immunity to L monocytogenes is primarily cell mediated, as demonstrated by the intracellular location of infection and by the marked association of infection with conditions of impaired cell-mediated immunity such as pregnancy, advanced age, AIDS, lymphoma, and organ transplantation. […] Immunity can be transferred by sensitized lymphocytes but not by antibodies.
  • #101 Listeria monocytogenes—How This Pathogen Uses Its Virulence Mechanisms to Infect the Hosts
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/11/12/1491
    After bacteria-containing finger-like protrusion membrane structures of more than ten microns long are formed, L. monocytogenes is ready to spread mainly to adjacent cells and, to a much less extent, to other non-adjacent cells. […] Direct cell-to-cell transfer of L. monocytogenes allows the pathogen to resist the humoral and the cytotoxic T cell host immune responses. […] The bacterium possesses several virulence factors, responsible for epithelial cell adhesion, cell-to-cell spread, intracellular multiplication, and crossing of natural host barriers.
  • #102 How do Listeria bacteria move from the intestine to other areas of the body?
    https://researchfeatures.com/how-do-listeria-bacteria-move-intestine-areas-body/
    Professor Arun Bhunia, Dr Rishi Drolia and the research team at Purdue University, Indiana, USA, explore the mechanisms used by foodborne pathogens when they infect the gastrointestinal tract. They have focused in particular on Listeria monocytogenes, a bacterium that can cause serious illness in high-risk populations. The researchers were able to show a novel pathway used by the bacteria to move from the intestine to the bloodstream. […] Understanding more about the way Listeria spreads around the body would allow us to consider strategies for preventing infection in high-risk populations. […] At Purdue University in Indiana, USA, Professor Arun Bhunia, Dr Rishi Drolia and the team are researching the mechanisms of pathogenesis (development of disease) used by Listeria to enter the bloodstream.
  • #103 How do Listeria bacteria move from the intestine to other areas of the body?
    https://researchfeatures.com/how-do-listeria-bacteria-move-intestine-areas-body/
    One outcome of this pathway is changes in the intestinal barrier, mediated by an enzyme known as myosin light chain kinase (MLCK). […] However, changes induced by LAP mean that these junctions are not as watertight as normal, and the cells move apart. This means that bacteria such as Listeria can move from the intestine into the bloodstream and translocate to other organs in the body. […] The engineered probiotic-mediated anti-Listeria effect is multifaceted; thus, there is very little chance for developing resistance against listeriosis. BLP occupies the host receptor, Hsp60, thereby preventing Listeria from interacting with the host intestinal cells. […] This provides robust protection against listeriosis.