Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Schizophrenia in children: Signs and symptoms, causes, and more

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/early-signs-of-schizophrenia-in-children

  Schizophrenia is a chronic, severe disorder that impacts the brain in a way that alters how someone feels, thinks, and acts. Childhood schizophrenia is incredibly rare, but it can occur. […] Childhood schizophrenia is much less common than adult schizophrenia. Around 0.04% of people experience schizophrenia as children, while some 0.25%0.64% of adults in the United States experience the disorder. That said, as researchers learn more about schizophrenia in children, and discover better ways to identify it, childhood-onset schizophrenia may become more common. […] No one knows why schizophrenia occurs. However, researchers think schizophrenia develops due to a combination of genetics, environmental factors, brain changes, and biochemical factors. […] While researchers still do not fully understand why people develop schizophrenia, there are certain risk factors that seem to increase someones chances of experiencing it.

• #2 Schizophrenia in Children: What to Know | Psych Central

  https://psychcentral.com/schizophrenia/schizophrenia-in-children

  Schizophrenia is relatively rare, occurring in about 1% of the U.S. population. Childhood-onset schizophrenia which is diagnosed in children before age 13 is even rarer, and as such, researchers dont fully understand the condition yet, and it can be difficult to accurately diagnose. […] The incidence of childhood schizophrenia is low, with a prevalence of around 1 in 40,000. […] There isnt just one cause of schizophrenia. Several factors may explain why you or a loved one is experiencing this mental health condition, including: […] Genetics. Heredity plays a strong role in developing schizophrenia. Your likelihood of developing the condition is higher if you have a close relative, such as a parent or sibling, with the disorder. […] Brain chemistry. Issues with certain brain chemicals, like dopamine, may contribute to schizophrenia.

• #3 Childhood Onset Schizophrenia and Early Onset Schizophrenia spectrum disorders

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3771646/

  The clinical severity, impact on development, and poor prognosis of Childhood Onset Schizophrenia (COS) may represent a more homogeneous group. […] COS is an extraordinarily rare illness which is poorly understood but appears continuous with the adult onset disorder. Additionally, as seen in other areas of medicine, early onset populations have more prominent progressive brain changes, and genetic risk factors. […] Although neurobiologically and phenomenologically continuous with its adult counterpart, COS represents a more severe form of the disorder, with more prominent pre-psychotic developmental disorders, brain abnormalities and genetic risk factors. […] The general model of schizophrenia as a neurodevelopmental disorder is widely held. One version focused on schizophrenia as a static lesion, occurring during fetal brain development, while others argued that schizophrenia occurs as a result of a second hit in the form of abnormal brain development during adolescence such as excessive synaptic and/or dendritic elimination resulting in aberrant neuronal connectivity.

• #4 Motion and Form Perception in Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia

  https://www.mdpi.com/2036-7503/16/1/9

  Childhood-onset schizophrenia (COS) is a rare type of psychotic disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, grossly disorganized behavior, and poor psychosocial functioning. The etiology of COS is unknown, but neurodevelopmental factors are likely to play a critical role. […] The exact causes of COS remain unknown, but research suggests a combination of genetic, neurobiological, and environmental factors. Genetic predisposition plays a significant role, as children with a family history of schizophrenia are at a higher risk. Neurobiological factors, such as abnormal brain development and neurotransmitter imbalances affecting glutamatergic, GABA-ergic (gamma-amino-butyric acidergic), and dopaminergic synapses, are also believed to contribute to the onset of COS. Furthermore, environmental factors, including prenatal complications, maternal stress, and childhood trauma, may increase the risk of developing the disorder.

• #5 Childhood schizophrenia | UM Health-Sparrow

  https://www.uofmhealthsparrow.org/departments-conditions/conditions/childhood-schizophrenia

  Childhood schizophrenia is an uncommon but severe mental disorder in which children and teenagers interpret reality abnormally. […] It’s not known what causes childhood schizophrenia, but it’s thought that it develops in the same way as adult schizophrenia does. Researchers believe that a combination of genetics, brain chemistry and environment contributes to development of the disorder. […] Problems with certain naturally occurring brain chemicals, including neurotransmitters called dopamine and glutamate, may contribute to schizophrenia. […] Neuroimaging studies show differences in the brain structure and central nervous system of people with schizophrenia. While researchers aren’t certain about the significance of these changes, they indicate that schizophrenia is a brain disease.

• #6 Childhood schizophrenia | Altru Health System

  https://www.altru.org/health-library/conditions/childhood-schizophrenia

  Childhood schizophrenia is an uncommon but severe mental disorder in which children and teenagers interpret reality abnormally. […] It’s not known what causes childhood schizophrenia, but it’s thought that it develops in the same way as adult schizophrenia does. Researchers believe that a combination of genetics, brain chemistry and environment contributes to development of the disorder. […] Problems with certain naturally occurring brain chemicals, including neurotransmitters called dopamine and glutamate, may contribute to schizophrenia. […] While researchers aren’t certain about the significance of these changes, they indicate that schizophrenia is a brain disease.

• #7 Schizophrenia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophrenia

  Estimates of the heritability of schizophrenia are between 70% and 80%, which implies that 70% to 80% of the individual differences in risk of schizophrenia are associated with genetics. […] Environmental factors, each associated with a slight risk of developing schizophrenia in later life include oxygen deprivation, infection, prenatal maternal stress, and malnutrition in the mother during prenatal development. A risk is associated with maternal obesity, in increasing oxidative stress, and dysregulating the dopamine and serotonin pathways. Both maternal stress and infection have been demonstrated to alter fetal neurodevelopment through an increase of pro-inflammatory cytokines. […] Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), severe forms of which are classed as childhood trauma, range from being bullied or abused, to the death of a parent. Many adverse childhood experiences can cause toxic stress and increase the risk of psychosis. Chronic trauma, including ACEs, can promote lasting inflammatory dysregulation throughout the nervous system. It is suggested that early stress may contribute to the development of schizophrenia through these alterations in the immune system.

• #8 Schizophrenia Causes and Risk Factors

  https://www.verywellmind.com/what-causes-schizophrenia-2953136

  Twin studies suggest that genetics account for 81% of the risk for schizophrenia. Other studies estimate that the heritability of schizophrenia is around 60% to 80%. […] As with many health conditions, certain environmental factors are also causes of schizophrenia. […] Exposure to viruses are found to be a contributing factor in the development of schizophrenia. […] People who have recently developed schizophrenia very often have antibodies to two herpes viruses in their blood, HSV (herpes simplex virus) and CMV (cytomegalovirus). Studies suggest that when certain viruses infect someone with a particular set of genes, that person is more likely to develop schizophrenia. […] Being exposed to harmful toxins are suggested to play a role in the development of schizophrenia, even as early as during fetal development.

• #9 A Review of Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6526799/

  Schizophrenia is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a multifactorial etiology. […] Research has shown the roles played by genetics as well as the environment in the development of childhood-onset schizophrenia and early-onset schizophrenia. […] If a first-degree relative has the disorder, the risk of developing the disorder is five to 20 times higher than the risk of the general population. […] Published studies have implicated different genomic loci and genes, including the major histocompatibility complex 6p21.1, MIR137, and ZNF804a. […] Schizophrenia is believed to be caused by multiple mutations in different genes and different genomic loci. […] Several environmental factors to the development of schizophrenia have been hypothesized, including marijuana exposure, in utero exposure to famine, prenatal infections, advanced paternal age, and obstetric complications. […] The interaction of gene and environment adds another layer of complexity to the etiopathogenesis of the disorder.

• #10 Schizophrenia Causes: Why It Happens: Genetics, Environment, and More

  https://www.webmd.com/schizophrenia/what-causes-schizophrenia

  Doctors dont know for sure what causes schizophrenia. Research shows a combination of genetics and your environment can trigger the disease. If you have a family member with schizophrenia, you’re more likely to have it. Things like stressful life events, exposure to viruses or toxins before you were born, and trauma in your early childhood can also increase your risk. […] Research shows that almost 80% of the risk for schizophrenia lies in genes. […] Doctors dont think theres just one schizophrenia gene. Instead, they believe it takes many genetic changes, or mutations, to increase your risk of having this mental illness. […] Research shows that childhood trauma can have a negative effect on DMN function, which might cause schizophrenia later in life. […] Problems when you were in the womb or being born, traumatic life events, and substance use might all be involved.

• #11 Causes – Schizophrenia – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/schizophrenia/causes/

  The exact causes of schizophrenia are unknown. Research suggests a combination of physical, genetic, psychological and environmental factors can make a person more likely to develop the condition. […] Schizophrenia tends to run in families, but no single gene is thought to be responsible. […] It’s more likely that different combinations of genes make people more vulnerable to the condition. […] Evidence that the disorder is partly inherited comes from studies of twins. […] In identical twins, if a twin develops schizophrenia, the other twin has a 1 in 2 chance of developing it, too. […] In non-identical twins, who have different genetic make-ups, when a twin develops schizophrenia, the other only has a 1 in 8 chance of developing the condition. […] While this is higher than in the general population, where the chance is about 1 in 100, it suggests genes are not the only factor influencing the development of schizophrenia.

• #12 What Causes Schizophrenia? Plus, How to Treat and Seek Help

  https://www.healthline.com/health/schizophrenia-causes

  Researchers dont know what exactly causes schizophrenia. A combination of factors are thought to play a role. […] One of the most significant risk factors for schizophrenia may be genes. This disorder tends to run in families. If you have a parent, sibling, or another close relative with the condition, you may have a higher likelihood of developing it, too. […] However, researchers dont believe a single gene is responsible for this disorder. Instead, they suspect a combination of genes can make someone more susceptible. […] Studies on twins have shown that genes play an integral role, but they arent the only determining cause. […] Researchers found that if one identical twin sibling has schizophrenia, the other has a 1 in 2 chance of developing it. This remains true even if the twins are raised separately.

• #13 Causes – Schizophrenia – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/schizophrenia/causes/

  The exact causes of schizophrenia are unknown. Research suggests a combination of physical, genetic, psychological and environmental factors can make a person more likely to develop the condition. […] Schizophrenia tends to run in families, but no single gene is thought to be responsible. […] It’s more likely that different combinations of genes make people more vulnerable to the condition. […] Evidence that the disorder is partly inherited comes from studies of twins. […] In identical twins, if a twin develops schizophrenia, the other twin has a 1 in 2 chance of developing it, too. […] In non-identical twins, who have different genetic make-ups, when a twin develops schizophrenia, the other only has a 1 in 8 chance of developing the condition. […] While this is higher than in the general population, where the chance is about 1 in 100, it suggests genes are not the only factor influencing the development of schizophrenia.

