Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia: Background, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/914840-overview

  Childhood-onset schizophrenia is a severe form of psychotic disorder that occurs at age 12 years or younger and is often chronic and persistently debilitating, with worse outcomes than patients who have later onset of symptoms. […] The American Psychiatric Associations Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) cautions that although the essential features of schizophrenia are the same in childhood, it is harder to diagnose. Symptoms such as disorganized speech and behavior, which are typically present in schizophrenia, also occur in many disorders of childhood onset. […] No definite single etiology of schizophrenia has been identified. Most theories accept both genetic and environmental contributions for the causation of childhood-onset schizophrenia (COS).

• #2 Schizophrenia in children and adolescents: Treatment overview – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/schizophrenia-in-children-and-adolescents-treatment-overview

  Schizophrenia in children and adolescents is a syndrome consisting of positive and negative symptoms of psychosis that impact development, psychosocial, and cognitive functioning. The etiology of this syndrome is poorly understood, but early diagnosis and treatment are critical to limit the morbidity of the disorder. […] Childhood-onset schizophrenia (onset prior to age 13) usually represents a more severe form of the disorder than early-onset (onset between 13 to 18 years) or adult-onset schizophrenia (onset after age 18). It is associated with more prominent prepsychotic developmental disorders, structural brain abnormalities, and genetic risk factors. […] Repeated or prolonged psychotic episodes have deleterious neuropsychological, neurophysiological, and brain structural effects on patients who have been diagnosed with a first psychosis. Additionally, evidence suggests that prolonged periods of untreated psychosis may result in increased resistance to conventional treatments.

• #3 Childhood schizophrenia – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/childhood-schizophrenia/symptoms-causes/syc-20354483

  Childhood schizophrenia is an uncommon but severe mental disorder in which children and teenagers interpret reality abnormally. […] It’s not known what causes childhood schizophrenia, but it’s thought that it develops in the same way as adult schizophrenia does. Researchers believe that a combination of genetics, brain chemistry and environment contributes to development of the disorder. […] Problems with certain naturally occurring brain chemicals, including neurotransmitters called dopamine and glutamate, may contribute to schizophrenia. Neuroimaging studies show differences in the brain structure and central nervous system of people with schizophrenia. While researchers aren’t certain about the significance of these changes, they indicate that schizophrenia is a brain disease.

• #4 Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia: Background, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/914840-overview

  Childhood-onset schizophrenia is a severe form of psychotic disorder that occurs at age 12 years or younger and is often chronic and persistently debilitating, with worse outcomes than patients who have later onset of symptoms. […] The American Psychiatric Associations Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) cautions that although the essential features of schizophrenia are the same in childhood, it is harder to diagnose. Symptoms such as disorganized speech and behavior, which are typically present in schizophrenia, also occur in many disorders of childhood onset. […] No definite single etiology of schizophrenia has been identified. Most theories accept both genetic and environmental contributions for the causation of childhood-onset schizophrenia (COS).

• #5 Childhood Onset Schizophrenia and Early Onset Schizophrenia spectrum disorders

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3771646/

  The clinical severity, impact on development, and poor prognosis of Childhood Onset Schizophrenia (COS) may represent a more homogeneous group. […] COS is an extraordinarily rare illness which is poorly understood but appears continuous with the adult onset disorder. Additionally, as seen in other areas of medicine, early onset populations have more prominent progressive brain changes, and genetic risk factors. […] Although neurobiologically and phenomenologically continuous with its adult counterpart, COS represents a more severe form of the disorder, with more prominent pre-psychotic developmental disorders, brain abnormalities and genetic risk factors. […] The general model of schizophrenia as a neurodevelopmental disorder is widely held. One version focused on schizophrenia as a static lesion, occurring during fetal brain development, while others argued that schizophrenia occurs as a result of a second hit in the form of abnormal brain development during adolescence such as excessive synaptic and/or dendritic elimination resulting in aberrant neuronal connectivity.

• #6 Childhood Onset Schizophrenia and Early Onset Schizophrenia spectrum disorders

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3771646/

  These theories have merged and it is now generally understood that COS is a multifactorial illness, characterized by multiple genetic elements, each contributing a modest degree of risk and interacting with the environment. […] Alterations in genetics, neurodevelopment, and neurotransmitter systems remain among the most promising directions for further research. […] It remains clear however that schizophrenia, including COS/EOS, has no clearly definable neuropathologic markers. […] The diagnosis of childhood onset schizophrenia (COS) is a difficult, time consuming process. […] The most common disorder misdiagnosed as COS are affective disorders, organic psychosis, pervasive developmental disorders, and a group referred to as Atypical Psychosis or Multi Dimensionally Impaired (MDI). […] Identifying the neurobiological basis and pathophysiology of schizophrenia is an essential future goal for establishing its diagnostic validity, delineating meaningful subtypes or alternate diagnoses, and finding causative mechanisms and novel targets for drug development.

