Japońskie zapalenie mózgu
Etiologia i przyczyny

Japońskie zapalenie mózgu (JEV) to wirusowa choroba neuroinfekcyjna wywoływana przez jednoniciowy RNA wirus z rodziny Flaviviridae, przenoszona głównie przez komary z rodzaju Culex, zwłaszcza Culex tritaeniorhynchus. Wirus utrzymuje się w cyklu zoonotycznym między komarami a gospodarzami amplifikującymi, takimi jak świnie i ptaki wodne, natomiast ludzie są gospodarzami przypadkowymi, nieprzekazującymi wirusa dalej. Patogeneza obejmuje lokalną replikację wirusa po ukąszeniu, przejściową wiremię oraz inwazję ośrodkowego układu nerwowego, gdzie wirus atakuje głównie wzgórze, jądra podstawy, śródmózgowie, móżdżek i rogi przednie rdzenia kręgowego, co odpowiada klinicznym objawom neurologicznym. Występuje pięć genotypów wirusa, z dominującym genotypem I w Azji oraz rzadziej genotypem IV, który wywołał niedawne epidemie w Australii. Rocznie notuje się około 30 000-50 000 przypadków klinicznych, z 10 000-15 000 zgonów i śmiertelnością sięgającą 30% u chorych, a 30-50% pacjentów doświadcza trwałych następstw neurologicznych lub psychiatrycznych.

  1. Etiologia japońskiego zapalenia mózgu
    1. Charakterystyka wirusa
  2. Drogi transmisji wirusa
    1. Rola gospodarzy w cyklu transmisji
    2. Warunki sprzyjające transmisji
  3. Patogeneza japońskiego zapalenia mózgu
    1. Predyspozycja anatomiczna
    2. Odpowiedź immunologiczna
  4. Czynniki ryzyka i epidemiologia
    1. Główne czynniki ryzyka
    2. Rozkład geograficzny
    3. Epidemiologia choroby
  5. Podsumowanie etiologii
    1. Kolejne rozdziały

Etiologia japońskiego zapalenia mózgu

Japońskie zapalenie mózgu jest chorobą zakaźną wywoływaną przez wirus japońskiego zapalenia mózgu (JEV, ang. Japanese encephalitis virus), który należy do rodziny Flaviviridae, rodzaju Flavivirus.123 Jest to jednoniciowy wirus RNA blisko spokrewniony z wirusami Zachodniego Nilu, dengi, żółtej gorączki oraz zapalenia mózgu St. Louis.45 JEV jest główną przyczyną wirusowego zapalenia mózgu w wielu krajach Azji, z szacowaną liczbą 100 000 przypadków klinicznych rocznie.67

Pierwsze kliniczne doniesienia o japońskim zapaleniu mózgu pochodzą z 1870 roku, jednak wirus prawdopodobnie wyewoluował już w połowie XVI wieku.8 Choroba została po raz pierwszy zidentyfikowana w Japonii w 1935 roku, a wirus został wyizolowany z ludzkiego mózgu w Tokio.910

Charakterystyka wirusa

Wirus japońskiego zapalenia mózgu posiada otoczkę lipidowo-białkową otaczającą nukleokapsyd/” title=”nukleokapsyd” class=”to-tag” data-termid=”32879″>nukleokapsyd składający się z białka rdzeniowego i jednoniciowego RNA o długości około 11 kb.1112 Genom zawiera pojedynczą otwartą ramkę odczytu kodującą poliproteinę, która jest następnie rozcinana na trzy białka strukturalne (C, prM, E) i siedem białek niestrukturalnych (NS1, NS2A, NS2B, NS3, NS4A, NS4B, NS5).13

Białko otoczki (E) ułatwia wnikanie wirusa do komórki gospodarza.14 Obecnie wyróżnia się pięć genotypów wirusa JEV (I-V), które należą do tego samego serotypu i mają podobną zjadliwość.15 Genotyp I jest obecnie dominującym genotypem w Azji i związany jest z większością przypadków zachorowań u ludzi.16 Niedawny wybuch epidemii w Australii został zidentyfikowany jako genotyp IV, wcześniej rzadko występujący wariant, który wykryto w Chinach, Indonezji, Malezji i Papui Nowej Gwinei.17

Drogi transmisji wirusa

Japońskie zapalenie mózgu jest chorobą przenoszoną przez komary, głównie z gatunku Culex tritaeniorhynchus oraz innych gatunków z rodzaju Culex.181920 Najważniejszymi wektorami są: Culex annulus, Culex fuscocephalus, kompleks Culex vishnui, Culex gelidus (w tropikach) oraz Culex tritaeniorhynchus (główny wektor epidemii).21

Wirus utrzymuje się w przyrodzie w cyklu zoonotycznym między komarami a zwierzętami kręgowymi, głównie świniami i ptakami wodnymi (takimi jak czaple i egretty).222324 Wirus krąży między tymi gospodarzami, a następnie może zostać przeniesiony na ludzi przez ukąszenie zakażonego komara.25

Rola gospodarzy w cyklu transmisji

W transmisji wirusa można wyróżnić różne typy gospodarzy:

  • Gospodarze amplifikujący (wzmacniający) – świnie i ptaki wodne, które po zakażeniu rozwijają wysoką wiremię, umożliwiającą dalsze zakażanie komarów. Odgrywają kluczową rolę w cyklu transmisji wirusa.2627
  • Gospodarze naturalni – dziko żyjące ptaki wodne (czaple i egretty) stanowią naturalne rezerwuary wirusa, przyczyniając się do jego rozprzestrzeniania na rozległych obszarach geograficznych.28
  • Gospodarze przypadkowi/ślepi (dead-end hosts) – ludzie i niektóre inne zwierzęta, np. konie, które nie rozwijają wystarczająco wysokiego poziomu wiremii, aby zakażać komary, a tym samym nie odgrywają dalszej roli w transmisji wirusa.2930

3132

Ludzie nie mogą przekazywać wirusa innym ludziom. Nie jest możliwe również zakażenie przez kontakt z chorą osobą, spożywanie mięsa zakażonych zwierząt ani bezpośredni kontakt ze zwierzętami.333435 Istnieją jednak pewne obawy, że bliski kontakt z zakażonymi świniami może prowadzić do transmisji wirusa bez udziału wektora, ale jest to zjawisko rzadkie.3637

Warunki sprzyjające transmisji

Transmisja wirusa jest silnie związana z warunkami środowiskowymi. Komary przenoszące JEV rozwijają się głównie w obszarach:

  • Zalanych pól ryżowych3839
  • Terenów rolniczych i wiejskich40
  • Zbiorników wody stojącej41
  • Kanałów irygacyjnych42
  • Terenów zalewowych43

44

W większości obszarów o klimacie umiarkowanym Azji JEV jest przenoszony głównie w ciepłym sezonie, kiedy mogą wystąpić duże epidemie.45 Pora monsunowa, z deszczami i powodziami, znacznie zwiększa miejsca lęgowe komarów, potęgując ryzyko transmisji.46 Komary kąsają głównie o zmierzchu lub tuż po zachodzie słońca.4748

Rozwój rolnictwa, intensywna uprawa ryżu i zwiększone stosowanie nawozów azotowych są prawdopodobnymi przyczynami rozprzestrzeniania się JEV na nowe obszary.4950 Zmiany środowiskowe związane ze zmianami klimatycznymi również wpływają na zmianę dystrybucji JEV i wydają się ważnym czynnikiem warunkującym epidemiologię tej choroby.51

Patogeneza japońskiego zapalenia mózgu

Po ukąszeniu przez zakażonego komara, wirus japońskiego zapalenia mózgu przechodzi złożony proces patogenetyczny, który może prowadzić do ciężkiego zapalenia mózgu:

  1. Wniknięcie i replikacja lokalna – wirus wnika przez skórę w miejscu ukąszenia komara i namnaża się lokalnie w tkankach oraz regionalnych węzłach chłonnych.5253
  2. Wiremia przejściowa – po fazie replikacji lokalnej wirus przedostaje się do krwiobiegu, powodując przejściową wiremię.54
  3. Inwazja ośrodkowego układu nerwowego – wirus przekracza barierę krew-mózg i atakuje ośrodkowy układ nerwowy drogą krwiopochodną.5556
  4. Replikacja w neuronach – w neuronach wirus replikuje się i dojrzewa w neuronalnym systemie wydzielniczym, głównie w szorstkim retikulum endoplazmatycznym i aparacie Golgiego, ostatecznie niszcząc te struktury.57

Infekcja neuronów przez wirus japońskiego zapalenia mózgu prowadzi do odpowiedzi zapalnej charakteryzującej się naciekaniem komórek zapalnych w miąższ mózgu, tworzeniem mankietów okołonaczyniowych i fagocytozą zakażonych komórek.58 Zmiany patologiczne w mózgu pacjentów z ostrym japońskim zapaleniem mózgu charakteryzują się guzkami glejakowymi i ograniczonymi ogniskami martwiczymi.59