• #14 What Causes Schizophrenia? Plus, How to Treat and Seek Help

  https://www.healthline.com/health/schizophrenia-causes

  If a twin is nonidentical (fraternal) and has been diagnosed with schizophrenia, the other twin has a 1 in 8 chance of developing it. In contrast, the risk for disease in the general population is 1 in 100. […] Complications before and during birth may increase the likelihood that a person will develop mental health disorders, including schizophrenia. […] Childhood trauma is also thought to be a contributing factor in developing schizophrenia. Some people with schizophrenia experience hallucinations related to abuse or neglect they experienced as children. […] People are also more likely to develop schizophrenia if as children they experienced the death or permanent separation of one or both parents. […] This kind of trauma is tied to a variety of other adverse early experiences, so its still unclear if this trauma is a cause of schizophrenia or just associated with the condition. […] The takeaway: Schizophrenia is a lifelong psychiatric condition. Researchers dont know exactly what causes it. A combination of factors likely play a role.

• #15 Schizophrenia | Boston Children’s Hospital

  https://www.childrenshospital.org/conditions/schizophrenia

  There is no known, exact cause for schizophrenia, but the disease is believed to be linked to the following factors: Genetics, while there is no single known cause for schizophrenia, experts believe that the disease has a strong genetic component specifically, an inherited chemical imbalance in the brain. […] A combination of genes passed down by both parents can lead to schizophrenia: If a parent has the disorder, a child has an estimated 10 to 15 percent chance of developing it; if a sibling is schizophrenic, a child has an estimated 7 to 8 percent chance of developing the disease. […] Environmental stresses during pregnancy, though data is not conclusive, some experts believe a child’s schizophrenia may be linked to certain environmental factors that affect the mother during pregnancy, such as drug or alcohol use, exposure to particular hormonal or chemical agents, exposure to certain viruses or infections, extreme stress, and poor nutritional health.

• #16 Schizophrenia in Children | Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia

  https://www.chop.edu/conditions-diseases/schizophrenia-children

  There is no known single cause responsible for schizophrenia. It is believed that a chemical imbalance in the brain is an inherited factor that is necessary for schizophrenia to develop. However, it is likely that many factors – genetic, behavioral, and environmental – play a role in the development of this condition. […] Schizophrenia is considered to be multifactorially inherited. Multifactorial inheritance means that „many factors” are involved. The factors are usually both genetic and environmental, where a combination of genes from both parents, in addition to unknown environmental factors, produce the trait or condition. […] A child born into a family with 1 or more family members affected by schizophrenia has a greater chance of developing schizophrenia than a child born into a family with no history of schizophrenia. […] After a person has been diagnosed with schizophrenia in a family, the chance for a sibling to also be diagnosed with schizophrenia is 10%. If a parent has schizophrenia, the chance for a child to have the disorder is 10%. Risks increase with multiple affected family members.

• #17 Schizophrenia in Children | Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia

  https://www.chop.edu/conditions-diseases/schizophrenia-children

  There is no known single cause responsible for schizophrenia. It is believed that a chemical imbalance in the brain is an inherited factor that is necessary for schizophrenia to develop. However, it is likely that many factors – genetic, behavioral, and environmental – play a role in the development of this condition. […] Schizophrenia is considered to be multifactorially inherited. Multifactorial inheritance means that „many factors” are involved. The factors are usually both genetic and environmental, where a combination of genes from both parents, in addition to unknown environmental factors, produce the trait or condition. […] A child born into a family with 1 or more family members affected by schizophrenia has a greater chance of developing schizophrenia than a child born into a family with no history of schizophrenia. […] After a person has been diagnosed with schizophrenia in a family, the chance for a sibling to also be diagnosed with schizophrenia is 10%. If a parent has schizophrenia, the chance for a child to have the disorder is 10%. Risks increase with multiple affected family members.

• #18 Schizophrenia | Children’s Wisconsin

  https://childrenswi.org/medical-care/mental-and-behavioral-health/conditions/schizophrenia

  There is no known single cause responsible for schizophrenia. It is believed that a chemical imbalance in the brain is an inherited factor which is necessary for schizophrenia to develop. However, it is likely that many factors – genetic, behavioral, and environmental – play a role in the development of this condition. […] Schizophrenia is considered to be multi-factorially inherited. Multi-factorial inheritance means that „many factors” are involved. The factors are usually both genetic and environmental, where a combination of genes from both parents, in addition to unknown environmental factors, produce the trait or condition. […] A child born into a family with one or more family members affected by schizophrenia has a greater chance of developing schizophrenia than a child born into a family with no history of schizophrenia. […] After a person has been diagnosed with schizophrenia in a family, the chance for a sibling to also be diagnosed with schizophrenia is 7 to 8 percent. If a parent has schizophrenia, the chance for a child to have the disorder is 10 to 15 percent. Risks increase with multiple affected family members.

• #19 Schizophrenia in Kids: Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment

  https://www.healthline.com/health/schizophrenia-in-kids

  Schizophrenia is a neurodevelopmental condition. That means differences in brain structures and brain functions happen as a child develops. These differences later lead to schizophrenia. […] Genes have a strong influence on whether someone develops schizophrenia. In large genome-wide association studies (GWAS), researchers have identified around 270 genetic differences in people with schizophrenia. Some of the gene differences are inherited, and others aren’t. […] Other factors that may contribute to schizophrenia include: the child’s environment, inflammation, viral infection, malnutrition during pregnancy, social and psychological factors, such as childhood trauma, psychedelic drug use.

• #20 A Review of Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6526799/

  Schizophrenia is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a multifactorial etiology. […] Research has shown the roles played by genetics as well as the environment in the development of childhood-onset schizophrenia and early-onset schizophrenia. […] If a first-degree relative has the disorder, the risk of developing the disorder is five to 20 times higher than the risk of the general population. […] Published studies have implicated different genomic loci and genes, including the major histocompatibility complex 6p21.1, MIR137, and ZNF804a. […] Schizophrenia is believed to be caused by multiple mutations in different genes and different genomic loci. […] Several environmental factors to the development of schizophrenia have been hypothesized, including marijuana exposure, in utero exposure to famine, prenatal infections, advanced paternal age, and obstetric complications. […] The interaction of gene and environment adds another layer of complexity to the etiopathogenesis of the disorder.

• #21 Decade-Long Joint Research Finds Possible Cause Of Childhood Onset Schizophrenia | IFLScience

  https://www.iflscience.com/possible-genetic-cause-of-childhood-onset-schizophrenia-found-68533

  Childhood Onset Schizophrenia is extremely rare but it can have profound impacts on a child’s cognitive, behavioral and emotional development. […] Now a ten-year research effort has found new genetic factors that help to understand the causes of this particular form of schizophrenia. […] Childhood schizophrenia has an even stronger genetic basis than later-onset schizophrenia, Dr Anna Alkelai, Research Associate at the Institute for Genomic Medicine, Columbia University and first author on the publication said in a statement. […] The results show that a genetic mutation was found in seven of the children and their families, which may provide a cause for COS. […] The finding of mutations that explain the disease in approximately 20% of childhood schizophrenia patients opens far-reaching diagnostic and therapeutic possibilities, Professor Kohn explained.

• #22 Causes – Schizophrenia – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/schizophrenia/causes/

  The exact causes of schizophrenia are unknown. Research suggests a combination of physical, genetic, psychological and environmental factors can make a person more likely to develop the condition. […] Schizophrenia tends to run in families, but no single gene is thought to be responsible. […] It’s more likely that different combinations of genes make people more vulnerable to the condition. […] Evidence that the disorder is partly inherited comes from studies of twins. […] In identical twins, if a twin develops schizophrenia, the other twin has a 1 in 2 chance of developing it, too. […] In non-identical twins, who have different genetic make-ups, when a twin develops schizophrenia, the other only has a 1 in 8 chance of developing the condition. […] While this is higher than in the general population, where the chance is about 1 in 100, it suggests genes are not the only factor influencing the development of schizophrenia.

• #23 What Causes Schizophrenia? Plus, How to Treat and Seek Help

  https://www.healthline.com/health/schizophrenia-causes

  Researchers dont know what exactly causes schizophrenia. A combination of factors are thought to play a role. […] One of the most significant risk factors for schizophrenia may be genes. This disorder tends to run in families. If you have a parent, sibling, or another close relative with the condition, you may have a higher likelihood of developing it, too. […] However, researchers dont believe a single gene is responsible for this disorder. Instead, they suspect a combination of genes can make someone more susceptible. […] Studies on twins have shown that genes play an integral role, but they arent the only determining cause. […] Researchers found that if one identical twin sibling has schizophrenia, the other has a 1 in 2 chance of developing it. This remains true even if the twins are raised separately.

• #24 Childhood schizophrenia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childhood_schizophrenia

  Childhood schizophrenia (also known as childhood-onset schizophrenia, and very early-onset schizophrenia) is similar in characteristics of schizophrenia that develops at a later age, but has an onset before the age of 13 years, and is more difficult to diagnose. […] Several environmental factors, including perinatal complications and prenatal maternal infections may contribute to the etiology of schizophrenia. Prenatal rubella or influenza infections are associated with childhood-onset schizophrenia. […] Genetic predisposition is an important factor as well; familial mental illness is more frequently reported for childhood-onset schizophrenic patients. […] There is „considerable overlap” in the genetics of childhood-onset and adult-onset schizophrenia, but in childhood-onset schizophrenia there is a higher number of „rare allelic variants”. […] Children with schizophrenia have an increase in genetic deletions or duplication mutations and some have a specific mutation called 22q11 deletion syndrome, which accounts for up to 2% of cases.

• #25 Childhood schizophrenia | UM Health-Sparrow

  https://www.uofmhealthsparrow.org/departments-conditions/conditions/childhood-schizophrenia

  Childhood schizophrenia is an uncommon but severe mental disorder in which children and teenagers interpret reality abnormally. […] It’s not known what causes childhood schizophrenia, but it’s thought that it develops in the same way as adult schizophrenia does. Researchers believe that a combination of genetics, brain chemistry and environment contributes to development of the disorder. […] Problems with certain naturally occurring brain chemicals, including neurotransmitters called dopamine and glutamate, may contribute to schizophrenia. […] Neuroimaging studies show differences in the brain structure and central nervous system of people with schizophrenia. While researchers aren’t certain about the significance of these changes, they indicate that schizophrenia is a brain disease.

• #26 Childhood Onset Schizophrenia and Early Onset Schizophrenia spectrum disorders

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3771646/

  The clinical severity, impact on development, and poor prognosis of Childhood Onset Schizophrenia (COS) may represent a more homogeneous group. […] COS is an extraordinarily rare illness which is poorly understood but appears continuous with the adult onset disorder. Additionally, as seen in other areas of medicine, early onset populations have more prominent progressive brain changes, and genetic risk factors. […] Although neurobiologically and phenomenologically continuous with its adult counterpart, COS represents a more severe form of the disorder, with more prominent pre-psychotic developmental disorders, brain abnormalities and genetic risk factors. […] The general model of schizophrenia as a neurodevelopmental disorder is widely held. One version focused on schizophrenia as a static lesion, occurring during fetal brain development, while others argued that schizophrenia occurs as a result of a second hit in the form of abnormal brain development during adolescence such as excessive synaptic and/or dendritic elimination resulting in aberrant neuronal connectivity.