• #7 Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia: Background, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/914840-overview

  Several factors suggest a genetic risk. First-degree relatives of patients with early-onset schizophrenia (EOS) have a 5 to 20 times higher risk of developing schizophrenia compared to the general population. […] The combination of genetic risk and evidence of acquired damage has suggested a neurodevelopmental theory with early CNS abnormalities that contribute to an increased vulnerability to schizophrenia later in life. […] The neuroanatomy of persons with COS has been examined by neuroimaging. As in adults with schizophrenia, the most consistent finding has been enlargement of the lateral ventricles. […] The literature has revealed a compelling story for gray matter deficits in individuals with COS. […] Studies of nonpsychotic siblings of childhood-onset schizophrenia patients have shown a pattern of prefrontal and temporal gray matter deficits during early ages that seem to normalize by the time the subjects reach late adolescence.

• #8 Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia: Background, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/914840-overview

  Several factors suggest a genetic risk. First-degree relatives of patients with early-onset schizophrenia (EOS) have a 5 to 20 times higher risk of developing schizophrenia compared to the general population. […] The combination of genetic risk and evidence of acquired damage has suggested a neurodevelopmental theory with early CNS abnormalities that contribute to an increased vulnerability to schizophrenia later in life. […] The neuroanatomy of persons with COS has been examined by neuroimaging. As in adults with schizophrenia, the most consistent finding has been enlargement of the lateral ventricles. […] The literature has revealed a compelling story for gray matter deficits in individuals with COS. […] Studies of nonpsychotic siblings of childhood-onset schizophrenia patients have shown a pattern of prefrontal and temporal gray matter deficits during early ages that seem to normalize by the time the subjects reach late adolescence.

• #9 Schizophrenia in Children | Cedars-Sinai

  https://www.cedars-sinai.org/health-library/diseases-and-conditions—pediatrics/s/schizophrenia-in-children.html

  Schizophrenia has no single cause. A combination of genes from both parents plays a role. So do unknown environmental factors. Experts believe that a child has to inherit a chemical imbalance in the brain to develop it. […] Schizophrenia tends to run in families. A child who has a family member with the disorder has a greater chance of developing it. […] Schizophrenia is a serious, lifelong mental illness. It can be treated but not cured. […] A mental health expert can diagnose schizophrenia. Ask for a referral to a psychiatrist with experience evaluating and treating children with schizophrenia. […] Treatment can include a combination of medicine, therapy, and special programs.

• #10 Childhood schizophrenia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childhood_schizophrenia

  There is „considerable overlap” in the genetics of childhood-onset and adult-onset schizophrenia, but in childhood-onset schizophrenia there is a higher number of „rare allelic variants”. There have been several genes indicated in children diagnosed with schizophrenia that include: neuregulin, dysbindin, D-amino acid oxidase, proline dehydrogenase, catechol-O-methyltransferase, and regulator of G protein signaling. There have also been findings of 5HT2A and dopamine D3 receptor. An important gene for adolescent-onset schizophrenia is the catechol-O-methyltransferase gene, a gene that regulates dopamine. Children with schizophrenia have an increase in genetic deletions or duplication mutations and some have a specific mutation called 22q11 deletion syndrome, which accounts for up to 2% of cases.

• #11 Childhood schizophrenia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childhood_schizophrenia

  There is „considerable overlap” in the genetics of childhood-onset and adult-onset schizophrenia, but in childhood-onset schizophrenia there is a higher number of „rare allelic variants”. There have been several genes indicated in children diagnosed with schizophrenia that include: neuregulin, dysbindin, D-amino acid oxidase, proline dehydrogenase, catechol-O-methyltransferase, and regulator of G protein signaling. There have also been findings of 5HT2A and dopamine D3 receptor. An important gene for adolescent-onset schizophrenia is the catechol-O-methyltransferase gene, a gene that regulates dopamine. Children with schizophrenia have an increase in genetic deletions or duplication mutations and some have a specific mutation called 22q11 deletion syndrome, which accounts for up to 2% of cases.

• #12 Childhood schizophrenia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childhood_schizophrenia

  There is „considerable overlap” in the genetics of childhood-onset and adult-onset schizophrenia, but in childhood-onset schizophrenia there is a higher number of „rare allelic variants”. There have been several genes indicated in children diagnosed with schizophrenia that include: neuregulin, dysbindin, D-amino acid oxidase, proline dehydrogenase, catechol-O-methyltransferase, and regulator of G protein signaling. There have also been findings of 5HT2A and dopamine D3 receptor. An important gene for adolescent-onset schizophrenia is the catechol-O-methyltransferase gene, a gene that regulates dopamine. Children with schizophrenia have an increase in genetic deletions or duplication mutations and some have a specific mutation called 22q11 deletion syndrome, which accounts for up to 2% of cases.

• #13 Genetic study provides first-ever insight into biological origin of schizophrenia | Broad Institute

  https://www.broadinstitute.org/news/7823

  A landmark study, based on genetic analysis of nearly 65,000 people, has revealed that a persons risk of schizophrenia is increased if they inherit specific variants in a gene related to synaptic pruning the elimination of connections between neurons. […] The gene, called complement component 4 (C4), plays a well-known role in the immune system but has now been shown to also play a key role in brain development and schizophrenia risk. […] The findings may help explain the longstanding mystery of why brains from people with schizophrenia tend to have a thinner cerebral cortex with fewer synapses than unaffected individuals do. The work may also help to explain why the onset of schizophrenia symptoms tends to occur in late adolescence: the human brain normally undergoes widespread synapse pruning during adolescence, especially in the cerebral cortex (the brains outer layer, responsible for many aspects of cognition). Excessive synaptic pruning during adolescence and early adulthood, due to increased complement (C4) activity, could lead to the cognitive symptoms seen in schizophrenia.