Predyspozycja anatomiczna

Wirus wykazuje szczególne powinowactwo do określonych struktur mózgu. Najbardziej dotknięte są wzgórze, jądra podstawy, śródmózgowie, móżdżek i rogi przednie rdzenia kręgowego, co odpowiada anatomicznym korelatom drżenia, dystonii i porażenia wiotkiego charakteryzujących tę chorobę.60 W rzadkich przypadkach wirus japońskiego zapalenia mózgu może również powodować zapalenie rdzenia kręgowego.61

Odpowiedź immunologiczna

W japońskim zapaleniu mózgu ważną rolę odgrywa zarówno odporność humoralna, jak i komórkowa:

  • Odpowiedź humoralna – została dobrze scharakteryzowana i odgrywa kluczową rolę w zwalczaniu zakażenia.62
  • Odpowiedź komórkowa – przyczynia się do zapobiegania chorobie w modelach zwierzęcych japońskiego zapalenia mózgu poprzez ograniczenie replikacji wirusa, zanim zaatakuje on ośrodkowy układ nerwowy.63

Obserwacje sugerują, że zwiększona aktywacja mikrogleju po zakażeniu wirusem japońskiego zapalenia mózgu wpływa na wynik choroby.64 Ponadto, polimorfizm genu TLR3 może wpływać na genetyczną podatność gospodarza na japońskie zapalenie mózgu w populacjach indyjskich.65

Czynniki ryzyka i epidemiologia

Japońskie zapalenie mózgu stanowi poważny problem zdrowia publicznego w wielu krajach Azji i obszaru zachodniego Pacyfiku.66 Jest endemiczne w 24 krajach Azji Południowo-Wschodniej i zachodniego Pacyfiku, narażając ponad 3 miliardy ludzi na ryzyko zakażenia.67

Główne czynniki ryzyka

Główne czynniki zwiększające ryzyko zakażenia JEV to:

  • Przebywanie na obszarach wiejskich i rolniczych, szczególnie w pobliżu pól ryżowych6869
  • Aktywność na zewnątrz, zwłaszcza o zmierzchu i w nocy70
  • Podróżowanie do obszarów endemicznych w sezonie transmisji71
  • Bliskość świń i ptaków wodnych, które są rezerwuarami wirusa7273
  • Pora roku – zwiększone ryzyko w sezonie letnim i monsunowym7475

Osoby pracujące lub mieszkające w pobliżu hodowli świń są szczególnie narażone ze względu na amplifikującą rolę tych zwierząt w cyklu transmisji wirusa.76 Japońskie zapalenie mózgu dotyka głównie dzieci w obszarach endemicznych, gdzie dorośli często nabywają odporność poprzez szczepienia lub naturalne zakażenie.7778

Rozkład geograficzny

JEV występuje głównie w:

  • Azji Wschodniej (Japonia, Korea, Chiny, Tajwan)79
  • Azji Południowej (Indie, Nepal, Bangladesz)8081
  • Azji Południowo-Wschodniej (Tajlandia, Wietnam, Filipiny, Malezja, Indonezja)8283
  • Wyspach zachodniego Pacyfiku84

W ostatnich latach wirus przekroczył swoje tradycyjne granice i rozprzestrzenił się do wschodniej Indonezji, Papui Nowej Gwinei, północnej Australii i Cieśniny Torresa.85 W 2022 roku wirus JEV został po raz pierwszy wykryty w świniach, ludziach i komarach w Australii, co spowodowało ogłoszenie ogniska o znaczeniu krajowym.8687

Epidemiologia choroby

Japońskie zapalenie mózgu jest jedną z najważniejszych przyczyn wirusowego zapalenia mózgu na świecie:88

  • Rocznie notuje się około 30 000 – 50 000 przypadków klinicznych8990
  • Oszacowana liczba zgonów wynosi 10 000 – 15 000 rocznie9192
  • Współczynnik śmiertelności może sięgać 30% wśród osób z objawami choroby9394
  • Trwałe następstwa neurologiczne lub psychiatryczne mogą wystąpić u 30-50% pacjentów9596

Warto podkreślić, że większość zakażeń JEV przebiega bezobjawowo. Tylko około 1% zakażonych osób rozwija objawy kliniczne, ale szacunki dotyczące odsetka przypadków objawowych znacznie się różnią – od 1 na 25 do 1 na 1000 zakażonych.9798 W populacjach nieendemicznych odsetek ten może być wyższy.99

Podsumowanie etiologii

Japońskie zapalenie mózgu jest chorobą wirusową wywoływaną przez wirus z rodziny Flaviviridae, przenoszony głównie przez komary z rodzaju Culex. Wirus utrzymuje się w cyklu transmisji między komarami a zwierzętami (głównie świniami i ptakami wodnymi), a ludzie są przypadkowymi gospodarzami, którzy nie odgrywają dalszej roli w transmisji. Zrozumienie złożonego cyklu transmisji, patogenezy i czynników ryzyka jest kluczowe dla skutecznej profilaktyki, w tym szczepień, które stanowią najskuteczniejszą strategię zapobiegania tej potencjalnie śmiertelnej chorobie.100101

Zmiany klimatyczne i zmiany w praktykach rolniczych wpływają na epidemiologię JEV, prowadząc do jego rozprzestrzeniania się na nowe obszary geograficzne. Monitoring epidemiologiczny, programy szczepień i kontrola wektorów pozostają najważniejszymi narzędziami w zapobieganiu i kontroli japońskiego zapalenia mózgu.102103