• #27 Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia: Background, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/914840-overview

  Several factors suggest a genetic risk. First-degree relatives of patients with early-onset schizophrenia (EOS) have a 5 to 20 times higher risk of developing schizophrenia compared to the general population. First-degree relatives of children with schizophrenia have a higher prevalence rate of schizophrenia and schizophrenia spectrum disorders. […] A twin study in Denmark concluded the twin of a patient with schizophrenia had a 4.7 times increased risk of developing schizophrenia themselves if the first twin was diagnosed or presented with illness before 22 years old. […] The neuroanatomy of persons with COS has been examined by neuroimaging. As in adults with schizophrenia, the most consistent finding has been enlargement of the lateral ventricles. […] The literature has revealed a compelling story for gray matter deficits in individuals with COS.

• #28 Childhood Schizophrenia: Signs, Causes, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://parenting.firstcry.com/articles/childhood-schizophrenia-psychosis-in-children/

  Schizophrenia is an uncommon but chronic psychiatric illness where children interpret reality abnormally. It distorts their thinking and causes them to experience auditory and visual hallucinations, delusions and irrational behaviour. […] There is no single cause of schizophrenia. It is more due to the complex interaction between your kids genetics and the environment. Some of the causes may include […] The hereditary factor seems to play a role in schizophrenia in children. A child has about 10 percent chance of getting schizophrenia if he or she has a schizophrenic parent or sibling. […] Psychosis in children can also be because of the abnormal structure of the brain. Research has shown that schizophrenic patients have enlarged brain ventricles. […] In the end, environmental factors will be responsible for triggering schizophrenia even if your child has a predisposition towards this disorder.

• #29 Schizophrenia | Boston Children’s Hospital

  https://www.childrenshospital.org/conditions/schizophrenia

  Schizophrenia is a major psychiatric illness that while it is more common in adults also affects children and adolescents. The disease is called early-onset schizophrenia when it occurs before the age of 18. […] Though we are still learning the specifics of how schizophrenia affects the brain, it is believed that the disease may be linked to: a below-normal amount of gray matter cell material that transmits sensory and movement messages throughout the central nervous system in the brain’s temporal lobe and frontal lobe. […] In summary, schizophrenia has no known, exact cause, often appears to be inherited, passing down from generation to generation, affects boys slightly more often than girls when it develops in childhood, and has no known cure, but can be managed well when caught early and treated with effective therapy, medications and support.

• #30 Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia: Background, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/914840-overview

  Several factors suggest a genetic risk. First-degree relatives of patients with early-onset schizophrenia (EOS) have a 5 to 20 times higher risk of developing schizophrenia compared to the general population. First-degree relatives of children with schizophrenia have a higher prevalence rate of schizophrenia and schizophrenia spectrum disorders. […] A twin study in Denmark concluded the twin of a patient with schizophrenia had a 4.7 times increased risk of developing schizophrenia themselves if the first twin was diagnosed or presented with illness before 22 years old. […] The neuroanatomy of persons with COS has been examined by neuroimaging. As in adults with schizophrenia, the most consistent finding has been enlargement of the lateral ventricles. […] The literature has revealed a compelling story for gray matter deficits in individuals with COS.

• #31 Childhood Schizophrenia: Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21067-childhood-schizophrenia

  Childhood schizophrenia doesn’t have just one cause. Instead, experts believe that multiple factors interact with each other to bring about this condition. Schizophrenia tends to be hereditary (runs in families). Researchers have also found some other factors that may play a role in developing schizophrenia, including: […] Brain development issues before birth. […] Pregnancy complications, like malnutrition or certain viral infections. […] Birth complications. […] Loss of connections between different areas of your child’s brain. […] Imbalances in chemical signals your child’s brain uses for cell-to-cell communication.

• #32 Schizophrenia Symptoms in Childhood: Causes, Treatment, and Clinic Insights

  https://www.psy-ed.com/wpblog/assessing-schizophrenia-in-children-and-adolescents/

  Childhood schizophrenia doesn’t have a single cause. There are multiple factors that may play a role in its development: […] Brain development issues before birth – Abnormalities in brain development during pregnancy may contribute. This could involve problems with neuron migration and synaptic pruning. […] Pregnancy complications – Malnutrition, viral infections, placental insufficiency and other issues during pregnancy have been linked to increased risk. […] Birth complications – Oxygen deprivation and trauma during birth may play a role. […] Loss of brain connections – There is a progressive loss of connectivity between different areas of the brain as schizophrenia develops. […] Chemical imbalances – Imbalances in neurotransmitters like dopamine and glutamate may lead to the symptoms of schizophrenia. […] So while a single cause is not known, it seems that a combination of genetic vulnerabilities, brain development issues, and environmental factors may interact to produce childhood schizophrenia in those predisposed. More research is still needed on the root causes.

• #33 Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia: Background, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/914840-overview

  A study reviewing MRI data asked if abnormal cortical maturation was confined to developmental modules in the brain. They found patients with childhood-onset schizophrenia had altered maturational trajectories of cortical areas involved in the cingulo-fronto-temporal developmental module. […] One study found patients with childhood-onset schizophrenia displayed delayed maturation of occipitotemporal connectivity, with unaffected siblings displaying a milder phenotype. […] Early childhood trauma has been correlated with childhood psychotic symptoms. One study found 93.1% of patients with early-onset schizophrenia had experienced adverse life events during childhood, 46.9% had experienced traumatic events. […] Specifically, Arsenault et al. obtained data from the Environmental Risk longitudinal Twin Study, which interviewed mothers when their children were aged 5, 7, 10, and 12 years on whether the children had experienced maltreatment by an adult, bullying by peers, or involvement in an accident.

• #34 Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia: Background, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/914840-overview

  A study reviewing MRI data asked if abnormal cortical maturation was confined to developmental modules in the brain. They found patients with childhood-onset schizophrenia had altered maturational trajectories of cortical areas involved in the cingulo-fronto-temporal developmental module. […] One study found patients with childhood-onset schizophrenia displayed delayed maturation of occipitotemporal connectivity, with unaffected siblings displaying a milder phenotype. […] Early childhood trauma has been correlated with childhood psychotic symptoms. One study found 93.1% of patients with early-onset schizophrenia had experienced adverse life events during childhood, 46.9% had experienced traumatic events. […] Specifically, Arsenault et al. obtained data from the Environmental Risk longitudinal Twin Study, which interviewed mothers when their children were aged 5, 7, 10, and 12 years on whether the children had experienced maltreatment by an adult, bullying by peers, or involvement in an accident.

• #35 Childhood schizophrenia | Health Library | Memorial Health System

  https://www.mhsystem.org/health-library/con-20199576/

  Childhood schizophrenia is an uncommon but severe mental disorder in which children and teenagers interpret reality abnormally. […] Its not known what causes childhood schizophrenia, but its thought that it develops in the same way as adult schizophrenia does. Researchers believe that a combination of genetics, brain chemistry and environment contributes to development of the disorder. […] Problems with certain naturally occurring brain chemicals, including neurotransmitters called dopamine and glutamate, may contribute to schizophrenia. […] Although the precise cause of schizophrenia isnt known, certain factors seem to increase the risk of developing or triggering schizophrenia, including having a family history of schizophrenia, increased immune system activation, older age of the father, some pregnancy and birth complications, and taking mind-altering drugs during teen years.

• #36 Schizophrenia in Children: Symptoms, Stages and Causes

  https://www.cadabamshospitals.com/understanding-schizophrenia-in-children/

  Dysregulations of neurotransmitters, particularly dopamine and glutamate, are associated with schizophrenia. Excessive dopamine activity contributes to psychotic symptoms, while an imbalance of glutamate impairs cognition and perception. […] Early signs of schizophrenia in children may include developmental delays, along with language difficulties, motor impairments and deficits in social skills. […] A stable and supportive family environment can help mitigate the effects of schizophrenia, while high levels of family stress, conflict or poor communication can exacerbate symptoms. […] Limited access to healthcare, financial instability and inadequate mental health resources can delay diagnosis and treatment. […] Children who develop schizophrenia often have difficulties establishing and maintaining social relationships.

• #37 Schizophrenia – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/schizophrenia/symptoms-causes/syc-20354443

  It isn’t known what causes schizophrenia. But researchers believe that a mix of genetics, brain chemistry and environment can play a part. […] Changes in certain naturally occurring brain chemicals, including neurotransmitters called dopamine and glutamate, may play a part in schizophrenia. Neuroimaging studies show changes in the brain structure and central nervous systems of people with schizophrenia. While researchers haven’t yet been able to apply these findings to new treatments, the findings show that schizophrenia is a brain disease. […] Although the cause of schizophrenia is not known, these factors seem to make schizophrenia more likely: A family history of schizophrenia. Life experiences, such as living in poverty, stress or danger. Some pregnancy and birth issues, such as not getting enough nutrition before or after birth, low birth weight, or exposure to toxins or viruses before birth that may affect brain development. Taking mind-altering also called psychoactive or psychotropic drugs as a teen or young adult.

• #38 What Causes Schizophrenia? — Talkspace

  https://www.talkspace.com/mental-health/conditions/schizophrenia/causes/

  Another theory of schizophrenia causes, discovered by an international panel of researchers, is that it might be caused by a change in the levels of the important neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin. […] The causes of schizophrenia are multi-faceted in that theyre rooted in both nature and nurture. Typically, dissociations from reality, one of the key components of schizophrenia, run in families. The imbalance in neurotransmitters seems to also be a general theme. Environmental conditions such as toxicity, substance use, trauma, pregnancy complications, etc. can all trigger the original schizophrenia onset. […] Although the exact cause of schizophrenia is unknown, many factors are believed to trigger the onset or increase the chances of someone developing it. […] Genetics, pregnancy complications of the mother, recreational substance use, brain changes, and childhood trauma might be contributors to the development of schizophrenia.

• #39 Childhood schizophrenia | UM Health-Sparrow

  https://www.uofmhealthsparrow.org/departments-conditions/conditions/childhood-schizophrenia

  Childhood schizophrenia is an uncommon but severe mental disorder in which children and teenagers interpret reality abnormally. […] It’s not known what causes childhood schizophrenia, but it’s thought that it develops in the same way as adult schizophrenia does. Researchers believe that a combination of genetics, brain chemistry and environment contributes to development of the disorder. […] Problems with certain naturally occurring brain chemicals, including neurotransmitters called dopamine and glutamate, may contribute to schizophrenia. […] Neuroimaging studies show differences in the brain structure and central nervous system of people with schizophrenia. While researchers aren’t certain about the significance of these changes, they indicate that schizophrenia is a brain disease.