• #14 Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia: Background, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/914840-overview

  Several factors suggest a genetic risk. First-degree relatives of patients with early-onset schizophrenia (EOS) have a 5 to 20 times higher risk of developing schizophrenia compared to the general population. […] The combination of genetic risk and evidence of acquired damage has suggested a neurodevelopmental theory with early CNS abnormalities that contribute to an increased vulnerability to schizophrenia later in life. […] The neuroanatomy of persons with COS has been examined by neuroimaging. As in adults with schizophrenia, the most consistent finding has been enlargement of the lateral ventricles. […] The literature has revealed a compelling story for gray matter deficits in individuals with COS. […] Studies of nonpsychotic siblings of childhood-onset schizophrenia patients have shown a pattern of prefrontal and temporal gray matter deficits during early ages that seem to normalize by the time the subjects reach late adolescence.

• #15 Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia: Background, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/914840-overview

  Several factors suggest a genetic risk. First-degree relatives of patients with early-onset schizophrenia (EOS) have a 5 to 20 times higher risk of developing schizophrenia compared to the general population. […] The combination of genetic risk and evidence of acquired damage has suggested a neurodevelopmental theory with early CNS abnormalities that contribute to an increased vulnerability to schizophrenia later in life. […] The neuroanatomy of persons with COS has been examined by neuroimaging. As in adults with schizophrenia, the most consistent finding has been enlargement of the lateral ventricles. […] The literature has revealed a compelling story for gray matter deficits in individuals with COS. […] Studies of nonpsychotic siblings of childhood-onset schizophrenia patients have shown a pattern of prefrontal and temporal gray matter deficits during early ages that seem to normalize by the time the subjects reach late adolescence.

• #16 Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia: Background, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/914840-overview

  Several factors suggest a genetic risk. First-degree relatives of patients with early-onset schizophrenia (EOS) have a 5 to 20 times higher risk of developing schizophrenia compared to the general population. […] The combination of genetic risk and evidence of acquired damage has suggested a neurodevelopmental theory with early CNS abnormalities that contribute to an increased vulnerability to schizophrenia later in life. […] The neuroanatomy of persons with COS has been examined by neuroimaging. As in adults with schizophrenia, the most consistent finding has been enlargement of the lateral ventricles. […] The literature has revealed a compelling story for gray matter deficits in individuals with COS. […] Studies of nonpsychotic siblings of childhood-onset schizophrenia patients have shown a pattern of prefrontal and temporal gray matter deficits during early ages that seem to normalize by the time the subjects reach late adolescence.

• #17 Childhood schizophrenia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childhood_schizophrenia

  Neuroimaging studies have found differences between the medicated brains of individuals with schizophrenia, and the brains of those without, though research does not know the cause of the difference. In childhood-onset schizophrenia, there appears to be a more rapid loss of cerebral grey matter during adolescence. Studies have reported that adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are the most preventable cause of the development of psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia. ACEs have the potential to impact on the structure and function of the brain; structural changes revealed have been related to stress. Findings also report that different areas of the brain are affected by different types of maltreatment.

• #18 Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia: Background, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/914840-overview

  Most psychologic, pharmacologic, and neuroimaging studies of childhood-onset schizophrenia have suggested dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex and limbic system. The neurotransmitter implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia is dopamine. […] No one single etiology has been identified for childhood-onset schizophrenia, and likely it is multifactorial.

• #19 Motion and Form Perception in Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia

  https://www.mdpi.com/2036-7503/16/1/9

  The fact that we observed marked motion perception dysfunctions in COS is consistent with the dorsal visual stream vulnerability hypothesis, claiming that developmental anomalies in motion-sensitive higher-level visual areas contribute to perceptual impairments in neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism spectrum disorders, Williams syndrome, fragile X syndrome, developmental coordination disorder, and even childhood hemiplegia, which substantially interferes with normal brain development. […] In conclusion, we demonstrated impaired visual form and motion perception in COS, even when the general intellectual functions and socioeconomic status were controlled for. The deficits in motion perception were more severe than in form perception, which is consistent with the dorsal visual system vulnerability hypothesis of neurodevelopmental disorders. Further studies are warranted to elucidate the functional consequences of motion perception alterations in COS and to gain insight into its neuronal and genetic correlates.

• #20 Hippocampal Shape Abnormalities Of Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia Patients And Their Healthy Siblings

  https://elischolar.library.yale.edu/ymtdl/1804/

  Objective: The hippocampus has been implicated in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia, with hippocampal volume deficits being a consistently reported abnormality in schizophrenia, although the sub-regional specificity of the deficits has not been characterized. […] Conclusions: This is the first and largest longitudinal three-way analysis of sub-regional hippocampal shape abnormalities in patients with COS, and their healthy siblings, compared to healthy controls. The abnormalities seen in the anterior hippocampus of patients with COS possibly suggest disturbed frontal-hippocampal connectivity.

• #21 Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia: Background, Etiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/914840-overview

  Most psychologic, pharmacologic, and neuroimaging studies of childhood-onset schizophrenia have suggested dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex and limbic system. The neurotransmitter implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia is dopamine. […] No one single etiology has been identified for childhood-onset schizophrenia, and likely it is multifactorial.