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  1. 09.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/japanese-encephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a flavivirus related to dengue, yellow fever and West Nile viruses, and is spread by mosquitoes (especially Culex tritaeniorhynchus). […] JEV is the main cause of viral encephalitis in many countries of Asia with an estimated 100 000 clinical cases every year. […] Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is an important cause of viral encephalitis in Asia. […] The virus exists in a transmission cycle between mosquitoes, pigs and/or water birds (enzootic cycle). […] In most temperate areas of Asia, JEV is transmitted mainly during the warm season, when large epidemics can occur. […] In endemic areas, there is little evidence to support a reduction in JE disease burden from interventions other than the vaccination of humans.
  • #2 Japanese encephalitis – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_encephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis (JE) is an infection of the brain caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). […] JEV is generally spread by mosquitoes, specifically those of the Culex type. […] It is a disease caused by the mosquito-borne Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). […] JEV is a virus from the family Flaviviridae, part of the Japanese encephalitis serocomplex of nine genetically and antigenically related viruses. […] The enveloped virus is closely related to the West Nile virus and the St. Louis encephalitis virus. […] The first clinical reports date from 1870, but the virus appears to have evolved in the mid-16th century.
  • #3 Japanese Encephalitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/books/NBK470423/
    Japanese encephalitis is a mosquito-borne illness caused by a single-stranded RNA virus, closely related to the West Nile flavivirus. Japanese encephalitis transmission is primarily due to the bite of Culex mosquito species, most commonly Culex tritaeniorhynchus. The virus is maintained and amplified in intermediate hosts, specifically pigs and wading birds. Humans are considered dead-end hosts in that they do not generally develop high enough levels of virus to transmit the infection to feeding mosquitoes. […] Because the amplifying hosts tend to be most abundant in agricultural areas such as farms and rice paddies where flooding irrigation attracts wading birds, most infections occur in rural areas. Recently, however, infections are being documented more commonly in suburban regions, particularly in South Korea, China, Singapore, and Taiwan. […] While mosquitoes transmit the vast majority of infections, there is some concern that exposure to infected pigs, which are amplifying hosts, may result in virus transmission from close contact without vector involvement.
  • #4 Japanese encephalitis – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_encephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis (JE) is an infection of the brain caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). […] JEV is generally spread by mosquitoes, specifically those of the Culex type. […] It is a disease caused by the mosquito-borne Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). […] JEV is a virus from the family Flaviviridae, part of the Japanese encephalitis serocomplex of nine genetically and antigenically related viruses. […] The enveloped virus is closely related to the West Nile virus and the St. Louis encephalitis virus. […] The first clinical reports date from 1870, but the virus appears to have evolved in the mid-16th century.
  • #5 Japanese encephalitis: Symptoms, treatment, transmission, and more
    https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/181418
    Japanese encephalitis is a mosquito-borne viral infection. It is the leading cause of viral encephalitis in Asia. Humans can get the disease a mosquito that carries the virus bites them. […] Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) cannot transmit from one person to another. […] JEV is related to the viruses that cause St. Louis encephalitis and Murray Valley encephalitis, West Nile virus, dengue fever, and yellow fever. […] Japanese encephalitis is a virus in the flavivirus family. The Culex mosquito passes it on. […] The virus can infect horses and pigs, as well as humans. […] A host is the source of a virus, and the vector passes it on. Wild birds are likely to be the natural hosts of JEV, and mosquitoes are the vectors. […] Mosquitos acquire the virus ahead of transmission to humans by feeding on infected wild birds and domestic pigs.
  • #6
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/japanese-encephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a flavivirus related to dengue, yellow fever and West Nile viruses, and is spread by mosquitoes (especially Culex tritaeniorhynchus). […] JEV is the main cause of viral encephalitis in many countries of Asia with an estimated 100 000 clinical cases every year. […] Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is an important cause of viral encephalitis in Asia. […] The virus exists in a transmission cycle between mosquitoes, pigs and/or water birds (enzootic cycle). […] In most temperate areas of Asia, JEV is transmitted mainly during the warm season, when large epidemics can occur. […] In endemic areas, there is little evidence to support a reduction in JE disease burden from interventions other than the vaccination of humans.
  • #7 Factsheet for health professionals about Japanese encephalitis
    https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/japanese-encephalitis/facts
    Japanese encephalitis virus is present in Asia and Oceania, from Japan to India, Pakistan and Australia. […] The virus is a leading cause of viral encephalitis in Asia, with 30 000 to 50 000 cases reported annually. […] Japanese encephalitis virus is an enveloped RNA virus of the genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae, and is in the same antigenic complex as West Nile virus. […] Although five distinct viral genotypes have been identified, the diseases caused by these different viruses seem to present the same way in humans. […] Japanese encephalitis primarily affects children. […] The overall global incidence of Japanese encephalitis is unknown, but estimates suggest that there are approximately 14 000 to 20 000 fatal cases of acute illness per year. […] There is a possible risk of introduction of Japanese encephalitis virus in European Union/European Economic Area countries via international travel and commerce with Asia and Oceania, which could facilitate the introduction of mosquitoes infected with the virus. […] Changes in agricultural practices seem to have substantially decreased the risk of transmission to humans.
  • #8 Japanese encephalitis – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_encephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis (JE) is an infection of the brain caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). […] JEV is generally spread by mosquitoes, specifically those of the Culex type. […] It is a disease caused by the mosquito-borne Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). […] JEV is a virus from the family Flaviviridae, part of the Japanese encephalitis serocomplex of nine genetically and antigenically related viruses. […] The enveloped virus is closely related to the West Nile virus and the St. Louis encephalitis virus. […] The first clinical reports date from 1870, but the virus appears to have evolved in the mid-16th century.
  • #9 The Military Significance of Japanese Encephalitis virus – JMVH
    https://jmvh.org/article/the-military-significance-of-japanese-encephalitis-virus/
    Japanese encephalitis was first recognized in 1935 in Japan and has been recognised as an emerging infection in the region. […] The northern countries with the temperate pattern include Japan, Taiwan, China, Korea, northern Vietnam, northern Thailand, Nepal and northern India. […] The southern tropical countries with tropical endemic patterns are southern Vietnam, southern Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka and southern India. […] The case for Japanese encephalitis as a difficult disease of military significance is not persuasive as the incidence in military populations is very low and the operational impact of non-battle casualties negligible to Australian expeditionary forces.
  • #10 Japanese Encephalitis Virus – Creative Diagnostics
    https://www.creative-diagnostics.com/Japanese-Encephalitis-Virus.htm
    Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is the leading cause of viral encephalitis worldwide; with an estimated 35,000 to 50,000 cases and 10,000 deaths annually. […] The virus is a member of the JE serogroup of the genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae, and is transmitted between vertebrate hosts by mosquitoes, principally by Culex tritaeniorhynchus. […] Five genotypes of JEV are known at present. Different genotypes of JEV (associated with different virulence patterns) thrive in a particular climatic condition: genotypes IV (the oldest) and V are isolated in the tropical endemic region of IndonesiaMalaysia, whereas genotypes III and I are found in the epidemic region. […] Japanese encephalitis was recognized in horses and humans as early as 1871. In 1924 a severe epidemic was reported from Japan. In 1934, Hyashi reproduced the disease in monkey by intra-cerebral inoculation. In 1935, JE virus was isolated from human brain in Tokyo, Japan, and its virological and serological prototype, Nakayama strain, was established. […] The case-fatality rate can be as high as 30% among those with disease symptoms. […] The incubation period of JEV is about 10-15 days. […] The infection usually need CSF or serological test to confirm. […] There is no antiviral treatment for patients with JE.
  • #11 Japanese encephalitis | MedLink Neurology
    https://www.medlink.com/articles/japanese-encephalitis
    The Japanese encephalitis virus is a flavivirus and a mosquito-borne human pathogen. […] It is the world’s most important cause of viral encephalitis and is present in many countries in Asia, causing nearly 68,000 clinical cases every year. […] The case fatality rate can be as high as 30%. […] Permanent neurologic or psychiatric sequelae can occur in 30% to 50% of patients. […] An observation noted that TLR3 gene polymorphism might confer host genetic susceptibility to Japanese encephalitis in Indian populations. […] Japanese encephalitis is caused by the flavivirus Japanese encephalitis virus, which has a small (50 nm) lipoprotein envelope surrounding a nucleocapsid comprising of core protein and 11 KB single stranded RNA. […] Almost all children living in endemic areas become infected with the Japanese encephalitis virus, but only about 1 in 25 to 1 in 1000 develops clinical features.
  • #12 Understanding Japanese Encephalitis : Causes, Symptoms and Prevention | Ganesh Diagnostic
    https://www.ganeshdiagnostic.com/blog/understanding-japanese-encephalitis-causes-symptoms-and-prevention
    The genome is a single-stranded positive-sense RNA approximately 11 kb in length. […] The outer membrane of JEV contains an envelope protein (E) that facilitates entry of the virus into the host cell. […] Vaccination is therefore the most effective way to achieve prevention and long-term protection. […] The likelihood of JE control has been revived by improvements in the accessibility and development of JEV vaccinations. […] Approximately 68,000 cases of JE are reported globally each year, despite the fact that only a few licenced vaccines are now available. […] There are still issues with mortality and morbidity prevention because there are no approved antiviral prophylactic for infection mitigation.
  • #13 Japanese Encephalitis Virus | GeneTex