• #40 Schizophrenia in Children: Symptoms, Stages and Causes

  https://www.cadabamshospitals.com/understanding-schizophrenia-in-children/

  Dysregulations of neurotransmitters, particularly dopamine and glutamate, are associated with schizophrenia. Excessive dopamine activity contributes to psychotic symptoms, while an imbalance of glutamate impairs cognition and perception. […] Early signs of schizophrenia in children may include developmental delays, along with language difficulties, motor impairments and deficits in social skills. […] A stable and supportive family environment can help mitigate the effects of schizophrenia, while high levels of family stress, conflict or poor communication can exacerbate symptoms. […] Limited access to healthcare, financial instability and inadequate mental health resources can delay diagnosis and treatment. […] Children who develop schizophrenia often have difficulties establishing and maintaining social relationships.

• #41 Childhood Onset Schizophrenia and Early Onset Schizophrenia spectrum disorders

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3771646/

  These theories have merged and it is now generally understood that COS is a multifactorial illness, characterized by multiple genetic elements, each contributing a modest degree of risk and interacting with the environment. […] There are also various other hypotheses focused on the cortical amino acid neurotransmitter systems (i.e., dopamine, glutamate, GABA, serotonin). […] Not only does the etiology of COS/EOS elude us, several roadblocks to progress toward finding one remain. […] It remains clear however that schizophrenia, including COS/EOS, has no clearly definable neuropathologic markers. […] While the study of COS suggests it may have more salient genetic effects, there is no finding of even a rare form of genetic dominant transmission for COS.

• #42 Motion and Form Perception in Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia

  https://www.mdpi.com/2036-7503/16/1/9

  Childhood-onset schizophrenia (COS) is a rare type of psychotic disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, grossly disorganized behavior, and poor psychosocial functioning. The etiology of COS is unknown, but neurodevelopmental factors are likely to play a critical role. […] The exact causes of COS remain unknown, but research suggests a combination of genetic, neurobiological, and environmental factors. Genetic predisposition plays a significant role, as children with a family history of schizophrenia are at a higher risk. Neurobiological factors, such as abnormal brain development and neurotransmitter imbalances affecting glutamatergic, GABA-ergic (gamma-amino-butyric acidergic), and dopaminergic synapses, are also believed to contribute to the onset of COS. Furthermore, environmental factors, including prenatal complications, maternal stress, and childhood trauma, may increase the risk of developing the disorder.

• #43 Childhood Onset Schizophrenia and Early Onset Schizophrenia spectrum disorders

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3771646/

  These theories have merged and it is now generally understood that COS is a multifactorial illness, characterized by multiple genetic elements, each contributing a modest degree of risk and interacting with the environment. […] There are also various other hypotheses focused on the cortical amino acid neurotransmitter systems (i.e., dopamine, glutamate, GABA, serotonin). […] Not only does the etiology of COS/EOS elude us, several roadblocks to progress toward finding one remain. […] It remains clear however that schizophrenia, including COS/EOS, has no clearly definable neuropathologic markers. […] While the study of COS suggests it may have more salient genetic effects, there is no finding of even a rare form of genetic dominant transmission for COS.

• #44 What Causes Schizophrenia? — Talkspace

  https://www.talkspace.com/mental-health/conditions/schizophrenia/causes/

  Another theory of schizophrenia causes, discovered by an international panel of researchers, is that it might be caused by a change in the levels of the important neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin. […] The causes of schizophrenia are multi-faceted in that theyre rooted in both nature and nurture. Typically, dissociations from reality, one of the key components of schizophrenia, run in families. The imbalance in neurotransmitters seems to also be a general theme. Environmental conditions such as toxicity, substance use, trauma, pregnancy complications, etc. can all trigger the original schizophrenia onset. […] Although the exact cause of schizophrenia is unknown, many factors are believed to trigger the onset or increase the chances of someone developing it. […] Genetics, pregnancy complications of the mother, recreational substance use, brain changes, and childhood trauma might be contributors to the development of schizophrenia.

• #45 Linking childhood trauma to the psychopathology of schizophrenia: the role of oxytocin | Schizophrenia

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41537-024-00433-9

  Childhood trauma has been linked to schizophrenia, but underlying biological mechanisms remain elusive. This study explored the potential role of plasma oxytocin as a mediator in the relationship between childhood trauma and the psychopathology of schizophrenia. Results showed that patients with schizophrenia had lower oxytocin levels and higher childhood trauma scores than healthy controls. There was a significant correlation between childhood trauma scores and psychopathology, with plasma oxytocin levels being inversely associated with psychopathology, except for positive symptoms. Hierarchical regression analysis indicated that both childhood trauma scores and plasma oxytocin levels significantly predicted psychopathology. Plasma oxytocin levels partially mediated the relationship between childhood trauma and schizophrenia psychopathology. This study underscores the potential role of oxytocin in bridging the gap between childhood trauma and schizophrenia.

• #46 Linking childhood trauma to the psychopathology of schizophrenia: the role of oxytocin | Schizophrenia

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41537-024-00433-9

  Despite the well-established relationship between childhood trauma and schizophrenia, the mechanisms underlying the association, particularly the biological mechanisms, are poorly understood. Few studies have explored the possible factors mediating this relationship, such as neurotransmitters and hormones. Oxytocin, a hormonal neuropeptide that regulates social cognition, social affiliation, stress, learning and memory, has been reported to have a role in regulating the expression of schizophrenia. Both human and animal studies have explored the role of oxytocin in the development of schizophrenia, particularly its impact on social cognition. Studies examining the endogenous oxytocin levels of patients with schizophrenia have reported mixed findings, with some suggesting that the endogenous oxytocin levels in these patients are lower than those in the healthy population. Oxytocin dysregulation has been demonstrated to be associated with several symptom domains of schizophrenia, particularly negative symptoms and social cognition. A negative correlation between endogenous oxytocin levels and negative symptoms has been reported in numerous studies.

• #47 Schizophrenia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophrenia

  The causes of schizophrenia may include genetic and environmental factors. Genetic factors include a variety of common and rare genetic variants. Possible environmental factors include being raised in a city, childhood adversity, cannabis use during adolescence, infections, the age of a person’s mother or father, and poor nutrition during pregnancy. […] Schizophrenia is described as a neurodevelopmental disorder with no precise boundary, or single cause, and is thought to develop from gene-environment interactions with involved vulnerability factors. The interactions of these risk factors are complex, as numerous and diverse insults from conception to adulthood can be involved. A genetic predisposition on its own, without interacting environmental factors, will not give rise to the development of schizophrenia.

• #48 Causes – Schizophrenia – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/schizophrenia/causes/

  Studies of people with schizophrenia have shown there are subtle differences in the structure of their brains. […] These changes are not seen in everyone with schizophrenia and can occur in people who do not have a mental illness. But they suggest schizophrenia may partly be a disorder of the brain. […] It is thought people with schizophrenia may have different amounts of certain neurotransmitters in their brains. […] This suggests neurotransmitters play a role in the development of schizophrenia. […] Research has shown people who develop schizophrenia are more likely to have experienced complications before and during their birth, such as a low birthweight, premature labour, and a lack of oxygen (asphyxia) during birth. […] It may be that these things have a subtle effect on brain development.

• #49 Schizophrenia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4568-schizophrenia

  How you developed before you were born plays a role in schizophrenia. The risk of having schizophrenia goes up if your mother had gestational diabetes, preeclampsia, malnutrition or a vitamin D deficiency while pregnant with you. The risk also increases if you were underweight at birth or if there were complications during your birth (like if you were born via an emergency cesarean section). […] Schizophrenia is linked with the use of certain recreational drugs, especially in larger amounts and earlier in life. The connection between heavy marijuana (cannabis) use as a teenager is one of the best-studied of these links. But experts arent sure if marijuana use is a direct cause of schizophrenia or if its just a contributing factor. […] Experts havent found one specific cause of schizophrenia, so they cant say for sure if genetics cause schizophrenia. But if you have a family history of schizophrenia especially a parent or sibling with it you have a much higher risk of developing this condition.

• #50 Childhood schizophrenia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childhood_schizophrenia

  Childhood schizophrenia (also known as childhood-onset schizophrenia, and very early-onset schizophrenia) is similar in characteristics of schizophrenia that develops at a later age, but has an onset before the age of 13 years, and is more difficult to diagnose. […] Several environmental factors, including perinatal complications and prenatal maternal infections may contribute to the etiology of schizophrenia. Prenatal rubella or influenza infections are associated with childhood-onset schizophrenia. […] Genetic predisposition is an important factor as well; familial mental illness is more frequently reported for childhood-onset schizophrenic patients. […] There is „considerable overlap” in the genetics of childhood-onset and adult-onset schizophrenia, but in childhood-onset schizophrenia there is a higher number of „rare allelic variants”. […] Children with schizophrenia have an increase in genetic deletions or duplication mutations and some have a specific mutation called 22q11 deletion syndrome, which accounts for up to 2% of cases.

• #51 What causes schizophrenia? What we know, don’t know and suspect

  https://theconversation.com/what-causes-schizophrenia-what-we-know-dont-know-and-suspect-102651

  Maternal exposure to famine during pregnancy has been linked to schizophrenia in the offspring. […] Exposure to infections in childhood, such as Toxoplasma gondii (a parasitic organism carried by domestic cats) and viral central nervous system infections (such as meningitis), have also been linked to schizophrenia in adulthood. […] Markers of infection and inflammation are often increased in adults with schizophrenia. This means immune system dysfunction may be involved in the development of the disorder. […] Studies following people from birth to adulthood have identified cannabis use in childhood or adolescence as a likely risk factor. […] There is solid evidence supporting the link between having experienced child abuse, or any type of abuse that includes bullying, and schizophrenia.

• #52 What causes schizophrenia? What we know, don’t know and suspect

  https://theconversation.com/what-causes-schizophrenia-what-we-know-dont-know-and-suspect-102651

  Maternal exposure to famine during pregnancy has been linked to schizophrenia in the offspring. […] Exposure to infections in childhood, such as Toxoplasma gondii (a parasitic organism carried by domestic cats) and viral central nervous system infections (such as meningitis), have also been linked to schizophrenia in adulthood. […] Markers of infection and inflammation are often increased in adults with schizophrenia. This means immune system dysfunction may be involved in the development of the disorder. […] Studies following people from birth to adulthood have identified cannabis use in childhood or adolescence as a likely risk factor. […] There is solid evidence supporting the link between having experienced child abuse, or any type of abuse that includes bullying, and schizophrenia.

• #53 What Causes Schizophrenia? — Talkspace

  https://www.talkspace.com/mental-health/conditions/schizophrenia/causes/

  Roughly 2.8 million Americans have been diagnosed with schizophrenia, though its suspected many more live with the condition undiagnosed. Hallmark symptoms of schizophrenia include hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized speech and thought patterns. […] While we dont fully understand what causes it, according to Mental Health America, people diagnosed with schizophrenia can have an imbalance of neurotransmitters in their brains. Its possible that this might lead to someone hearing voices or seeing things that arent real. […] One widely accepted theory about the cause of schizophrenia has to do with brain development. Specifically, it points to brain development before being born. This theory is lent credence by the fact that people whose mothers were malnourished during pregnancy are much more likely to develop schizophrenia later in life.