• #22 Childhood schizophrenia – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/childhood-schizophrenia/symptoms-causes/syc-20354483

  Childhood schizophrenia is an uncommon but severe mental disorder in which children and teenagers interpret reality abnormally. […] It’s not known what causes childhood schizophrenia, but it’s thought that it develops in the same way as adult schizophrenia does. Researchers believe that a combination of genetics, brain chemistry and environment contributes to development of the disorder. […] Problems with certain naturally occurring brain chemicals, including neurotransmitters called dopamine and glutamate, may contribute to schizophrenia. Neuroimaging studies show differences in the brain structure and central nervous system of people with schizophrenia. While researchers aren’t certain about the significance of these changes, they indicate that schizophrenia is a brain disease.

• #23 Mechanism by Which the Brain Weighs Positive vs. Negative Social Experience Is Revealed | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/about/newsroom/2025/mechanism-by-which-the-brain-weighs-positive-vs-negative-social-experience-is-revealed

  Mount Sinai researchers have identified for the first time the neural mechanisms in the brain that regulate both positive and negative impressions of a social encounter, as well as how an imbalance between the two could lead to common neuropsychiatric disorders like autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and schizophrenia. […] While deficits in social valence are known to be prevalent in many neuropsychiatric disorders, their underlying neural mechanisms and pathophysiology have remained elusive. […] We have demonstrated that the neuromodulators serotonin and neurotensin signal opposing valence, revealing a fundamental principle of brain function in the form of a neuromodulatory switch that allows behavioral adaptation based on social history. […] Just as importantly, the team uncovered specific drug targets for positive and negative valence, knowledge that could potentially factor into future treatments. Specifically, serotonin acting on the serotonin 1B receptor generates a positive impression of a social encounter, while neurotensin acting on the neurotensin 1 receptor creates a negative impression.

• #24 Mechanism by Which the Brain Weighs Positive vs. Negative Social Experience Is Revealed | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/about/newsroom/2025/mechanism-by-which-the-brain-weighs-positive-vs-negative-social-experience-is-revealed

  Mount Sinai researchers have identified for the first time the neural mechanisms in the brain that regulate both positive and negative impressions of a social encounter, as well as how an imbalance between the two could lead to common neuropsychiatric disorders like autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and schizophrenia. […] While deficits in social valence are known to be prevalent in many neuropsychiatric disorders, their underlying neural mechanisms and pathophysiology have remained elusive. […] We have demonstrated that the neuromodulators serotonin and neurotensin signal opposing valence, revealing a fundamental principle of brain function in the form of a neuromodulatory switch that allows behavioral adaptation based on social history. […] Just as importantly, the team uncovered specific drug targets for positive and negative valence, knowledge that could potentially factor into future treatments. Specifically, serotonin acting on the serotonin 1B receptor generates a positive impression of a social encounter, while neurotensin acting on the neurotensin 1 receptor creates a negative impression.

• #25 Schizophrenia and Autism: Both Shared and Disorder-Specific Pathogenesis Via Perinatal Inflammation? | Pediatric Research

  https://www.nature.com/articles/pr9201190

  Prenatal exposure to infection and subsequent inflammatory responses have been implicated in the etiology of schizophrenia and autism. […] Our model suggests that acute neuroinflammation during early fetal development may be relevant for the induction of psychopathological and neuropathological features shared by schizophrenia and autism, whereas postacute latent and persistent inflammation may contribute to schizophrenia- and autism-specific phenotypes, respectively. […] Neuroimmune factors are now being recognized to play important roles in the etiology of neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders, including those with an onset of pathogenesis during early brain development. […] Over the past 3 decades, one line of research has focused on the impact of prenatal maternal infection on the development of childhood and adult neuropsychiatric disorders, particularly schizophrenia and autism.

• #26 Schizophrenia and Autism: Both Shared and Disorder-Specific Pathogenesis Via Perinatal Inflammation? | Pediatric Research

  https://www.nature.com/articles/pr9201190

  The role of prenatal infection in alerting neurodevelopmental trajectories relevant to schizophrenia and autism is discussed in the subsequent section. […] Epidemiologic studies suggest that the risk of schizophrenia is increased after prenatal maternal viral infections such as influenza, rubella, measles, and polio, as well as infections with bacterial pathogens and genital and/or reproductive infections. […] This notion finds support from a recent nationwide study in Denmark on 20,000 children born to mothers who required hospitalization because of infection during pregnancy. […] One hypothesis suggests that enhanced expression of proinflammatory cytokines and other mediators of inflammation in the maternal, fetal, and neonatal compartments may interfere with brain development, thereby increasing the risk for long-term brain dysfunction later in life.

• #27 The role of infections and inflammation in schizophrenia: review of the evidence | Middle East Current Psychiatry | Full Text

  https://mecp.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s43045-024-00397-7

  Several population-based studies have linked serious prenatal or childhood infections requiring hospitalization to increased risk of later schizophrenia diagnosis, especially in individuals with genetic predisposition. […] The mechanisms underlying the infection-schizophrenia link likely involve inflammation, cytokines, microglial activation, and tryptophan/kynurenine pathway modulation. […] The evidence suggests immune system abnormalities likely play a role, perhaps by interacting with genetic and environmental factors, in instigating schizophrenia pathophysiology in a subset of patients. […] Maternal immune activation (MIA) disrupts normal fetal brain development, potentially causing over 30% of schizophrenia cases. […] These infections elicit a maternal immunological response that includes the activation of different cytokine pathways such as IL-1, IL-6, TNF, and IFN.