    https://www.genetex.com/Research/Overview/infectious_diseases/JEV-Japanese-Encephalitis-Virus?srsltid=AfmBOoriZ-mjAParuDybXDKgPx1HkUaWR8MSHubOskKNrpkHVwSno5mT
    Japanese encephalitis is a very serious infectious disease caused by Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), which belongs to the family Flaviviridae and is maintained in a zoonotic cycle involving the Culex species of mosquitoes and vertebrate hosts. […] Endemic to most of Asia and to certain regions of the western Pacific, JEV frequently causes severe neurologic sequelae or death in infected humans. […] This enveloped virus possesses a positive-sense single-stranded RNA genome packaged in a spherical nucleocapsid. […] The genome contains a single open reading frame that encodes for a polyprotein, which is further cleaved into three structural (C, prM, E) and seven non-structural proteins (NS1, NS2A, NS2B, NS3, NS4A, NS4B, NS5).
  • #14 Understanding Japanese Encephalitis : Causes, Symptoms and Prevention | Ganesh Diagnostic
    https://www.ganeshdiagnostic.com/blog/understanding-japanese-encephalitis-causes-symptoms-and-prevention
    The genome is a single-stranded positive-sense RNA approximately 11 kb in length. […] The outer membrane of JEV contains an envelope protein (E) that facilitates entry of the virus into the host cell. […] Vaccination is therefore the most effective way to achieve prevention and long-term protection. […] The likelihood of JE control has been revived by improvements in the accessibility and development of JEV vaccinations. […] Approximately 68,000 cases of JE are reported globally each year, despite the fact that only a few licenced vaccines are now available. […] There are still issues with mortality and morbidity prevention because there are no approved antiviral prophylactic for infection mitigation.
  • #15 Japanese encephalitis clinical update: Changing diseases under a changing climate
    https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2023/may/japanese-encephalitis-clinical-update
    Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a mosquito-borne arbovirus endemic to the Asia-Pacific that causes high morbidity and mortality in those who develop symptomatic disease. […] The emergence of JEV in southern Australia represents a marked change in epidemiology. Altered environmental conditions because of climate change have been associated with changes in JEV distribution, and appear to be an important driver of this evolving epidemiology within Australia. […] JEV is a zoonotic vector-borne single-stranded RNA virus of the family Flaviviridae, which also includes dengue, Murray Valley encephalitis, West Nile virus (Kunjin) and zika. […] There are five genotypes of JEV, all of which belong to the same serotype and have similar virulence. […] The recent Australian outbreak was identified to be genotype IV, a previously uncommon lineage that has been detected in China, Indonesia, Malaysia and Papua New Guinea.
  • #16 Japanese encephalitis (JE): Sign and Symptoms, Causes, Risk factors, Diagnosis, Complications, Treatment and Prevention – MedicoInfo
    https://medicoinfo.org/japanese-encephalitis-je-sign-and-symptoms-causes-risk-factors-diagnosis-complications-treatment-and-prevention/
    Japanese encephalitis (JE) is primarily caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), which is a member of the Flavivirus genus within the Flaviviridae family. JEV is a single-stranded RNA virus and is classified into multiple genotypes, with Genotype 1 (G1) being the most prevalent in Asia and associated with the majority of human cases. The virus is transmitted vector-borne, primarily by Culex mosquitoes, notably Culex tritaeniorhynchus, which is abundant in rural and agricultural areas. The virus is maintained in a zoonotic transmission cycle between amplifying hosts (primarily domestic pigs and wild wading birds) and mosquito vectors. Pigs are crucial in the virus’s lifecycle as they produce high levels of viremia, making them ideal reservoirs. Birds, particularly ardeid species (e.g., herons and egrets), serve as natural reservoirs, contributing to the spread of the virus over vast geographical areas. These hosts do not suffer from significant illness from the virus, allowing the virus to persist in the environment.
  • #17 Japanese encephalitis clinical update: Changing diseases under a changing climate
    https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2023/may/japanese-encephalitis-clinical-update
    Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a mosquito-borne arbovirus endemic to the Asia-Pacific that causes high morbidity and mortality in those who develop symptomatic disease. […] The emergence of JEV in southern Australia represents a marked change in epidemiology. Altered environmental conditions because of climate change have been associated with changes in JEV distribution, and appear to be an important driver of this evolving epidemiology within Australia. […] JEV is a zoonotic vector-borne single-stranded RNA virus of the family Flaviviridae, which also includes dengue, Murray Valley encephalitis, West Nile virus (Kunjin) and zika. […] There are five genotypes of JEV, all of which belong to the same serotype and have similar virulence. […] The recent Australian outbreak was identified to be genotype IV, a previously uncommon lineage that has been detected in China, Indonesia, Malaysia and Papua New Guinea.
  • #18 Japanese Encephalitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/books/NBK470423/
    Japanese encephalitis is a mosquito-borne illness caused by a single-stranded RNA virus, closely related to the West Nile flavivirus. Japanese encephalitis transmission is primarily due to the bite of Culex mosquito species, most commonly Culex tritaeniorhynchus. The virus is maintained and amplified in intermediate hosts, specifically pigs and wading birds. Humans are considered dead-end hosts in that they do not generally develop high enough levels of virus to transmit the infection to feeding mosquitoes. […] Because the amplifying hosts tend to be most abundant in agricultural areas such as farms and rice paddies where flooding irrigation attracts wading birds, most infections occur in rural areas. Recently, however, infections are being documented more commonly in suburban regions, particularly in South Korea, China, Singapore, and Taiwan. […] While mosquitoes transmit the vast majority of infections, there is some concern that exposure to infected pigs, which are amplifying hosts, may result in virus transmission from close contact without vector involvement.
  • #19 Japanese encephalitis virus
    https://www.health.vic.gov.au/infectious-diseases/japanese-encephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a rare but potentially serious infection of the central nervous system caused by the JE virus. […] JE is caused by infection with the Japanese encephalitis virus which is a flavivirus. […] JE virus is transmitted to humans by infected mosquitoes. […] The incubation period of JE virus is usually 5 to 15 days. […] JE virus is transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected mosquito, primarily the Culex species. […] Infection with JE virus confers lifelong immunity. […] There are 2 safe and effective vaccines available to protect against Japanese encephalitis.
  • #20 For health professionals: Japanese encephalitis – Canada.ca
    https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/japanese-encephalitis/health-professionals-japanese-encephalitis.html
    Japanese encephalitis is caused by a Flavivirus. […] Japanese encephalitis is a disease spread to humans by the bite of an infected Culex or Aedes mosquito. […] The most important vectors are: Culex annulus, Culex fuscocephalus, Culex vishnui complex, Culex gelidus (in the tropics), Culex tritaeniorhynchus (major epidemic vector).
  • #21 For health professionals: Japanese encephalitis – Canada.ca
    https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/japanese-encephalitis/health-professionals-japanese-encephalitis.html
    Japanese encephalitis is caused by a Flavivirus. […] Japanese encephalitis is a disease spread to humans by the bite of an infected Culex or Aedes mosquito. […] The most important vectors are: Culex annulus, Culex fuscocephalus, Culex vishnui complex, Culex gelidus (in the tropics), Culex tritaeniorhynchus (major epidemic vector).
  • #22
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/japanese-encephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a flavivirus related to dengue, yellow fever and West Nile viruses, and is spread by mosquitoes (especially Culex tritaeniorhynchus). […] JEV is the main cause of viral encephalitis in many countries of Asia with an estimated 100 000 clinical cases every year. […] Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is an important cause of viral encephalitis in Asia. […] The virus exists in a transmission cycle between mosquitoes, pigs and/or water birds (enzootic cycle). […] In most temperate areas of Asia, JEV is transmitted mainly during the warm season, when large epidemics can occur. […] In endemic areas, there is little evidence to support a reduction in JE disease burden from interventions other than the vaccination of humans.
  • #23 Japanese encephalitis: Symptoms, treatment, transmission, and more
    https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/181418
    Japanese encephalitis is a mosquito-borne viral infection. It is the leading cause of viral encephalitis in Asia. Humans can get the disease a mosquito that carries the virus bites them. […] Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) cannot transmit from one person to another. […] JEV is related to the viruses that cause St. Louis encephalitis and Murray Valley encephalitis, West Nile virus, dengue fever, and yellow fever. […] Japanese encephalitis is a virus in the flavivirus family. The Culex mosquito passes it on. […] The virus can infect horses and pigs, as well as humans. […] A host is the source of a virus, and the vector passes it on. Wild birds are likely to be the natural hosts of JEV, and mosquitoes are the vectors. […] Mosquitos acquire the virus ahead of transmission to humans by feeding on infected wild birds and domestic pigs.
  • #24 Japanese encephalitis: a review of the Indian perspective | The Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases
    https://bjid.org.br/en-japanese-encephalitis-review-indian-perspective-articulo-resumen-S1413867012002073
    Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) causes Japanese encephalitis, which is a leading form of viral encephalitis in Asia, with around 50,000 cases and 10,000 deaths per year in children below 15 years of age. […] Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a common mosquito borne flaviviral encephalitis. It is one of the leading forms of viral encephalitis worldwide, mostly prevalent in eastern and southern Asia, covering a region with a population of over three billion. […] Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) belongs to the family flaviviridae and genus Flavivirus. […] JEV exists in a zoonotic cycle between mosquitoes and pigs and/or water birds. […] The ecology of JEV has come from various studies carried out in Japan by Scherer et al., and JEV ecology has been the subject of several reviews. […] The JEV is transmitted to vertebrates by mosquitoes.
  • #25 Japanese encephalitis | Australian Government Department of Health and Aged Care
    https://www.health.gov.au/diseases/japanese-encephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis is caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). It is spread through bites from mosquitos, which become infected through biting infected pigs and waterbirds. […] JEV is endemic to parts of Asia and the Torres Strait region of Australia. JEV has now also been detected in humans, animals and mosquitos in mainland Australia. […] Animals can be infected with JEV but they cannot transmit the virus to humans. It cannot be transmitted from human to human, or by eating meat from an infected animal. […] Encephalitis is the most serious clinical consequence of a JEV infection.