• #54 Schizophrenia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4568-schizophrenia

  How you developed before you were born plays a role in schizophrenia. The risk of having schizophrenia goes up if your mother had gestational diabetes, preeclampsia, malnutrition or a vitamin D deficiency while pregnant with you. The risk also increases if you were underweight at birth or if there were complications during your birth (like if you were born via an emergency cesarean section). […] Schizophrenia is linked with the use of certain recreational drugs, especially in larger amounts and earlier in life. The connection between heavy marijuana (cannabis) use as a teenager is one of the best-studied of these links. But experts arent sure if marijuana use is a direct cause of schizophrenia or if its just a contributing factor. […] Experts havent found one specific cause of schizophrenia, so they cant say for sure if genetics cause schizophrenia. But if you have a family history of schizophrenia especially a parent or sibling with it you have a much higher risk of developing this condition.

• #55 Schizophrenia in Children and Adolescents – Pediatrics – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/psychiatric-disorders-in-children-and-adolescents/schizophrenia-in-children-and-adolescents

  Schizophrenia in prepubertal children (childhood-onset schizophrenia), in which symptoms similar to those of the adolescent/young adult-onset form develop before age 13, is extremely rare. […] Although the first episode usually occurs in young adults, some contributory neurodevelopmental events and experiences occur earlier (eg, during the perinatal period). […] These perinatal risk factors include the following: Genetic disorders (particularly those that increase risk of childhood onset), Exposure to certain drugs or substances (eg, cannabis) during a vulnerable period, Prenatal undernutrition, Labor complications, hypoxia, perinatal infection, placental abruption or insufficiency, Childhood brain injury. […] Other risk factors, which occur later (eg, illicit drug use later in adolescence), may then trigger the onset of schizophrenia.

• #56 Childhood schizophrenia | Health Library | Memorial Health System

  https://www.mhsystem.org/health-library/con-20199576/

  Childhood schizophrenia is an uncommon but severe mental disorder in which children and teenagers interpret reality abnormally. […] Its not known what causes childhood schizophrenia, but its thought that it develops in the same way as adult schizophrenia does. Researchers believe that a combination of genetics, brain chemistry and environment contributes to development of the disorder. […] Problems with certain naturally occurring brain chemicals, including neurotransmitters called dopamine and glutamate, may contribute to schizophrenia. […] Although the precise cause of schizophrenia isnt known, certain factors seem to increase the risk of developing or triggering schizophrenia, including having a family history of schizophrenia, increased immune system activation, older age of the father, some pregnancy and birth complications, and taking mind-altering drugs during teen years.

• #57 What causes schizophrenia? What we know, don’t know and suspect

  https://theconversation.com/what-causes-schizophrenia-what-we-know-dont-know-and-suspect-102651

  Schizophrenia is one of the worlds top ten causes of disability. It develops between the ages of 16 and 30 and often persists for life. […] It is thought disruptions in brain development early in life may underlie the emergence of schizophrenia in later years. While the causes of these disruptions arent exactly clear, research points to several possible reasons. […] Hundreds of genes have been linked to schizophrenia, but do not appear to follow typical patterns of inheritance across generations, where disorders can be predicted with confidence. […] Family studies do provide robust evidence of a genetic contribution. […] There is also an association between the age of the father at the time the child is born and an increased risk of schizophrenia in the child. […] Various obstetric complications in utero and at birth have also been identified as risk factors for schizophrenia in the offspring.

• #58 Schizophrenia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4568-schizophrenia

  How you developed before you were born plays a role in schizophrenia. The risk of having schizophrenia goes up if your mother had gestational diabetes, preeclampsia, malnutrition or a vitamin D deficiency while pregnant with you. The risk also increases if you were underweight at birth or if there were complications during your birth (like if you were born via an emergency cesarean section). […] Schizophrenia is linked with the use of certain recreational drugs, especially in larger amounts and earlier in life. The connection between heavy marijuana (cannabis) use as a teenager is one of the best-studied of these links. But experts arent sure if marijuana use is a direct cause of schizophrenia or if its just a contributing factor. […] Experts havent found one specific cause of schizophrenia, so they cant say for sure if genetics cause schizophrenia. But if you have a family history of schizophrenia especially a parent or sibling with it you have a much higher risk of developing this condition.

• #59 The Realities of Childhood Schizophrenia

  https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/realities-childhood-schizophrenia

  Studies have shown the presence of a substance use disorder and co-occurring psychotic symptoms indicate an increased risk for developing a primary psychotic disorder. […] The birth cohort study of patients with schizophrenia reported an association between hypoxia during birth complications and early onset schizophrenia but not of adult-onset schizophrenia. […] Two large systematic studies demonstrate that 30% to 50% of patients with childhood onset schizophrenia had premorbid features of autism or had comorbid diagnoses of pervasive developmental disorders. […] Twin studies suggest that childhood-onset of schizophrenia may have a substantial genetic component. […] A number of psychiatric disorders occur in higher frequency amongst first-degree relatives of children with schizophrenia.

• #60

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11920-019-1091-3

  We now know that the etiology of schizophrenia is multifactorial and reflects an interaction between genetic vulnerability and environmental contributors. Environmental risk factors such as pregnancy and birth complications, childhood trauma, migration, social isolation, urbanicity, and substance abuse, alone and in combination, acting at a number of levels over time, influence the individuals likelihood to develop the disorder. […] Trauma and social adversities in different forms, either during childhood or adulthood, have been extensively investigated as potential risk factors for schizophrenia. Varese and colleagues, in a meta-analysis of case-control, prospective, and cross-sectional cohort studies, reported strong evidence that childhood adversity (defined as sexual abuse, physical abuse, emotional/psychological abuse, neglect, parental death, and bullying) was associated with increased risk for psychosis in adulthood (overall OR = 2.78).

• #61 Childhood trauma linked to schizophrenia | ScienceDaily

  https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/04/120419102440.htm

  Researchers have found that children who have experienced severe trauma are three times as likely to develop schizophrenia in later life. […] The findings shed new light on the debate about the importance of genetic and environmental triggers of psychotic disorders. […] Children who had experienced any type of trauma before the age of 16 were approximately three times more likely to become psychotic in adulthood compared to those selected randomly from the population. […] Researchers found a relationship between the level of trauma and the likelihood of developing illness in later life. […] Those that were severely traumatised as children were at a greater risk, in some cases up to 50 times increased risk, than those who experienced trauma to a lesser extent. […] The research further suggests a strong relationship between environment and the development of psychosis, and provides clues about the mechanisms leading to severe mental illness.

• #62

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11920-019-1091-3

  We now know that the etiology of schizophrenia is multifactorial and reflects an interaction between genetic vulnerability and environmental contributors. Environmental risk factors such as pregnancy and birth complications, childhood trauma, migration, social isolation, urbanicity, and substance abuse, alone and in combination, acting at a number of levels over time, influence the individuals likelihood to develop the disorder. […] Trauma and social adversities in different forms, either during childhood or adulthood, have been extensively investigated as potential risk factors for schizophrenia. Varese and colleagues, in a meta-analysis of case-control, prospective, and cross-sectional cohort studies, reported strong evidence that childhood adversity (defined as sexual abuse, physical abuse, emotional/psychological abuse, neglect, parental death, and bullying) was associated with increased risk for psychosis in adulthood (overall OR = 2.78).

• #63 Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia: Background, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/914840-overview

  A study reviewing MRI data asked if abnormal cortical maturation was confined to developmental modules in the brain. They found patients with childhood-onset schizophrenia had altered maturational trajectories of cortical areas involved in the cingulo-fronto-temporal developmental module. […] One study found patients with childhood-onset schizophrenia displayed delayed maturation of occipitotemporal connectivity, with unaffected siblings displaying a milder phenotype. […] Early childhood trauma has been correlated with childhood psychotic symptoms. One study found 93.1% of patients with early-onset schizophrenia had experienced adverse life events during childhood, 46.9% had experienced traumatic events. […] Specifically, Arsenault et al. obtained data from the Environmental Risk longitudinal Twin Study, which interviewed mothers when their children were aged 5, 7, 10, and 12 years on whether the children had experienced maltreatment by an adult, bullying by peers, or involvement in an accident.

• #64 Schizophrenia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophrenia

  The causes of schizophrenia may include genetic and environmental factors. Genetic factors include a variety of common and rare genetic variants. Possible environmental factors include being raised in a city, childhood adversity, cannabis use during adolescence, infections, the age of a person’s mother or father, and poor nutrition during pregnancy. […] Schizophrenia is described as a neurodevelopmental disorder with no precise boundary, or single cause, and is thought to develop from gene-environment interactions with involved vulnerability factors. The interactions of these risk factors are complex, as numerous and diverse insults from conception to adulthood can be involved. A genetic predisposition on its own, without interacting environmental factors, will not give rise to the development of schizophrenia.

• #65 Schizophrenia in Children: Symptoms, Stages and Causes

  https://www.cadabamshospitals.com/understanding-schizophrenia-in-children/

  Dysregulations of neurotransmitters, particularly dopamine and glutamate, are associated with schizophrenia. Excessive dopamine activity contributes to psychotic symptoms, while an imbalance of glutamate impairs cognition and perception. […] Early signs of schizophrenia in children may include developmental delays, along with language difficulties, motor impairments and deficits in social skills. […] A stable and supportive family environment can help mitigate the effects of schizophrenia, while high levels of family stress, conflict or poor communication can exacerbate symptoms. […] Limited access to healthcare, financial instability and inadequate mental health resources can delay diagnosis and treatment. […] Children who develop schizophrenia often have difficulties establishing and maintaining social relationships.

• #66 What causes schizophrenia? What we know, don’t know and suspect

  https://theconversation.com/what-causes-schizophrenia-what-we-know-dont-know-and-suspect-102651

  Studies have also found a greater risk of schizophrenia in ethnic minority groups living in areas of low ethnic density than those living in high ethnic density areas. […] Social stressors can lead to biological disruptions. […] While much progress has been made in identifying the potential causes of schizophrenia, most of the evidence comes from population-level studies that may or may not be applicable to a particular individual. More research is required to determine the various individual pathways to schizophrenia.

• #67 Childhood Schizophrenia – Symptoms and Causes

  https://www.oprah.com/health/childhood-schizophrenia-symptoms-and-causes/all

  There are studies of pregnancy that suggest that if you have some problems like infections early in pregnancy, you may have a higher rate. […] There are other studies that show that children with certain developmental delays and speech and language [problems] have a higher risk for later, when they get to be adults, having schizophrenia. […] And there are other studies that suggest living in cities as opposed to the country increase your risk. […] If a child comes up with ideas and beliefs and behaviors that are significantly interfering with his or her life, I think you do want to get psychiatric or psychological consultation.