• #28 The role of infections and inflammation in schizophrenia: review of the evidence | Middle East Current Psychiatry | Full Text

  https://mecp.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s43045-024-00397-7

  Several population-based studies have linked serious prenatal or childhood infections requiring hospitalization to increased risk of later schizophrenia diagnosis, especially in individuals with genetic predisposition. […] The mechanisms underlying the infection-schizophrenia link likely involve inflammation, cytokines, microglial activation, and tryptophan/kynurenine pathway modulation. […] The evidence suggests immune system abnormalities likely play a role, perhaps by interacting with genetic and environmental factors, in instigating schizophrenia pathophysiology in a subset of patients. […] Maternal immune activation (MIA) disrupts normal fetal brain development, potentially causing over 30% of schizophrenia cases. […] These infections elicit a maternal immunological response that includes the activation of different cytokine pathways such as IL-1, IL-6, TNF, and IFN.

• #29 Childhood schizophrenia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childhood_schizophrenia

  Several environmental factors, including perinatal complications and prenatal maternal infections may contribute to the etiology of schizophrenia. Prenatal rubella or influenza infections are associated with childhood-onset schizophrenia. Severity or frequency of prenatal infections may also contribute to earlier onset of symptoms by means of congenital brain malformations, reduction or impairment of cognitive function, and psychological disorders. It is believed that prenatal exposure to rubella modifies the developmental course during childhood, increasing the risk for childhood schizophrenia. Genetic predisposition is an important factor as well; familial mental illness is more frequently reported for childhood-onset schizophrenic patients. While it is hard to detect, there are relatives who are more-likely to be diagnosed with schizophrenia if they are children of individuals who have this disorder. „First degree relatives” are found to have the highest chance of being diagnosed with schizophrenia. Children of individuals with schizophrenia have a 8.2% chance of having schizophrenia while the general population is at an 0.86% chance of having this disorder. These results indicate that genes play a big role in one developing schizophrenia.

• #30 The role of infections and inflammation in schizophrenia: review of the evidence | Middle East Current Psychiatry | Full Text

  https://mecp.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s43045-024-00397-7

  Several population-based studies have linked serious prenatal or childhood infections requiring hospitalization to increased risk of later schizophrenia diagnosis, especially in individuals with genetic predisposition. […] The mechanisms underlying the infection-schizophrenia link likely involve inflammation, cytokines, microglial activation, and tryptophan/kynurenine pathway modulation. […] The evidence suggests immune system abnormalities likely play a role, perhaps by interacting with genetic and environmental factors, in instigating schizophrenia pathophysiology in a subset of patients. […] Maternal immune activation (MIA) disrupts normal fetal brain development, potentially causing over 30% of schizophrenia cases. […] These infections elicit a maternal immunological response that includes the activation of different cytokine pathways such as IL-1, IL-6, TNF, and IFN.

• #31 The role of infections and inflammation in schizophrenia: review of the evidence | Middle East Current Psychiatry | Full Text

  https://mecp.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s43045-024-00397-7

  The association between NMDAR antibodies and the glutamate/NMDAR hypofunction hypothesis of psychotic disorders is also of interest. […] During systemic inflammation, substances like autoantibodies, cytokines, and certain T-cell subsets involved in brain surveillance can enter the blood-brain barrier. […] There is also evidence to suggest that an imbalance in the Th1-Th2 immune system can lead to the development of autoimmune and atopic illnesses in individuals with SCZ. […] Inflammation can stimulate peripheral neurons or activate pathways like the tryptophan-kynurenine pathway, which can impact neurotransmitters like glutamate, serotonin, and potentially dopamine. […] The collective evidence suggests that infections, inflammation, and immune system abnormalities may play an etiological role in schizophrenia.

• #32 The role of infections and inflammation in schizophrenia: review of the evidence | Middle East Current Psychiatry | Full Text

  https://mecp.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s43045-024-00397-7

  The association between NMDAR antibodies and the glutamate/NMDAR hypofunction hypothesis of psychotic disorders is also of interest. […] During systemic inflammation, substances like autoantibodies, cytokines, and certain T-cell subsets involved in brain surveillance can enter the blood-brain barrier. […] There is also evidence to suggest that an imbalance in the Th1-Th2 immune system can lead to the development of autoimmune and atopic illnesses in individuals with SCZ. […] Inflammation can stimulate peripheral neurons or activate pathways like the tryptophan-kynurenine pathway, which can impact neurotransmitters like glutamate, serotonin, and potentially dopamine. […] The collective evidence suggests that infections, inflammation, and immune system abnormalities may play an etiological role in schizophrenia.

• #33 Childhood exposure to green space – A novel risk-decreasing mechanism for schizophrenia?

  https://international.au.dk/currently/news/preview/artikel/childhood-exposure-to-green-space-a-novel-risk-decreasing-mechanism-for-schizophrenia

  Exposure to more green space during childhood is associated with lower risk of schizophrenia […] Risk decreased in a dose-response association with increasing green space exposure even after adjusting for confounding effects of urbanization, socioeconomic status, age, and sex […] The strongest protective association of green space was found within the closest distance to a person’s residence […] Exposure during the earliest years of childhood were most strongly associated with the risk of schizophrenia […] This study supports findings from other studies highlighting positive effects of exposure to natural environments for human health.