  • #26 Japanese encephalitis (JE): Sign and Symptoms, Causes, Risk factors, Diagnosis, Complications, Treatment and Prevention – MedicoInfo
    https://medicoinfo.org/japanese-encephalitis-je-sign-and-symptoms-causes-risk-factors-diagnosis-complications-treatment-and-prevention/
    Japanese encephalitis (JE) is primarily caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), which is a member of the Flavivirus genus within the Flaviviridae family. JEV is a single-stranded RNA virus and is classified into multiple genotypes, with Genotype 1 (G1) being the most prevalent in Asia and associated with the majority of human cases. The virus is transmitted vector-borne, primarily by Culex mosquitoes, notably Culex tritaeniorhynchus, which is abundant in rural and agricultural areas. The virus is maintained in a zoonotic transmission cycle between amplifying hosts (primarily domestic pigs and wild wading birds) and mosquito vectors. Pigs are crucial in the virus’s lifecycle as they produce high levels of viremia, making them ideal reservoirs. Birds, particularly ardeid species (e.g., herons and egrets), serve as natural reservoirs, contributing to the spread of the virus over vast geographical areas. These hosts do not suffer from significant illness from the virus, allowing the virus to persist in the environment.
  • #27 Japanese encephalitis | The Australian Immunisation Handbook
    https://immunisationhandbook.health.gov.au/contents/vaccine-preventable-diseases/japanese-encephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis (JE) is caused by infection with the mosquito-borne JE virus. The disease mainly affects the central nervous system. […] Japanese encephalitis (JE) is caused by a mosquito-borne RNA flavivirus called Japanese encephalitis virus. […] After an infectious mosquito bite, the virus multiplies locally and in regional lymph nodes. The virus then spreads to secondary sites, particularly the central nervous system. […] JE is a zoonosis of pigs and wading birds. Culicine mosquitoes transmit the virus between these animals. […] Pigs and wading birds are ‘amplifying hosts’ for JE virus. This means that the virus replicates in the animal and causes transient high-level viraemia. Other large vertebrates, such as horses and humans, are not amplifying hosts. Humans are an incidental host.
  • #28 Japanese encephalitis (JE): Sign and Symptoms, Causes, Risk factors, Diagnosis, Complications, Treatment and Prevention – MedicoInfo
    https://medicoinfo.org/japanese-encephalitis-je-sign-and-symptoms-causes-risk-factors-diagnosis-complications-treatment-and-prevention/
    Japanese encephalitis (JE) is primarily caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), which is a member of the Flavivirus genus within the Flaviviridae family. JEV is a single-stranded RNA virus and is classified into multiple genotypes, with Genotype 1 (G1) being the most prevalent in Asia and associated with the majority of human cases. The virus is transmitted vector-borne, primarily by Culex mosquitoes, notably Culex tritaeniorhynchus, which is abundant in rural and agricultural areas. The virus is maintained in a zoonotic transmission cycle between amplifying hosts (primarily domestic pigs and wild wading birds) and mosquito vectors. Pigs are crucial in the virus’s lifecycle as they produce high levels of viremia, making them ideal reservoirs. Birds, particularly ardeid species (e.g., herons and egrets), serve as natural reservoirs, contributing to the spread of the virus over vast geographical areas. These hosts do not suffer from significant illness from the virus, allowing the virus to persist in the environment.
  • #29 Japanese Encephalitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/books/NBK470423/
    Japanese encephalitis is a mosquito-borne illness caused by a single-stranded RNA virus, closely related to the West Nile flavivirus. Japanese encephalitis transmission is primarily due to the bite of Culex mosquito species, most commonly Culex tritaeniorhynchus. The virus is maintained and amplified in intermediate hosts, specifically pigs and wading birds. Humans are considered dead-end hosts in that they do not generally develop high enough levels of virus to transmit the infection to feeding mosquitoes. […] Because the amplifying hosts tend to be most abundant in agricultural areas such as farms and rice paddies where flooding irrigation attracts wading birds, most infections occur in rural areas. Recently, however, infections are being documented more commonly in suburban regions, particularly in South Korea, China, Singapore, and Taiwan. […] While mosquitoes transmit the vast majority of infections, there is some concern that exposure to infected pigs, which are amplifying hosts, may result in virus transmission from close contact without vector involvement.
  • #30 Japanese Encephalitis | Ausmed
    https://www.ausmed.co.uk/learn/articles/japanese-encephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis is a mosquito-borne illness caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) (NSW Health 2024). […] JEV is a zoonotic virus, meaning its spread from animals to people. However, animals can’t spread the virus to humans directly, nor can humans spread the virus to other humans. Instead, mosquitoes that feed on infected animals acquire the virus themselves and become vectors (i.e. living organisms that transmit pathogens from infected animals to other animals, or humans). If an infected mosquito feeds on a human, the virus will be transmitted to that individual (Davey 2022; Australia Wide First Aid 2022; EFSA 2023). […] The JEV virus is predominantly found in pigs and waterbirds (particularly herons and egrets), which are amplifying hosts. This means they facilitate the rapid multiplication of infectious agents and can reinfect new mosquitoes. Therefore, the virus is maintained in nature through mosquito-waterbird or mosquito-waterbird-pig transmission cycles (Business Queensland 2025; Biology Online 2021). […] Humans and other animals, on the other hand, are dead-end hosts that once infected do not play any further role in transmission (VIC DoH 2025).
  • #31 Japanese encephalitis clinical update: Changing diseases under a changing climate
    https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2023/may/japanese-encephalitis-clinical-update
    JEV can infect several animal hosts, of which wild wading birds (herons and egrets; a natural reservoir) and pigs are the most important for the maintenance and spread of the virus. […] Transmission of JEV between animal hosts and humans occurs via mosquitoes, especially Culex species. […] Pigs act as an amplifying host and are important in the infection of humans. […] The outbreak in Australia was preceded by several months of heavy rainfall associated with La Niña, which led to the formation of inland wetlands, the migration of wading birds to southern regions and the proliferation of mosquitoes. […] Extensive research has linked the distribution of arboviruses with temperature and rainfall, and has highlighted the risk of expansion into new areas, with immunologically naïve populations, as a result of climate change.
  • #32 Japanese encephalitis – Knowledge @ AMBOSS
    https://www.amboss.com/us/knowledge/japanese-encephalitis/
    Japanese encephalitis is a mosquito-borne viral disease endemic in Asia and the Western Pacific. […] Pathogen: Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), a mosquito-borne flavivirus. […] The primary mosquito vector is Culex tritaeniorhynchus. […] Pigs and wading birds (e.g., herons and egrets) are major hosts in the JEV cycle. […] Humans are dead-end hosts.
  • #33 Japanese encephalitis: Symptoms, treatment, transmission, and more
    https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/181418
    Japanese encephalitis is a mosquito-borne viral infection. It is the leading cause of viral encephalitis in Asia. Humans can get the disease a mosquito that carries the virus bites them. […] Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) cannot transmit from one person to another. […] JEV is related to the viruses that cause St. Louis encephalitis and Murray Valley encephalitis, West Nile virus, dengue fever, and yellow fever. […] Japanese encephalitis is a virus in the flavivirus family. The Culex mosquito passes it on. […] The virus can infect horses and pigs, as well as humans. […] A host is the source of a virus, and the vector passes it on. Wild birds are likely to be the natural hosts of JEV, and mosquitoes are the vectors. […] Mosquitos acquire the virus ahead of transmission to humans by feeding on infected wild birds and domestic pigs.
  • #34 Japanese encephalitis | Australian Government Department of Health and Aged Care
    https://www.health.gov.au/diseases/japanese-encephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis is caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). It is spread through bites from mosquitos, which become infected through biting infected pigs and waterbirds. […] JEV is endemic to parts of Asia and the Torres Strait region of Australia. JEV has now also been detected in humans, animals and mosquitos in mainland Australia. […] Animals can be infected with JEV but they cannot transmit the virus to humans. It cannot be transmitted from human to human, or by eating meat from an infected animal. […] Encephalitis is the most serious clinical consequence of a JEV infection.
  • #35
    https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/factsheets/Pages/japanese_encephalitis.aspx
    Japanese encephalitis is a rare but serious illness caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus. It is spread to humans by infected mosquitoes. […] It is spread when a mosquito bites an animal (such as pigs or waterbirds) that has the Japanese encephalitis virus and then this mosquito bites a human. […] Humans are not able to give Japanese encephalitis virus to other humans. Humans cannot get Japanese encephalitis virus by touching an infected animal or eating animal products. […] Those who are more likely to get Japanese encephalitis virus are: people who work or do outside activities (e.g., camping, fishing, hiking, gardening) in high-risk areas. […] There is no specific treatment for Japanese encephalitis.
  • #36 Japanese Encephalitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/books/NBK470423/
    Japanese encephalitis is a mosquito-borne illness caused by a single-stranded RNA virus, closely related to the West Nile flavivirus. Japanese encephalitis transmission is primarily due to the bite of Culex mosquito species, most commonly Culex tritaeniorhynchus. The virus is maintained and amplified in intermediate hosts, specifically pigs and wading birds. Humans are considered dead-end hosts in that they do not generally develop high enough levels of virus to transmit the infection to feeding mosquitoes. […] Because the amplifying hosts tend to be most abundant in agricultural areas such as farms and rice paddies where flooding irrigation attracts wading birds, most infections occur in rural areas. Recently, however, infections are being documented more commonly in suburban regions, particularly in South Korea, China, Singapore, and Taiwan. […] While mosquitoes transmit the vast majority of infections, there is some concern that exposure to infected pigs, which are amplifying hosts, may result in virus transmission from close contact without vector involvement.
  • #37 Japanese Encephalitis | Symptoms, Causes, Treatment | medtigo
    https://medtigo.com/conditions/japanese-encephalitis/