• #68 What causes schizophrenia? What we know, don’t know and suspect

  https://theconversation.com/what-causes-schizophrenia-what-we-know-dont-know-and-suspect-102651

  Studies have also found a greater risk of schizophrenia in ethnic minority groups living in areas of low ethnic density than those living in high ethnic density areas. […] Social stressors can lead to biological disruptions. […] While much progress has been made in identifying the potential causes of schizophrenia, most of the evidence comes from population-level studies that may or may not be applicable to a particular individual. More research is required to determine the various individual pathways to schizophrenia.

• #69

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11920-019-1091-3

  We now know that the etiology of schizophrenia is multifactorial and reflects an interaction between genetic vulnerability and environmental contributors. Environmental risk factors such as pregnancy and birth complications, childhood trauma, migration, social isolation, urbanicity, and substance abuse, alone and in combination, acting at a number of levels over time, influence the individuals likelihood to develop the disorder. […] Trauma and social adversities in different forms, either during childhood or adulthood, have been extensively investigated as potential risk factors for schizophrenia. Varese and colleagues, in a meta-analysis of case-control, prospective, and cross-sectional cohort studies, reported strong evidence that childhood adversity (defined as sexual abuse, physical abuse, emotional/psychological abuse, neglect, parental death, and bullying) was associated with increased risk for psychosis in adulthood (overall OR = 2.78).

• #70 Childhood trauma linked to schizophrenia | ScienceDaily

  https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/04/120419102440.htm

  Researchers have found that children who have experienced severe trauma are three times as likely to develop schizophrenia in later life. […] The findings shed new light on the debate about the importance of genetic and environmental triggers of psychotic disorders. […] Children who had experienced any type of trauma before the age of 16 were approximately three times more likely to become psychotic in adulthood compared to those selected randomly from the population. […] Researchers found a relationship between the level of trauma and the likelihood of developing illness in later life. […] Those that were severely traumatised as children were at a greater risk, in some cases up to 50 times increased risk, than those who experienced trauma to a lesser extent. […] The research further suggests a strong relationship between environment and the development of psychosis, and provides clues about the mechanisms leading to severe mental illness.

• #71

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11920-019-1091-3

  A robust link between childhood trauma and schizophrenic symptoms has been found with childhood trauma being associated with the most severe forms of positive symptomatology in adulthood, particularly hallucinations and affective symptoms. […] Epidemiological studies have consistently shown a pattern of association between environmental risk factors and later onset of psychosis, which is suggestive of a causal relationship.

• #72 Linking childhood trauma to the psychopathology of schizophrenia: the role of oxytocin | Schizophrenia

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41537-024-00433-9

  Childhood trauma can have wide-ranging impacts; while some forms involve physical harm, others primarily result in psychological or emotional impacts. These experiences can potentially affect the developing brain, leading to dysregulation in neurotransmitter systems and hormonal production, which may contribute to deficits in behavioral, cognitive, and emotional regulation. Oxytocinergic dysfunction is one of the most studied hormonal disturbances. Most studies have identified an inverse relation between childhood trauma and endogenous oxytocin concentration; however, a positive association has also been reported. A previous systematic review concluded that reduced oxytocin levels were associated with the history of trauma, supporting the assumption that adversity in early life alters oxytocin homeostasis in the long term. Polymorphism of the oxytocin receptor gene moderates the link between the incidence of childhood abuse and social relationships, implying that childhood trauma may influence the oxytocinergic system through genetic mechanisms. The aforementioned evidence indicates that childhood trauma disrupts the oxytocinergic system, and this disruption may be associated with the progression of schizophrenia.

• #73 Causes – Schizophrenia – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/schizophrenia/causes/

  These kinds of experiences, although stressful, do not cause schizophrenia. However, they can trigger its development in someone already vulnerable to it. […] Studies have shown using drugs, particularly cannabis, cocaine, LSD or amphetamines, can increase the risk of developing schizophrenia, psychosis or a similar illness. […] Research has shown that teenagers and young adults who use cannabis regularly are more likely to develop schizophrenia in later adulthood. The risk may be higher when using stronger forms of cannabis.

• #74 Schizophrenia | NAMI

  https://www.nami.org/about-mental-illness/mental-health-conditions/schizophrenia/

  Substance use. Some studies have suggested that taking mind-altering drugs during teen years and young adulthood can increase the risk of schizophrenia. A growing body of evidence indicates that smoking marijuana increases the risk of psychotic incidents and the risk of ongoing psychotic experiences. The younger and more frequent the use, the greater the risk.

• #75 Causes – Schizophrenia – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/schizophrenia/causes/

  These kinds of experiences, although stressful, do not cause schizophrenia. However, they can trigger its development in someone already vulnerable to it. […] Studies have shown using drugs, particularly cannabis, cocaine, LSD or amphetamines, can increase the risk of developing schizophrenia, psychosis or a similar illness. […] Research has shown that teenagers and young adults who use cannabis regularly are more likely to develop schizophrenia in later adulthood. The risk may be higher when using stronger forms of cannabis.

• #76 Schizophrenia: Symptoms, causes, and treatments

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/36942

  Schizophrenia likely develops when genetic and environmental factors combine. […] If there is no history of schizophrenia in a family, the chances of developing it are low. However, a persons risk rises if one of their parents has a diagnosis of schizophrenia. […] Schizophrenia appears to develop when there is an imbalance of the neurotransmitter dopamine and possibly serotonin in the brain. […] Environmental factors that may increase the risk of schizophrenia include: trauma during birth, malnutrition before birth, viral infections, psychosocial factors, such as trauma. […] Researchers have found an association between cannabis use disorder and schizophrenia. A 2023 study found that up to 30% of schizophrenia cases among males ages 21 to 30 may have links to cannabis use disorder. […] In 2017, scientists found evidence to suggest that some substances in cannabis can trigger schizophrenia in those susceptible to it.

• #77 A Review of Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6526799/

  Schizophrenia is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a multifactorial etiology. […] Research has shown the roles played by genetics as well as the environment in the development of childhood-onset schizophrenia and early-onset schizophrenia. […] If a first-degree relative has the disorder, the risk of developing the disorder is five to 20 times higher than the risk of the general population. […] Published studies have implicated different genomic loci and genes, including the major histocompatibility complex 6p21.1, MIR137, and ZNF804a. […] Schizophrenia is believed to be caused by multiple mutations in different genes and different genomic loci. […] Several environmental factors to the development of schizophrenia have been hypothesized, including marijuana exposure, in utero exposure to famine, prenatal infections, advanced paternal age, and obstetric complications. […] The interaction of gene and environment adds another layer of complexity to the etiopathogenesis of the disorder.

• #78 Schizophrenia: Symptoms, Definition, Test, Causes

  https://www.medicinenet.com/schizophrenia/article.htm

  Genetic: Schizophrenia is thought to have a significant but not solely genetic component. People who have immediate family members (first-degree relatives) with psychosis are more vulnerable to developing schizophrenia compared to people who do not have such a family history. […] […] Environmental: The risks of developing schizophrenia can even occur before birth. For example, the risk of schizophrenia is increased in individuals whose father is of advanced age or whose mother was malnourished or had one of the certain infections during pregnancy. Difficult life circumstances during childhood, like the early loss of a parent, parental poverty, bullying, witnessing domestic violence; being the victim of emotional, sexual, or physical abuse or of physical or emotional neglect; and insecure attachment have been associated with increased risks of developing this illness. […] […] Drug use: Use of marijuana (cannabis), amphetamines, and hallucinogens have been found to increase the risk of developing schizophrenia.

• #79 Schizophrenia: Symptoms, causes, and treatments

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/36942

  Schizophrenia likely develops when genetic and environmental factors combine. […] If there is no history of schizophrenia in a family, the chances of developing it are low. However, a persons risk rises if one of their parents has a diagnosis of schizophrenia. […] Schizophrenia appears to develop when there is an imbalance of the neurotransmitter dopamine and possibly serotonin in the brain. […] Environmental factors that may increase the risk of schizophrenia include: trauma during birth, malnutrition before birth, viral infections, psychosocial factors, such as trauma. […] Researchers have found an association between cannabis use disorder and schizophrenia. A 2023 study found that up to 30% of schizophrenia cases among males ages 21 to 30 may have links to cannabis use disorder. […] In 2017, scientists found evidence to suggest that some substances in cannabis can trigger schizophrenia in those susceptible to it.

• #80 Schizophrenia | NAMI

  https://www.nami.org/about-mental-illness/mental-health-conditions/schizophrenia/

  Substance use. Some studies have suggested that taking mind-altering drugs during teen years and young adulthood can increase the risk of schizophrenia. A growing body of evidence indicates that smoking marijuana increases the risk of psychotic incidents and the risk of ongoing psychotic experiences. The younger and more frequent the use, the greater the risk.

• #81 Childhood Onset Schizophrenia and Early Onset Schizophrenia spectrum disorders

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3771646/

  The clinical severity, impact on development, and poor prognosis of Childhood Onset Schizophrenia (COS) may represent a more homogeneous group. […] COS is an extraordinarily rare illness which is poorly understood but appears continuous with the adult onset disorder. Additionally, as seen in other areas of medicine, early onset populations have more prominent progressive brain changes, and genetic risk factors. […] Although neurobiologically and phenomenologically continuous with its adult counterpart, COS represents a more severe form of the disorder, with more prominent pre-psychotic developmental disorders, brain abnormalities and genetic risk factors. […] The general model of schizophrenia as a neurodevelopmental disorder is widely held. One version focused on schizophrenia as a static lesion, occurring during fetal brain development, while others argued that schizophrenia occurs as a result of a second hit in the form of abnormal brain development during adolescence such as excessive synaptic and/or dendritic elimination resulting in aberrant neuronal connectivity.

• #82 Motion and Form Perception in Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia

  https://www.mdpi.com/2036-7503/16/1/9

  Studies suggest that even schizophrenia appearing in adolescence and early adulthood is linked to irregular growth and maturation of the brain before and during childhood. […] The fact that we observed marked motion perception dysfunctions in COS is consistent with the dorsal visual stream vulnerability hypothesis, claiming that developmental anomalies in motion-sensitive higher-level visual areas contribute to perceptual impairments in neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism spectrum disorders, Williams syndrome, fragile X syndrome, developmental coordination disorder, and even childhood hemiplegia, which substantially interferes with normal brain development. […] Our previous research also suggests that developmental delays in motion perception are a heritability marker of schizophrenia. Namely, children of mothers with schizophrenia exhibited a less effective development of motion perception between the ages of 7–11 years relative to children with a negative family history of schizophrenia and children of mothers with bipolar disorder.