• #34 Childhood exposure to green space – A novel risk-decreasing mechanism for schizophrenia?

  https://international.au.dk/currently/news/preview/artikel/childhood-exposure-to-green-space-a-novel-risk-decreasing-mechanism-for-schizophrenia

  Exposure to more green space during childhood is associated with lower risk of schizophrenia […] Risk decreased in a dose-response association with increasing green space exposure even after adjusting for confounding effects of urbanization, socioeconomic status, age, and sex […] The strongest protective association of green space was found within the closest distance to a person’s residence […] Exposure during the earliest years of childhood were most strongly associated with the risk of schizophrenia […] This study supports findings from other studies highlighting positive effects of exposure to natural environments for human health.

• #35 Childhood schizophrenia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childhood_schizophrenia

  Neuroimaging studies have found differences between the medicated brains of individuals with schizophrenia, and the brains of those without, though research does not know the cause of the difference. In childhood-onset schizophrenia, there appears to be a more rapid loss of cerebral grey matter during adolescence. Studies have reported that adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are the most preventable cause of the development of psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia. ACEs have the potential to impact on the structure and function of the brain; structural changes revealed have been related to stress. Findings also report that different areas of the brain are affected by different types of maltreatment.

• #36 Pathogenesis of schizophrenia: a psychopathological perspective | The British Journal of Psychiatry | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/pathogenesis-of-schizophrenia-a-psychopathological-perspective/358CFD96094948777C3A29B044AB19EC

  In genetically predisposed individuals, affective and perceptual disorders are prominent before any behavioural or subjective change that usually characterises the shift to schizophrenic prodrome or active illness. […] This study shows that high levels of non-specific, affective symptoms are evident in patients with first-episode schizophrenia substantially before the onset of psychosis and that these separate those high-risk individuals destined to develop schizophrenia from the other high-risk individuals who remain well. […] The more specific symptomatology associated with pre-illness states relates to perceptual abnormalities and comprises both distortions and deceptions. […] In the high-risk population, the mean time to illness onset was 929 days (s.e.=138). […] A major problem is the definition of prodrome in the context of schizophrenia, which of necessity is a retrospective concept. […] Thus, on this evidence, our high-risk sample destined for illness may indeed have been prodromal at entry.

• #37 Pathogenesis of schizophrenia: a psychopathological perspective | The British Journal of Psychiatry | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/pathogenesis-of-schizophrenia-a-psychopathological-perspective/358CFD96094948777C3A29B044AB19EC

  In genetically predisposed individuals, affective and perceptual disorders are prominent before any behavioural or subjective change that usually characterises the shift to schizophrenic prodrome or active illness. […] This study shows that high levels of non-specific, affective symptoms are evident in patients with first-episode schizophrenia substantially before the onset of psychosis and that these separate those high-risk individuals destined to develop schizophrenia from the other high-risk individuals who remain well. […] The more specific symptomatology associated with pre-illness states relates to perceptual abnormalities and comprises both distortions and deceptions. […] In the high-risk population, the mean time to illness onset was 929 days (s.e.=138). […] A major problem is the definition of prodrome in the context of schizophrenia, which of necessity is a retrospective concept. […] Thus, on this evidence, our high-risk sample destined for illness may indeed have been prodromal at entry.

• #38 Pathogenesis of schizophrenia: a psychopathological perspective | The British Journal of Psychiatry | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/pathogenesis-of-schizophrenia-a-psychopathological-perspective/358CFD96094948777C3A29B044AB19EC

  In genetically predisposed individuals, affective and perceptual disorders are prominent before any behavioural or subjective change that usually characterises the shift to schizophrenic prodrome or active illness. […] This study shows that high levels of non-specific, affective symptoms are evident in patients with first-episode schizophrenia substantially before the onset of psychosis and that these separate those high-risk individuals destined to develop schizophrenia from the other high-risk individuals who remain well. […] The more specific symptomatology associated with pre-illness states relates to perceptual abnormalities and comprises both distortions and deceptions. […] In the high-risk population, the mean time to illness onset was 929 days (s.e.=138). […] A major problem is the definition of prodrome in the context of schizophrenia, which of necessity is a retrospective concept. […] Thus, on this evidence, our high-risk sample destined for illness may indeed have been prodromal at entry.

• #39 Pathogenesis of schizophrenia: a psychopathological perspective | The British Journal of Psychiatry | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/pathogenesis-of-schizophrenia-a-psychopathological-perspective/358CFD96094948777C3A29B044AB19EC

  In genetically predisposed individuals, affective and perceptual disorders are prominent before any behavioural or subjective change that usually characterises the shift to schizophrenic prodrome or active illness. […] This study shows that high levels of non-specific, affective symptoms are evident in patients with first-episode schizophrenia substantially before the onset of psychosis and that these separate those high-risk individuals destined to develop schizophrenia from the other high-risk individuals who remain well. […] The more specific symptomatology associated with pre-illness states relates to perceptual abnormalities and comprises both distortions and deceptions. […] In the high-risk population, the mean time to illness onset was 929 days (s.e.=138). […] A major problem is the definition of prodrome in the context of schizophrenia, which of necessity is a retrospective concept. […] Thus, on this evidence, our high-risk sample destined for illness may indeed have been prodromal at entry.