    This indicates that the recommended vaccinations for travelers should be broadened to cover some suburban areas. While most infections are transmitted by mosquitoes, there is some fear that intimate contact with sick pigs, which serve as amplifying hosts, may result in virus transmission without the involvement of a vector.
  • #38 Japanese encephalitis: Symptoms, treatment, transmission, and more
    https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/181418
    The mosquitoes then pass the virus to humans and animals. […] The mosquitoes mainly live in agricultural and rural areas. Their larvae breed in pools of water, such as those in flooded rice fields. […] There is no treatment or cure for Japanese encephalitis. […] Prevention is the best form of treatment for Japanese encephalitis.
  • #39 Japanese Encephalitis | Encephalitis International
    https://www.encephalitis.info/types-of-encephalitis/infectious-encephalitis/japanese-encephalitis/
    JE is a type of infectious encephalitis caused by Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). The virus is found in pigs and birds and is transmitted by Culex mosquitoes which breed in water pools and flooded rice fields which bite mainly during the night or just after sunset. […] A vaccination programme is now in place in several affected countries however, it continues to cause a huge health and economic burden. […] Safe and effective vaccines are available to prevent JE. The WHO recommends that JE vaccination be integrated into national immunization schedules in all areas where JE disease is recognized as a public health issue.
  • #40 Japanese Encephalitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/books/NBK470423/
    Japanese encephalitis is a mosquito-borne illness caused by a single-stranded RNA virus, closely related to the West Nile flavivirus. Japanese encephalitis transmission is primarily due to the bite of Culex mosquito species, most commonly Culex tritaeniorhynchus. The virus is maintained and amplified in intermediate hosts, specifically pigs and wading birds. Humans are considered dead-end hosts in that they do not generally develop high enough levels of virus to transmit the infection to feeding mosquitoes. […] Because the amplifying hosts tend to be most abundant in agricultural areas such as farms and rice paddies where flooding irrigation attracts wading birds, most infections occur in rural areas. Recently, however, infections are being documented more commonly in suburban regions, particularly in South Korea, China, Singapore, and Taiwan. […] While mosquitoes transmit the vast majority of infections, there is some concern that exposure to infected pigs, which are amplifying hosts, may result in virus transmission from close contact without vector involvement.
  • #41 Indian Pediatrics – Editorial
    https://www.indianpediatrics.net/nov2001/nov-1252-1264.htm
    Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a leading cause of viral encephalitis in Asia that has been controlled effectively through national vaccination programs in several countries like Japan, Korea, China and Thailand. […] It is difficult to eradicate JE because it is transmitted from natural reservoirs like pigs and wading birds (herons and egrets). […] JE is the only virus so far confirmed to cause epidemics of encephalitis in India. […] Japanese encephalitis is caused by a zoonotic flavivirus. […] Pigs are the most important biological amplifiers and reservoirs. […] JE virus is carried by female mosquitoes from infected pigs or water birds to susceptible children. […] The main vector, Culex mosquito breeds in flooded rice fields, marshes, and standing water around planted fields and can fly up to 5 kms.
  • #42 Japanese encephalitis (JE): Sign and Symptoms, Causes, Risk factors, Diagnosis, Complications, Treatment and Prevention – MedicoInfo
    https://medicoinfo.org/japanese-encephalitis-je-sign-and-symptoms-causes-risk-factors-diagnosis-complications-treatment-and-prevention/
    Environmental factors heavily influence the incidence of Japanese encephalitis. The virus thrives in rural and peri-urban areas where Culex mosquitoes breed in stagnant water such as rice paddies, irrigation channels, and flood-prone areas. The monsoon season, with its rains and flooding, significantly increases the mosquito breeding grounds, amplifying the chances of transmission. This makes JE an endemic disease in many parts of Asia, particularly in countries like India, China, Nepal, and Indonesia, where agriculture and rice cultivation are widespread. Furthermore, migratory bird populations contribute to the geographical spread of the virus. The risk of JE is highest in regions where humans, pigs, and mosquitoes are in close proximity, and the virus is more likely to spread during periods of high mosquito activity, typically during the wet season when mosquito populations are most abundant. The intricate interplay between ecological factors, the behavior of host animals, mosquito vectors, and environmental conditions is what underpins the transmission dynamics of JEV, making it a persistent public health concern in endemic regions.
  • #43 Japanese encephalitis (JE): Sign and Symptoms, Causes, Risk factors, Diagnosis, Complications, Treatment and Prevention – MedicoInfo
    https://medicoinfo.org/japanese-encephalitis-je-sign-and-symptoms-causes-risk-factors-diagnosis-complications-treatment-and-prevention/
    Environmental factors heavily influence the incidence of Japanese encephalitis. The virus thrives in rural and peri-urban areas where Culex mosquitoes breed in stagnant water such as rice paddies, irrigation channels, and flood-prone areas. The monsoon season, with its rains and flooding, significantly increases the mosquito breeding grounds, amplifying the chances of transmission. This makes JE an endemic disease in many parts of Asia, particularly in countries like India, China, Nepal, and Indonesia, where agriculture and rice cultivation are widespread. Furthermore, migratory bird populations contribute to the geographical spread of the virus. The risk of JE is highest in regions where humans, pigs, and mosquitoes are in close proximity, and the virus is more likely to spread during periods of high mosquito activity, typically during the wet season when mosquito populations are most abundant. The intricate interplay between ecological factors, the behavior of host animals, mosquito vectors, and environmental conditions is what underpins the transmission dynamics of JEV, making it a persistent public health concern in endemic regions.
  • #44 Japanese Encephalitis – Cheshire Travel Clinic
    https://www.cheshiretravelclinic.co.uk/japanese-encephalitis.html
    Japanese encephalitis is a viral disease found in South-East Asia and the Indian subcontinent. The infection is spread by the bite of an infected mosquito. This particular type of mosquito favours breeding sites in and around rice paddies. The mosquito bites mostly around dusk. […] Japanese encephalitis causes headache, convulsions, encephalitis and meningitis. […] There is no specific treatment available for Japanese encephalitis. […] Currently two vaccines that protect against Japanese encephalitis are available in the UK: IXIARO (2 doses) and Green Cross (2-3 doses) of vaccine should be given before travel. […] Individuals should consider being vaccinated if they are travelling to a country where Japanese encephalitis is present and where their stay may be prolonged or they are at increased risk of exposure to the disease e.g. staying in or around rice growing areas; having prolonged periods outdoors in rural areas.
  • #45
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/japanese-encephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a flavivirus related to dengue, yellow fever and West Nile viruses, and is spread by mosquitoes (especially Culex tritaeniorhynchus). […] JEV is the main cause of viral encephalitis in many countries of Asia with an estimated 100 000 clinical cases every year. […] Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is an important cause of viral encephalitis in Asia. […] The virus exists in a transmission cycle between mosquitoes, pigs and/or water birds (enzootic cycle). […] In most temperate areas of Asia, JEV is transmitted mainly during the warm season, when large epidemics can occur. […] In endemic areas, there is little evidence to support a reduction in JE disease burden from interventions other than the vaccination of humans.
  • #46 Japanese encephalitis (JE): Sign and Symptoms, Causes, Risk factors, Diagnosis, Complications, Treatment and Prevention – MedicoInfo
    https://medicoinfo.org/japanese-encephalitis-je-sign-and-symptoms-causes-risk-factors-diagnosis-complications-treatment-and-prevention/
    Environmental factors heavily influence the incidence of Japanese encephalitis. The virus thrives in rural and peri-urban areas where Culex mosquitoes breed in stagnant water such as rice paddies, irrigation channels, and flood-prone areas. The monsoon season, with its rains and flooding, significantly increases the mosquito breeding grounds, amplifying the chances of transmission. This makes JE an endemic disease in many parts of Asia, particularly in countries like India, China, Nepal, and Indonesia, where agriculture and rice cultivation are widespread. Furthermore, migratory bird populations contribute to the geographical spread of the virus. The risk of JE is highest in regions where humans, pigs, and mosquitoes are in close proximity, and the virus is more likely to spread during periods of high mosquito activity, typically during the wet season when mosquito populations are most abundant. The intricate interplay between ecological factors, the behavior of host animals, mosquito vectors, and environmental conditions is what underpins the transmission dynamics of JEV, making it a persistent public health concern in endemic regions.
  • #47 Japanese Encephalitis – Fit for Travel
    https://www.fitfortravel.nhs.uk/advice/disease-prevention-advice/japanese-encephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis is an infection spread through mosquito bites that can cause inflammation of the brain. […] Japanese encephalitis is caused by a virus transmitted through mosquito bites. The mosquito that spreads the infection favours breeding sites in and around rice paddies and bites mostly around dusk.
  • #48 Japanese Encephalitis – Cheshire Travel Clinic
    https://www.cheshiretravelclinic.co.uk/japanese-encephalitis.html
    Japanese encephalitis is a viral disease found in South-East Asia and the Indian subcontinent. The infection is spread by the bite of an infected mosquito. This particular type of mosquito favours breeding sites in and around rice paddies. The mosquito bites mostly around dusk. […] Japanese encephalitis causes headache, convulsions, encephalitis and meningitis. […] There is no specific treatment available for Japanese encephalitis. […] Currently two vaccines that protect against Japanese encephalitis are available in the UK: IXIARO (2 doses) and Green Cross (2-3 doses) of vaccine should be given before travel. […] Individuals should consider being vaccinated if they are travelling to a country where Japanese encephalitis is present and where their stay may be prolonged or they are at increased risk of exposure to the disease e.g. staying in or around rice growing areas; having prolonged periods outdoors in rural areas.
  • #49 Indian Pediatrics – Editorial
    https://www.indianpediatrics.net/nov2001/nov-1252-1264.htm
    The spread of JE to new areas is probably due to agricultural development, intensive rice cultivation and increased use of nitrogenous fertilizer. […] The trend of number of JE cases after 10th October (after the onset of war on 7-10-2001) reported in India may give us a hint regarding the role of these migratory birds in the causation of epidemics of JE in India. […] The case Fatality Rate (CFR) and morbidity due to JE can be reduced significantly by early diagnosis and appropriate supportive treatment. […] The virus remains latent in peripheral lymphocytes, and can later cause recrudescence.