• #83 Childhood Onset Schizophrenia and Early Onset Schizophrenia spectrum disorders

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3771646/

  The clinical severity, impact on development, and poor prognosis of Childhood Onset Schizophrenia (COS) may represent a more homogeneous group. […] COS is an extraordinarily rare illness which is poorly understood but appears continuous with the adult onset disorder. Additionally, as seen in other areas of medicine, early onset populations have more prominent progressive brain changes, and genetic risk factors. […] Although neurobiologically and phenomenologically continuous with its adult counterpart, COS represents a more severe form of the disorder, with more prominent pre-psychotic developmental disorders, brain abnormalities and genetic risk factors. […] The general model of schizophrenia as a neurodevelopmental disorder is widely held. One version focused on schizophrenia as a static lesion, occurring during fetal brain development, while others argued that schizophrenia occurs as a result of a second hit in the form of abnormal brain development during adolescence such as excessive synaptic and/or dendritic elimination resulting in aberrant neuronal connectivity.

• #84 Childhood Onset Schizophrenia and Early Onset Schizophrenia spectrum disorders

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3771646/

  The clinical severity, impact on development, and poor prognosis of Childhood Onset Schizophrenia (COS) may represent a more homogeneous group. […] COS is an extraordinarily rare illness which is poorly understood but appears continuous with the adult onset disorder. Additionally, as seen in other areas of medicine, early onset populations have more prominent progressive brain changes, and genetic risk factors. […] Although neurobiologically and phenomenologically continuous with its adult counterpart, COS represents a more severe form of the disorder, with more prominent pre-psychotic developmental disorders, brain abnormalities and genetic risk factors. […] The general model of schizophrenia as a neurodevelopmental disorder is widely held. One version focused on schizophrenia as a static lesion, occurring during fetal brain development, while others argued that schizophrenia occurs as a result of a second hit in the form of abnormal brain development during adolescence such as excessive synaptic and/or dendritic elimination resulting in aberrant neuronal connectivity.

• #85 Childhood Onset Schizophrenia and Early Onset Schizophrenia spectrum disorders

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3771646/

  These theories have merged and it is now generally understood that COS is a multifactorial illness, characterized by multiple genetic elements, each contributing a modest degree of risk and interacting with the environment. […] There are also various other hypotheses focused on the cortical amino acid neurotransmitter systems (i.e., dopamine, glutamate, GABA, serotonin). […] Not only does the etiology of COS/EOS elude us, several roadblocks to progress toward finding one remain. […] It remains clear however that schizophrenia, including COS/EOS, has no clearly definable neuropathologic markers. […] While the study of COS suggests it may have more salient genetic effects, there is no finding of even a rare form of genetic dominant transmission for COS.

• #86 Childhood Schizophrenia – Symptoms and Causes

  https://www.oprah.com/health/childhood-schizophrenia-symptoms-and-causes/all

  There are studies of pregnancy that suggest that if you have some problems like infections early in pregnancy, you may have a higher rate. […] There are other studies that show that children with certain developmental delays and speech and language [problems] have a higher risk for later, when they get to be adults, having schizophrenia. […] And there are other studies that suggest living in cities as opposed to the country increase your risk. […] If a child comes up with ideas and beliefs and behaviors that are significantly interfering with his or her life, I think you do want to get psychiatric or psychological consultation.

• #87 Schizophrenia in Children: Symptoms, Stages and Causes

  https://www.cadabamshospitals.com/understanding-schizophrenia-in-children/

  Dysregulations of neurotransmitters, particularly dopamine and glutamate, are associated with schizophrenia. Excessive dopamine activity contributes to psychotic symptoms, while an imbalance of glutamate impairs cognition and perception. […] Early signs of schizophrenia in children may include developmental delays, along with language difficulties, motor impairments and deficits in social skills. […] A stable and supportive family environment can help mitigate the effects of schizophrenia, while high levels of family stress, conflict or poor communication can exacerbate symptoms. […] Limited access to healthcare, financial instability and inadequate mental health resources can delay diagnosis and treatment. […] Children who develop schizophrenia often have difficulties establishing and maintaining social relationships.

• #88 Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia: Background, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/914840-overview

  Studies of nonpsychotic siblings of childhood-onset schizophrenia patients have shown a pattern of prefrontal and temporal gray matter deficits during early ages that seem to normalize by the time the subjects reach late adolescence. […] A study looking at striatal volume and shape compared patients with childhood-onset schizophrenia, their siblings, and healthy controls. They found patients with childhood-onset schizophrenia displayed subregional striatal shape differences, particularly inward displacement of the anterior portion of the striatal head and outward displacement at the posterior portion of the striatal head. […] Studies of white matter connectivity in childhood-onset schizophrenia have found abnormalities in the left and right cuneus (occipital lobe, visual cortex) in both patients with childhood-onset schizophrenia and their siblings, though they couldn’t find a statistically significant correlation between these abnormalities and the severity of clinical symptoms.

• #89 A Review of Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6526799/

  Schizophrenia is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a multifactorial etiology. […] Research has shown the roles played by genetics as well as the environment in the development of childhood-onset schizophrenia and early-onset schizophrenia. […] If a first-degree relative has the disorder, the risk of developing the disorder is five to 20 times higher than the risk of the general population. […] Published studies have implicated different genomic loci and genes, including the major histocompatibility complex 6p21.1, MIR137, and ZNF804a. […] Schizophrenia is believed to be caused by multiple mutations in different genes and different genomic loci. […] Several environmental factors to the development of schizophrenia have been hypothesized, including marijuana exposure, in utero exposure to famine, prenatal infections, advanced paternal age, and obstetric complications. […] The interaction of gene and environment adds another layer of complexity to the etiopathogenesis of the disorder.

• #90 Childhood Onset Schizophrenia and Early Onset Schizophrenia spectrum disorders

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3771646/

  These theories have merged and it is now generally understood that COS is a multifactorial illness, characterized by multiple genetic elements, each contributing a modest degree of risk and interacting with the environment. […] There are also various other hypotheses focused on the cortical amino acid neurotransmitter systems (i.e., dopamine, glutamate, GABA, serotonin). […] Not only does the etiology of COS/EOS elude us, several roadblocks to progress toward finding one remain. […] It remains clear however that schizophrenia, including COS/EOS, has no clearly definable neuropathologic markers. […] While the study of COS suggests it may have more salient genetic effects, there is no finding of even a rare form of genetic dominant transmission for COS.

• #91 A Review of Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6526799/

  Schizophrenia is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a multifactorial etiology. […] Research has shown the roles played by genetics as well as the environment in the development of childhood-onset schizophrenia and early-onset schizophrenia. […] If a first-degree relative has the disorder, the risk of developing the disorder is five to 20 times higher than the risk of the general population. […] Published studies have implicated different genomic loci and genes, including the major histocompatibility complex 6p21.1, MIR137, and ZNF804a. […] Schizophrenia is believed to be caused by multiple mutations in different genes and different genomic loci. […] Several environmental factors to the development of schizophrenia have been hypothesized, including marijuana exposure, in utero exposure to famine, prenatal infections, advanced paternal age, and obstetric complications. […] The interaction of gene and environment adds another layer of complexity to the etiopathogenesis of the disorder.

• #92 Schizophrenia Causes and Risk Factors

  https://www.verywellmind.com/what-causes-schizophrenia-2953136

  The causes of schizophrenia are not yet fully understood. Researchers do not yet know exactly what causes some people to develop schizophrenia. There is a very strong genetic component to schizophrenia. However, genes alone do not completely explain the illness. […] Most scientists believe that genes dont cause schizophrenia directly but do make a person vulnerable to developing the disorder. Scientists are studying many possible factors that might cause a person with a genetic predisposition to develop schizophrenia. […] While schizophrenia is believed to have a strong genetic component, inheritence alone does not provide a full explanation for who develops this condition and who doesn’t. Instead, experts believe that it is a complex interplay of factors that play a part. Genetics, environment, lifestyle, family history, and social influences have all been implicated.

• #93 Schizophrenia Causes and Risk Factors

  https://www.verywellmind.com/what-causes-schizophrenia-2953136

  Twin studies suggest that genetics account for 81% of the risk for schizophrenia. Other studies estimate that the heritability of schizophrenia is around 60% to 80%. […] As with many health conditions, certain environmental factors are also causes of schizophrenia. […] Exposure to viruses are found to be a contributing factor in the development of schizophrenia. […] People who have recently developed schizophrenia very often have antibodies to two herpes viruses in their blood, HSV (herpes simplex virus) and CMV (cytomegalovirus). Studies suggest that when certain viruses infect someone with a particular set of genes, that person is more likely to develop schizophrenia. […] Being exposed to harmful toxins are suggested to play a role in the development of schizophrenia, even as early as during fetal development.

• #94 Linking childhood trauma to the psychopathology of schizophrenia: the role of oxytocin | Schizophrenia

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41537-024-00433-9

  Childhood trauma can have wide-ranging impacts; while some forms involve physical harm, others primarily result in psychological or emotional impacts. These experiences can potentially affect the developing brain, leading to dysregulation in neurotransmitter systems and hormonal production, which may contribute to deficits in behavioral, cognitive, and emotional regulation. Oxytocinergic dysfunction is one of the most studied hormonal disturbances. Most studies have identified an inverse relation between childhood trauma and endogenous oxytocin concentration; however, a positive association has also been reported. A previous systematic review concluded that reduced oxytocin levels were associated with the history of trauma, supporting the assumption that adversity in early life alters oxytocin homeostasis in the long term. Polymorphism of the oxytocin receptor gene moderates the link between the incidence of childhood abuse and social relationships, implying that childhood trauma may influence the oxytocinergic system through genetic mechanisms. The aforementioned evidence indicates that childhood trauma disrupts the oxytocinergic system, and this disruption may be associated with the progression of schizophrenia.

• #95

  https://www2.hse.ie/conditions/schizophrenia/causes/

  If you have schizophrenia, you are more likely to have experienced complications before and during birth. […] It may be that these things have a subtle effect on brain development. […] Early traumas in life increase the risk of psychosis. […] But not everyone who has had early trauma will develop psychosis. Also, not everyone who has psychotic experiences has experienced childhood abuse. […] The main psychological triggers of schizophrenia are stressful life events. […] These kinds of experiences do not cause schizophrenia. But they can trigger its development in someone who is already vulnerable to it. […] Drugs do not directly cause schizophrenia. But drug misuse increases the risk of developing schizophrenia, or a similar illness. […] Certain drugs may trigger symptoms of schizophrenia in people who are vulnerable. […] People under 15 who use cannabis regularly are up to 4 times more likely to develop schizophrenia by the age of 26. This is especially true for 'skunk’ and other more potent forms of the drug.