• #40 Five Facts About Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia | Psychology Today

  https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/beyond-mental-health/202408/five-facts-about-childhood-onset-schizophrenia

  Receiving a diagnosis of schizophrenia before the age of 13 is extremely rare. The estimated prevalence of pre-adolescent onset is one in 10,000 (Leslie, 2023). […] Research has shown that individuals with early-onset schizophrenia tend to struggle more over their lifetime in terms of work, relationships, and symptoms than those with a later onset (Driver et al., 2020). […] Research has suggested that autism may also be present in 30-50% of individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia in childhood (Rapoport et al., 2019). […] While child-onset schizophrenia may share many of the clinical qualities of the adult-onset version of the conditions, there do seem to be some core differences in this phenotype. Features of schizophrenia include catatonia, a state where a person may become frozen as if a wax figure of themselves. This particular manifestation is rare among adults with the diagnosis but seems to be more common in childhood schizophrenia (Leslie, 2023). […] A child-onset version of schizophrenia challenges this notion and may represent a different phenotype or even a separate phenomenon altogether.

• #41 Schizophrenia in children and adolescents: Treatment overview – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/schizophrenia-in-children-and-adolescents-treatment-overview

  Schizophrenia in children and adolescents is a syndrome consisting of positive and negative symptoms of psychosis that impact development, psychosocial, and cognitive functioning. The etiology of this syndrome is poorly understood, but early diagnosis and treatment are critical to limit the morbidity of the disorder. […] Childhood-onset schizophrenia (onset prior to age 13) usually represents a more severe form of the disorder than early-onset (onset between 13 to 18 years) or adult-onset schizophrenia (onset after age 18). It is associated with more prominent prepsychotic developmental disorders, structural brain abnormalities, and genetic risk factors. […] Repeated or prolonged psychotic episodes have deleterious neuropsychological, neurophysiological, and brain structural effects on patients who have been diagnosed with a first psychosis. Additionally, evidence suggests that prolonged periods of untreated psychosis may result in increased resistance to conventional treatments.

• #42 Causal relationship between schizophrenia and five types of dementia: A bidirectional two-sample Mendelian randomization study | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0322752

  Our findings suggest that schizophrenia may be a risk factor for all-cause dementia, Alzheimers disease, and vascular dementia, but no dementia of any kind was found to be a risk factor for schizophrenia. […] Emerging evidence suggests that dementia and schizophrenia may share a common genetic basis. […] A meta-analysis of cohort studies indicated that patients living with schizophrenia have a higher risk of developing dementia compared to those without schizophrenia (relative risk [RR] = 2.29; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.35~3.88). […] A cohort study in Danish, based on 2.8 million people, conducted follow-up for 18 years and found that the risk of all-cause dementia (ACD) in patients living with schizophrenia is more than twice that of the general population (incidence rate ratio [IRR]= 2.13; 95% CI: 2.00-2.27).

• #43 Causal relationship between schizophrenia and five types of dementia: A bidirectional two-sample Mendelian randomization study | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0322752

  Our findings suggest that schizophrenia may be a risk factor for all-cause dementia, Alzheimers disease, and vascular dementia, but no dementia of any kind was found to be a risk factor for schizophrenia. […] Emerging evidence suggests that dementia and schizophrenia may share a common genetic basis. […] A meta-analysis of cohort studies indicated that patients living with schizophrenia have a higher risk of developing dementia compared to those without schizophrenia (relative risk [RR] = 2.29; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.35~3.88). […] A cohort study in Danish, based on 2.8 million people, conducted follow-up for 18 years and found that the risk of all-cause dementia (ACD) in patients living with schizophrenia is more than twice that of the general population (incidence rate ratio [IRR]= 2.13; 95% CI: 2.00-2.27).

• #44 Causal relationship between schizophrenia and five types of dementia: A bidirectional two-sample Mendelian randomization study | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0322752

  Our findings suggest that schizophrenia may be a risk factor for all-cause dementia, Alzheimers disease, and vascular dementia, but no dementia of any kind was found to be a risk factor for schizophrenia. […] Emerging evidence suggests that dementia and schizophrenia may share a common genetic basis. […] A meta-analysis of cohort studies indicated that patients living with schizophrenia have a higher risk of developing dementia compared to those without schizophrenia (relative risk [RR] = 2.29; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.35~3.88). […] A cohort study in Danish, based on 2.8 million people, conducted follow-up for 18 years and found that the risk of all-cause dementia (ACD) in patients living with schizophrenia is more than twice that of the general population (incidence rate ratio [IRR]= 2.13; 95% CI: 2.00-2.27).

• #45 Causal relationship between schizophrenia and five types of dementia: A bidirectional two-sample Mendelian randomization study | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0322752

  Our findings suggest that schizophrenia may be a risk factor for ACD, AD, and VaD, aligning with previous observational studies. […] So far, the exact mechanism by which schizophrenia affects dementia remains unclear. […] Scholars have proposed several hypotheses to explain the association between schizophrenia and increased dementia risk. One hypothesis is that structural brain abnormalities and aging in patients living with schizophrenia may contribute to premature onset of dementia. […] A study found that strikingly similar microstructural deficits in the white matter of patients living with schizophrenia and AD. […] Additionally, schizophrenia is sometimes hypothesized to be a disease of accelerated aging, which may explain the high incidence of dementia in patients living with schizophrenia.