  • #50 Understanding Japanese Encephalitis : Causes, Symptoms and Prevention | Ganesh Diagnostic
    https://www.ganeshdiagnostic.com/blog/understanding-japanese-encephalitis-causes-symptoms-and-prevention
    An arthropod-borne flavivirus called the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is common in several Asian, western Pacific, and northern Australian nations. […] The disease is endemic in 24 countries in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific, putting more than 3 billion people at risk of infection. […] Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a major threat with mortality rates of up to 30% in patients with symptomatic disease. […] JEV is one of the greatest public health problems not only because of its large number of deaths, but because of its severe neuropsychiatric sequelae requiring lifelong support that imposes a significant socioeconomic burden. […] The main vector, Culex pipiens, is associated with agricultural practices such as rice cultivation and irrigated crop fields. […] His increased JEV activity in the new area is attributed to increased population, paddy fields, and pig farming.
  • #51 Japanese encephalitis clinical update: Changing diseases under a changing climate
    https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2023/may/japanese-encephalitis-clinical-update
    Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a mosquito-borne arbovirus endemic to the Asia-Pacific that causes high morbidity and mortality in those who develop symptomatic disease. […] The emergence of JEV in southern Australia represents a marked change in epidemiology. Altered environmental conditions because of climate change have been associated with changes in JEV distribution, and appear to be an important driver of this evolving epidemiology within Australia. […] JEV is a zoonotic vector-borne single-stranded RNA virus of the family Flaviviridae, which also includes dengue, Murray Valley encephalitis, West Nile virus (Kunjin) and zika. […] There are five genotypes of JEV, all of which belong to the same serotype and have similar virulence. […] The recent Australian outbreak was identified to be genotype IV, a previously uncommon lineage that has been detected in China, Indonesia, Malaysia and Papua New Guinea.
  • #52 Japanese encephalitis | MedLink Neurology
    https://www.medlink.com/articles/japanese-encephalitis
    Factors determining which of those infected will develop disease are unknown but could include viral factors such as route of entry, titer, and virulence or host factors such as age, genetic make-up, general health, and preexisting immunity. […] In endemic areas, humans become infected with Japanese encephalitis virus after mosquito bites. […] The Japanese encephalitis virus multiplies locally and in regional nodes. […] After a phase of transient viremia, invasion of the central nervous system occurs via hematogenous spread. […] In the neurons, the virus replicates and matures in the neuronal secretory system, mainly the rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, eventually destroying these structures. […] Invasion of neurons by the Japanese encephalitis virus is followed by perivascular cuffing, infiltration of inflammatory cells into the parenchyma, and phagocytosis of infected cells.
  • #53 Japanese encephalitis | The Australian Immunisation Handbook
    https://immunisationhandbook.health.gov.au/contents/vaccine-preventable-diseases/japanese-encephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis (JE) is caused by infection with the mosquito-borne JE virus. The disease mainly affects the central nervous system. […] Japanese encephalitis (JE) is caused by a mosquito-borne RNA flavivirus called Japanese encephalitis virus. […] After an infectious mosquito bite, the virus multiplies locally and in regional lymph nodes. The virus then spreads to secondary sites, particularly the central nervous system. […] JE is a zoonosis of pigs and wading birds. Culicine mosquitoes transmit the virus between these animals. […] Pigs and wading birds are ‘amplifying hosts’ for JE virus. This means that the virus replicates in the animal and causes transient high-level viraemia. Other large vertebrates, such as horses and humans, are not amplifying hosts. Humans are an incidental host.
  • #54 Japanese encephalitis | MedLink Neurology
    https://www.medlink.com/articles/japanese-encephalitis
    Factors determining which of those infected will develop disease are unknown but could include viral factors such as route of entry, titer, and virulence or host factors such as age, genetic make-up, general health, and preexisting immunity. […] In endemic areas, humans become infected with Japanese encephalitis virus after mosquito bites. […] The Japanese encephalitis virus multiplies locally and in regional nodes. […] After a phase of transient viremia, invasion of the central nervous system occurs via hematogenous spread. […] In the neurons, the virus replicates and matures in the neuronal secretory system, mainly the rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, eventually destroying these structures. […] Invasion of neurons by the Japanese encephalitis virus is followed by perivascular cuffing, infiltration of inflammatory cells into the parenchyma, and phagocytosis of infected cells.
  • #55 Japanese encephalitis | MedLink Neurology
    https://www.medlink.com/articles/japanese-encephalitis
    Factors determining which of those infected will develop disease are unknown but could include viral factors such as route of entry, titer, and virulence or host factors such as age, genetic make-up, general health, and preexisting immunity. […] In endemic areas, humans become infected with Japanese encephalitis virus after mosquito bites. […] The Japanese encephalitis virus multiplies locally and in regional nodes. […] After a phase of transient viremia, invasion of the central nervous system occurs via hematogenous spread. […] In the neurons, the virus replicates and matures in the neuronal secretory system, mainly the rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, eventually destroying these structures. […] Invasion of neurons by the Japanese encephalitis virus is followed by perivascular cuffing, infiltration of inflammatory cells into the parenchyma, and phagocytosis of infected cells.
  • #56 Japanese encephalitis (JE): Sign and Symptoms, Causes, Risk factors, Diagnosis, Complications, Treatment and Prevention – MedicoInfo
    https://medicoinfo.org/japanese-encephalitis-je-sign-and-symptoms-causes-risk-factors-diagnosis-complications-treatment-and-prevention/
    Humans are considered incidental or dead-end hosts, as they develop insufficient viremia to continue the transmission cycle. The primary cause of infection in humans is the bite of an infected Culex mosquito that has previously fed on viremic pigs or birds. After the mosquito acquires the virus from an infected host, it can transmit JEV to humans during subsequent feeding, particularly in areas with high mosquito density. The virus enters the human body through the skin, entering the bloodstream and reaching the central nervous system (CNS), where it can cause encephalitis. Humans are not competent amplifying hosts because their viremia levels are too low to support transmission back to mosquitoes. Consequently, the virus circulates primarily among pigs and birds, but human cases occur in areas with high mosquito populations and insufficient immunity.
  • #57 Japanese encephalitis | MedLink Neurology
    https://www.medlink.com/articles/japanese-encephalitis
    Factors determining which of those infected will develop disease are unknown but could include viral factors such as route of entry, titer, and virulence or host factors such as age, genetic make-up, general health, and preexisting immunity. […] In endemic areas, humans become infected with Japanese encephalitis virus after mosquito bites. […] The Japanese encephalitis virus multiplies locally and in regional nodes. […] After a phase of transient viremia, invasion of the central nervous system occurs via hematogenous spread. […] In the neurons, the virus replicates and matures in the neuronal secretory system, mainly the rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, eventually destroying these structures. […] Invasion of neurons by the Japanese encephalitis virus is followed by perivascular cuffing, infiltration of inflammatory cells into the parenchyma, and phagocytosis of infected cells.
  • #58 Japanese encephalitis | MedLink Neurology
    https://www.medlink.com/articles/japanese-encephalitis
    Factors determining which of those infected will develop disease are unknown but could include viral factors such as route of entry, titer, and virulence or host factors such as age, genetic make-up, general health, and preexisting immunity. […] In endemic areas, humans become infected with Japanese encephalitis virus after mosquito bites. […] The Japanese encephalitis virus multiplies locally and in regional nodes. […] After a phase of transient viremia, invasion of the central nervous system occurs via hematogenous spread. […] In the neurons, the virus replicates and matures in the neuronal secretory system, mainly the rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, eventually destroying these structures. […] Invasion of neurons by the Japanese encephalitis virus is followed by perivascular cuffing, infiltration of inflammatory cells into the parenchyma, and phagocytosis of infected cells.
  • #59 Japanese encephalitis | MedLink Neurology
    https://www.medlink.com/articles/japanese-encephalitis
    The thalamus, basal ganglia, midbrain, cerebellum, and anterior horns of the spinal cord are heavily affected, providing anatomical correlates for the tremor, dystonias, and flaccid paralysis that characterize the disease. […] Pathologic changes in the brains of patients with acute Japanese encephalitis are characterized by glial nodules and circumscribed necrolytic foci. […] Both humoral and cellular immunity appear to be important in Japanese encephalitis. […] The humoral immune response has been well characterized. […] The cellular immune response appears to contribute to the prevention of disease in animal models of Japanese encephalitis by restricting virus replication before the CNS is invaded. […] Observations suggest that the increased microglial activation following Japanese encephalitis virus infection influences the outcome.
  • #60 Japanese encephalitis | MedLink Neurology
    https://www.medlink.com/articles/japanese-encephalitis
    The thalamus, basal ganglia, midbrain, cerebellum, and anterior horns of the spinal cord are heavily affected, providing anatomical correlates for the tremor, dystonias, and flaccid paralysis that characterize the disease. […] Pathologic changes in the brains of patients with acute Japanese encephalitis are characterized by glial nodules and circumscribed necrolytic foci. […] Both humoral and cellular immunity appear to be important in Japanese encephalitis. […] The humoral immune response has been well characterized. […] The cellular immune response appears to contribute to the prevention of disease in animal models of Japanese encephalitis by restricting virus replication before the CNS is invaded. […] Observations suggest that the increased microglial activation following Japanese encephalitis virus infection influences the outcome.
  • #61
    https://journals.lww.com/10.4103/0972-9062.217623
    Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a mosquito borne disease caused by a virus belonging to the Flaviviridae family. […] It causes acute encephalitis syndrome and has been rarely associated with myelitis. […] The diagnosis was done by using JE specific IgM antibody capture enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (MAC-ELISA) as recommended by WHO. […] Japanese B virus infection can cause spinal cord involvement in the form of LETM with a predilection for the cervical cord, even in the acute phase as observed in this as well as other reported cases.