• #96 Linking childhood trauma to the psychopathology of schizophrenia: the role of oxytocin | Schizophrenia

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41537-024-00433-9

  Childhood trauma can have wide-ranging impacts; while some forms involve physical harm, others primarily result in psychological or emotional impacts. These experiences can potentially affect the developing brain, leading to dysregulation in neurotransmitter systems and hormonal production, which may contribute to deficits in behavioral, cognitive, and emotional regulation. Oxytocinergic dysfunction is one of the most studied hormonal disturbances. Most studies have identified an inverse relation between childhood trauma and endogenous oxytocin concentration; however, a positive association has also been reported. A previous systematic review concluded that reduced oxytocin levels were associated with the history of trauma, supporting the assumption that adversity in early life alters oxytocin homeostasis in the long term. Polymorphism of the oxytocin receptor gene moderates the link between the incidence of childhood abuse and social relationships, implying that childhood trauma may influence the oxytocinergic system through genetic mechanisms. The aforementioned evidence indicates that childhood trauma disrupts the oxytocinergic system, and this disruption may be associated with the progression of schizophrenia.

• #97 A Review of Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6526799/

  Schizophrenia is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a multifactorial etiology. […] Research has shown the roles played by genetics as well as the environment in the development of childhood-onset schizophrenia and early-onset schizophrenia. […] If a first-degree relative has the disorder, the risk of developing the disorder is five to 20 times higher than the risk of the general population. […] Published studies have implicated different genomic loci and genes, including the major histocompatibility complex 6p21.1, MIR137, and ZNF804a. […] Schizophrenia is believed to be caused by multiple mutations in different genes and different genomic loci. […] Several environmental factors to the development of schizophrenia have been hypothesized, including marijuana exposure, in utero exposure to famine, prenatal infections, advanced paternal age, and obstetric complications. […] The interaction of gene and environment adds another layer of complexity to the etiopathogenesis of the disorder.

• #98 Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia: Background, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/914840-overview

  One study also found a link between viral CNS infections and later psychosis. […] Some are focusing their attention on immunological markers as potential biomarkers of schizophrenia, some even working towards finding a causal relationship between immune processes and schizophrenia. […] Most psychologic, pharmacologic, and neuroimaging studies of childhood-onset schizophrenia have suggested dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex and limbic system. The neurotransmitter implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia is dopamine. […] No one single etiology has been identified for childhood-onset schizophrenia, and likely it is multifactorial.

• #99 Schizophrenia in children: Signs and symptoms, causes, and more

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/early-signs-of-schizophrenia-in-children

  If a child receives proper treatment after their first psychotic episode, the frequency and severity of future episodes are often drastically reduced. By some estimates, if someone receives proper treatment within 23 years after their first episode of psychosis, their risk of further episodes reduces by more than 50%, and prevents much of the disability linked with schizophrenia. For these reasons, early detection is incredibly important.

• #100 Schizophrenia in Children

  https://www.verywellmind.com/identifying-schizophrenia-in-children-4155780

  Childhood-onset schizophrenia is associated with low intellectual functioning and higher rates of negative symptoms across the lifespan. […] According to a 2011 study published in Pediatric Clinics of North America, childhood-onset schizophrenia is associated with greater social deficits in adulthood compared to those with other mental illnesses. It’s also been linked to lower levels of employment and a lesser likelihood of living independently, compared to other psychiatric disorders. […] Early intervention is key to improving the outcome for children with schizophrenia.

• #101 Schizophrenia in children: Signs and symptoms, causes, and more

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/early-signs-of-schizophrenia-in-children

  If a child receives proper treatment after their first psychotic episode, the frequency and severity of future episodes are often drastically reduced. By some estimates, if someone receives proper treatment within 23 years after their first episode of psychosis, their risk of further episodes reduces by more than 50%, and prevents much of the disability linked with schizophrenia. For these reasons, early detection is incredibly important.

• #102 Schizophrenia in children and adolescents: Treatment overview – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/schizophrenia-in-children-and-adolescents-treatment-overview

  Schizophrenia in children and adolescents is a syndrome consisting of positive and negative symptoms of psychosis that impact development, psychosocial, and cognitive functioning. The etiology of this syndrome is poorly understood, but early diagnosis and treatment are critical to limit the morbidity of the disorder. […] Childhood-onset schizophrenia (onset prior to age 13) usually represents a more severe form of the disorder than early-onset (onset between 13 to 18 years) or adult-onset schizophrenia (onset after age 18). It is associated with more prominent prepsychotic developmental disorders, structural brain abnormalities, and genetic risk factors. […] Repeated or prolonged psychotic episodes have deleterious neuropsychological, neurophysiological, and brain structural effects on patients who have been diagnosed with a first psychosis. Additionally, evidence suggests that prolonged periods of untreated psychosis may result in increased resistance to conventional treatments.

• #103

  https://www.aacap.org/AACAP/Families_and_Youth/Facts_for_Families/FFF-Guide/Schizophrenia-In-Children-049.aspx

  Schizophrenia is a serious psychiatric illness that causes changes in thinking, feelings, and unusual or strange behavior. […] The cause of schizophrenia is not known. Current research suggests a combination of brain changes, biochemical causes, genetic and environmental factors. […] Treating children with schizophrenia can involve a combination of medication, individual therapy, and family therapy, and specialized programs (school, activities, etc.) are often necessary.

• #104 Psychosis (Schizophrenia) in Children and Youth | Mental Health America

  https://mhanational.org/psychosis-schizophrenia-children-and-youth

  Schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders are medical illnesses that result in strange or bizarre thinking, perceptions (sight, sound), behaviors, and emotions. Psychosis is a brain-based condition that is made better or worse by environmental factors – like drug use and stress. […] The appearance of symptoms of psychosis before age 12 is rare (less than one-sixtieth as common as the adult-onset type), but studying these cases is important for understanding this disorder. […] Childhood-onset – Most children with schizophrenia show delays in language and other functions long before their psychotic symptoms (hallucinations, delusions, and disordered thinking) appear. […] It is especially important to pay attention to sudden changes in thoughts and behaviors. […] Early diagnosis and medical treatment are important. […] Parents need to ask their family physician or pediatrician to refer them to a child and adolescent psychiatrist who is specifically trained and skilled at evaluating, diagnosing, and treating children with schizophrenia.

• #105 Decade-Long Joint Research Finds Possible Cause Of Childhood Onset Schizophrenia | IFLScience

  https://www.iflscience.com/possible-genetic-cause-of-childhood-onset-schizophrenia-found-68533

  Childhood Onset Schizophrenia is extremely rare but it can have profound impacts on a child’s cognitive, behavioral and emotional development. […] Now a ten-year research effort has found new genetic factors that help to understand the causes of this particular form of schizophrenia. […] Childhood schizophrenia has an even stronger genetic basis than later-onset schizophrenia, Dr Anna Alkelai, Research Associate at the Institute for Genomic Medicine, Columbia University and first author on the publication said in a statement. […] The results show that a genetic mutation was found in seven of the children and their families, which may provide a cause for COS. […] The finding of mutations that explain the disease in approximately 20% of childhood schizophrenia patients opens far-reaching diagnostic and therapeutic possibilities, Professor Kohn explained.

• #106 Schizophrenia in Children

  https://www.verywellmind.com/identifying-schizophrenia-in-children-4155780

  Childhood-onset schizophrenia is associated with low intellectual functioning and higher rates of negative symptoms across the lifespan. […] According to a 2011 study published in Pediatric Clinics of North America, childhood-onset schizophrenia is associated with greater social deficits in adulthood compared to those with other mental illnesses. It’s also been linked to lower levels of employment and a lesser likelihood of living independently, compared to other psychiatric disorders. […] Early intervention is key to improving the outcome for children with schizophrenia.

• #107 Schizophrenia in children: Signs and symptoms, causes, and more

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/early-signs-of-schizophrenia-in-children

  Risk factors for schizophrenia include: family history of schizophrenia, brain chemistry, structure, and development, environmental factors such as stressful environments, exposure to viruses or nutritional deficiencies before birth, having an autoimmune disorder, and living in poverty, substance use, in particular taking mind-altering drugs. […] Researchers and psychiatrists are still trying to understand many details about childhood schizophrenia, also known as very early onset schizophrenia. Some research suggests that people who experience symptoms of psychosis as children, such as delusions and hallucinations, may develop a more severe case of schizophrenia. […] People who develop schizophrenia as children or young adolescents (under the age of 18) may also experience longer periods of untreated psychosis, and lower education levels.

• #108 Childhood schizophrenia – Hancock Health

  https://www.hancockhealth.org/mayo-health-library/childhood-schizophrenia/

  Childhood schizophrenia is an uncommon but severe mental disorder in which children and teenagers interpret reality abnormally. […] It’s not known what causes childhood schizophrenia, but it’s thought that it develops in the same way as adult schizophrenia does. Researchers believe that a combination of genetics, brain chemistry and environment contributes to development of the disorder. […] Problems with certain naturally occurring brain chemicals, including neurotransmitters called dopamine and glutamate, may contribute to schizophrenia. […] Although the precise cause of schizophrenia isn’t known, certain factors seem to increase the risk of developing or triggering schizophrenia, including: having a family history of schizophrenia, increased immune system activation, such as from inflammation, older age of the father, some pregnancy and birth complications, such as malnutrition or exposure to toxins or viruses that may impact brain development, taking mind-altering (psychoactive) drugs during teen years. […] Left untreated, childhood schizophrenia can result in severe emotional, behavioral and health problems. […] Early identification and treatment may help get symptoms of childhood schizophrenia under control before serious complications develop.

• #109 Pediatric Schizophrenia – Conditions and Treatments | Children’s National Hospital

  https://www.childrensnational.org/get-care/health-library/schizophrenia

  Schizophrenia has no single cause. A combination of genes from both parents plays a role. So do unknown environmental factors. Experts believe that a child has to inherit a chemical imbalance in the brain to develop it. […] Schizophrenia tends to run in families. A child who has a family member with the disorder has a greater chance of developing it. […] Schizophrenia is a serious, life-long mental illness. Treatment is complex and needs direction from an expert in childhood schizophrenia, such as a board certified child psychiatrist.

• #110 Childhood trauma linked to schizophrenia | ScienceDaily

  https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/04/120419102440.htm

  Our findings suggest that studies on the neurological and genetic factors associated with these conditions, which are not yet fully understood, are more likely to advance our knowledge if we take into account a patient’s life experiences. […] We need to know, for example, how childhood trauma affects the developing brain, as well as whether there are genetic factors that increase vulnerability or resilience to traumatic events. […] Now that we know environment is a major factor in psychosis and that there are direct links between specific experiences and symptoms of the condition, it is even more vital that psychiatric services routinely question patients about their life experience.

• #111 What causes schizophrenia? What we know, don’t know and suspect

  https://theconversation.com/what-causes-schizophrenia-what-we-know-dont-know-and-suspect-102651

  Studies have also found a greater risk of schizophrenia in ethnic minority groups living in areas of low ethnic density than those living in high ethnic density areas. […] Social stressors can lead to biological disruptions. […] While much progress has been made in identifying the potential causes of schizophrenia, most of the evidence comes from population-level studies that may or may not be applicable to a particular individual. More research is required to determine the various individual pathways to schizophrenia.

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