• #46 Causal relationship between schizophrenia and five types of dementia: A bidirectional two-sample Mendelian randomization study | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0322752

  Our findings suggest that schizophrenia may be a risk factor for ACD, AD, and VaD, aligning with previous observational studies. […] So far, the exact mechanism by which schizophrenia affects dementia remains unclear. […] Scholars have proposed several hypotheses to explain the association between schizophrenia and increased dementia risk. One hypothesis is that structural brain abnormalities and aging in patients living with schizophrenia may contribute to premature onset of dementia. […] A study found that strikingly similar microstructural deficits in the white matter of patients living with schizophrenia and AD. […] Additionally, schizophrenia is sometimes hypothesized to be a disease of accelerated aging, which may explain the high incidence of dementia in patients living with schizophrenia.

• #47 Causal relationship between schizophrenia and five types of dementia: A bidirectional two-sample Mendelian randomization study | PLOS One

  https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0322752

  A large meta-analysis from the ENIGMA consortium found that patients living with schizophrenia had structural brain measurements equivalent to those of individuals more than three and a half years older than healthy controls. […] Second, metabolic dysfunction might contribute to premature dementia in patients living with schizophrenia. […] Third, psychotropic medications may exacerbate cognitive impairment in patients living with schizophrenia. […] No causal association was found between schizophrenia and FTD or DLB, according to this MR study. […] Our MR study possesses numerous strengths. First, in comparison to previous observational studies, MR study reduces influence of reverse causality and confounding factors. […] Our findings indicate that schizophrenia is associated with an increased risk of ACD, AD, and VaD.

• #48 Childhood Onset Schizophrenia and Early Onset Schizophrenia spectrum disorders

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3771646/

  These theories have merged and it is now generally understood that COS is a multifactorial illness, characterized by multiple genetic elements, each contributing a modest degree of risk and interacting with the environment. […] Alterations in genetics, neurodevelopment, and neurotransmitter systems remain among the most promising directions for further research. […] It remains clear however that schizophrenia, including COS/EOS, has no clearly definable neuropathologic markers. […] The diagnosis of childhood onset schizophrenia (COS) is a difficult, time consuming process. […] The most common disorder misdiagnosed as COS are affective disorders, organic psychosis, pervasive developmental disorders, and a group referred to as Atypical Psychosis or Multi Dimensionally Impaired (MDI). […] Identifying the neurobiological basis and pathophysiology of schizophrenia is an essential future goal for establishing its diagnostic validity, delineating meaningful subtypes or alternate diagnoses, and finding causative mechanisms and novel targets for drug development.

• #49 Genetic study provides first-ever insight into biological origin of schizophrenia | Broad Institute

  https://www.broadinstitute.org/news/7823

  Beyond providing the first insights into the biological origins of schizophrenia, the work raises the possibility that therapies might someday be developed that could turn down the level of synaptic pruning in individuals who show early symptoms of schizophrenia. […] For the first time, the origin of schizophrenia is no longer a complete black box.

• #50 Mechanism by Which the Brain Weighs Positive vs. Negative Social Experience Is Revealed | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/about/newsroom/2025/mechanism-by-which-the-brain-weighs-positive-vs-negative-social-experience-is-revealed

  Consequently, by activating the serotonin 1B receptor, researchers were able to restore a positive impression associated with rewarding social experiences. […] On a broader scale, our work provides critical insights into complex social behaviors while revealing potential therapeutic targets that can be leveraged to improve social cognitive deficits in common neuropsychiatric disorders.

• #51 Schizophrenia in Children | Cedars-Sinai

  https://www.cedars-sinai.org/health-library/diseases-and-conditions—pediatrics/s/schizophrenia-in-children.html

  Schizophrenia has no single cause. A combination of genes from both parents plays a role. So do unknown environmental factors. Experts believe that a child has to inherit a chemical imbalance in the brain to develop it. […] Schizophrenia tends to run in families. A child who has a family member with the disorder has a greater chance of developing it. […] Schizophrenia is a serious, lifelong mental illness. It can be treated but not cured. […] A mental health expert can diagnose schizophrenia. Ask for a referral to a psychiatrist with experience evaluating and treating children with schizophrenia. […] Treatment can include a combination of medicine, therapy, and special programs.

• #52 Schizophrenia in children and adolescents: Epidemiology, clinical features, assessment, and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/schizophrenia-in-children-and-adolescents-epidemiology-clinical-features-assessment-and-diagnosis

  Schizophrenia in children and adolescents is a syndrome consisting of positive and negative symptoms of psychosis that impact development and cognitive functioning. The etiology of this syndrome is poorly understood; early diagnosis and treatment are critical to limit the morbidity of the disorder. […] Childhood-onset schizophrenia usually represents a more severe form of the disorder, with more prominent prepsychotic developmental disorders, structural brain abnormalities, and genetic risk factors. […] This topic reviews the epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, course, assessment, and diagnosis of schizophrenia in children and adolescents.

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