  • #62 Japanese encephalitis | MedLink Neurology
    https://www.medlink.com/articles/japanese-encephalitis
    The thalamus, basal ganglia, midbrain, cerebellum, and anterior horns of the spinal cord are heavily affected, providing anatomical correlates for the tremor, dystonias, and flaccid paralysis that characterize the disease. […] Pathologic changes in the brains of patients with acute Japanese encephalitis are characterized by glial nodules and circumscribed necrolytic foci. […] Both humoral and cellular immunity appear to be important in Japanese encephalitis. […] The humoral immune response has been well characterized. […] The cellular immune response appears to contribute to the prevention of disease in animal models of Japanese encephalitis by restricting virus replication before the CNS is invaded. […] Observations suggest that the increased microglial activation following Japanese encephalitis virus infection influences the outcome.
  • #63 Japanese encephalitis | MedLink Neurology
    https://www.medlink.com/articles/japanese-encephalitis
    The thalamus, basal ganglia, midbrain, cerebellum, and anterior horns of the spinal cord are heavily affected, providing anatomical correlates for the tremor, dystonias, and flaccid paralysis that characterize the disease. […] Pathologic changes in the brains of patients with acute Japanese encephalitis are characterized by glial nodules and circumscribed necrolytic foci. […] Both humoral and cellular immunity appear to be important in Japanese encephalitis. […] The humoral immune response has been well characterized. […] The cellular immune response appears to contribute to the prevention of disease in animal models of Japanese encephalitis by restricting virus replication before the CNS is invaded. […] Observations suggest that the increased microglial activation following Japanese encephalitis virus infection influences the outcome.
  • #64 Japanese encephalitis | MedLink Neurology
    https://www.medlink.com/articles/japanese-encephalitis
    The thalamus, basal ganglia, midbrain, cerebellum, and anterior horns of the spinal cord are heavily affected, providing anatomical correlates for the tremor, dystonias, and flaccid paralysis that characterize the disease. […] Pathologic changes in the brains of patients with acute Japanese encephalitis are characterized by glial nodules and circumscribed necrolytic foci. […] Both humoral and cellular immunity appear to be important in Japanese encephalitis. […] The humoral immune response has been well characterized. […] The cellular immune response appears to contribute to the prevention of disease in animal models of Japanese encephalitis by restricting virus replication before the CNS is invaded. […] Observations suggest that the increased microglial activation following Japanese encephalitis virus infection influences the outcome.
  • #65 Japanese encephalitis | MedLink Neurology
    https://www.medlink.com/articles/japanese-encephalitis
    The Japanese encephalitis virus is a flavivirus and a mosquito-borne human pathogen. […] It is the world’s most important cause of viral encephalitis and is present in many countries in Asia, causing nearly 68,000 clinical cases every year. […] The case fatality rate can be as high as 30%. […] Permanent neurologic or psychiatric sequelae can occur in 30% to 50% of patients. […] An observation noted that TLR3 gene polymorphism might confer host genetic susceptibility to Japanese encephalitis in Indian populations. […] Japanese encephalitis is caused by the flavivirus Japanese encephalitis virus, which has a small (50 nm) lipoprotein envelope surrounding a nucleocapsid comprising of core protein and 11 KB single stranded RNA. […] Almost all children living in endemic areas become infected with the Japanese encephalitis virus, but only about 1 in 25 to 1 in 1000 develops clinical features.
  • #66 Factsheet for health professionals about Japanese encephalitis
    https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/japanese-encephalitis/facts
    Japanese encephalitis virus is present in Asia and Oceania, from Japan to India, Pakistan and Australia. […] The virus is a leading cause of viral encephalitis in Asia, with 30 000 to 50 000 cases reported annually. […] Japanese encephalitis virus is an enveloped RNA virus of the genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae, and is in the same antigenic complex as West Nile virus. […] Although five distinct viral genotypes have been identified, the diseases caused by these different viruses seem to present the same way in humans. […] Japanese encephalitis primarily affects children. […] The overall global incidence of Japanese encephalitis is unknown, but estimates suggest that there are approximately 14 000 to 20 000 fatal cases of acute illness per year. […] There is a possible risk of introduction of Japanese encephalitis virus in European Union/European Economic Area countries via international travel and commerce with Asia and Oceania, which could facilitate the introduction of mosquitoes infected with the virus. […] Changes in agricultural practices seem to have substantially decreased the risk of transmission to humans.
  • #67 Understanding Japanese Encephalitis : Causes, Symptoms and Prevention | Ganesh Diagnostic
    https://www.ganeshdiagnostic.com/blog/understanding-japanese-encephalitis-causes-symptoms-and-prevention
    An arthropod-borne flavivirus called the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is common in several Asian, western Pacific, and northern Australian nations. […] The disease is endemic in 24 countries in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific, putting more than 3 billion people at risk of infection. […] Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a major threat with mortality rates of up to 30% in patients with symptomatic disease. […] JEV is one of the greatest public health problems not only because of its large number of deaths, but because of its severe neuropsychiatric sequelae requiring lifelong support that imposes a significant socioeconomic burden. […] The main vector, Culex pipiens, is associated with agricultural practices such as rice cultivation and irrigated crop fields. […] His increased JEV activity in the new area is attributed to increased population, paddy fields, and pig farming.
  • #68
    https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/factsheets/Pages/japanese_encephalitis.aspx
    Japanese encephalitis is a rare but serious illness caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus. It is spread to humans by infected mosquitoes. […] It is spread when a mosquito bites an animal (such as pigs or waterbirds) that has the Japanese encephalitis virus and then this mosquito bites a human. […] Humans are not able to give Japanese encephalitis virus to other humans. Humans cannot get Japanese encephalitis virus by touching an infected animal or eating animal products. […] Those who are more likely to get Japanese encephalitis virus are: people who work or do outside activities (e.g., camping, fishing, hiking, gardening) in high-risk areas. […] There is no specific treatment for Japanese encephalitis.
  • #69 Exploring Causes Of Japanese Encephalitis While Travelling Abroad | Touchwood Pharmacy
    https://www.touchwoodpharmacy.com/exploring-causes-of-japanese-encephalitis-while-travelling-abroad/
    Understanding the causes of Japanese Encephalitis is important for travellers and taking preventive measures, such as getting the Japanese encephalitis vaccine, can help ensure a safe and enjoyable journey. […] The primary cause of the Japanese Encephalitis disease is the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), primarily found in parts of Asia and the Western Pacific. The virus is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected mosquitoes, particularly those belonging to the Culex species. […] Rural and agricultural areas, especially during the rice-growing season, pose an elevated risk due to the ideal breeding grounds for mosquitoes. High-risk countries include parts of Southeast Asia, South Asia, East Asia and the Pacific Islands. […] The Japanese encephalitis shot or vaccine is a key preventive measure, offering a reliable defence against this potentially serious disease.
  • #70
    https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/factsheets/Pages/japanese_encephalitis.aspx
    Japanese encephalitis is a rare but serious illness caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus. It is spread to humans by infected mosquitoes. […] It is spread when a mosquito bites an animal (such as pigs or waterbirds) that has the Japanese encephalitis virus and then this mosquito bites a human. […] Humans are not able to give Japanese encephalitis virus to other humans. Humans cannot get Japanese encephalitis virus by touching an infected animal or eating animal products. […] Those who are more likely to get Japanese encephalitis virus are: people who work or do outside activities (e.g., camping, fishing, hiking, gardening) in high-risk areas. […] There is no specific treatment for Japanese encephalitis.
  • #71 Japanese encephalitis | Beacon Health System
    https://www.beaconhealthsystem.org/library/topic/encefalitis-japonesa?content_id=ABT-20329934
    An illness caused by a virus that is spread through the bites of infected mosquitos. […] Japanese encephalitis mainly happens in some parts of Asia and the Western Pacific. Spending lots of time outdoors in rural areas can raise the risk of the illness. The risk also is higher during the summer and fall when mosquitos are more common. […] A vaccine can help prevent Japanese encephalitis in people at higher risk.
  • #72 Japanese encephalitis — JE virus, JEV, symptoms and prevention | healthdirect
    https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/japanese-encephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis is a serious disease caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). […] Japanese encephalitis is caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). […] JEV only spreads to humans via bites from infected mosquitoes. […] Animals such as pigs, waterbirds and horses can also catch JEV. These animals cant transfer the virus to humans. If you work closely with these animals especially pigs youre at increased risk of being bitten by an infected mosquito.
  • #73 Japanese encephalitis (JE): Sign and Symptoms, Causes, Risk factors, Diagnosis, Complications, Treatment and Prevention – MedicoInfo
    https://medicoinfo.org/japanese-encephalitis-je-sign-and-symptoms-causes-risk-factors-diagnosis-complications-treatment-and-prevention/
    Environmental factors heavily influence the incidence of Japanese encephalitis. The virus thrives in rural and peri-urban areas where Culex mosquitoes breed in stagnant water such as rice paddies, irrigation channels, and flood-prone areas. The monsoon season, with its rains and flooding, significantly increases the mosquito breeding grounds, amplifying the chances of transmission. This makes JE an endemic disease in many parts of Asia, particularly in countries like India, China, Nepal, and Indonesia, where agriculture and rice cultivation are widespread. Furthermore, migratory bird populations contribute to the geographical spread of the virus. The risk of JE is highest in regions where humans, pigs, and mosquitoes are in close proximity, and the virus is more likely to spread during periods of high mosquito activity, typically during the wet season when mosquito populations are most abundant. The intricate interplay between ecological factors, the behavior of host animals, mosquito vectors, and environmental conditions is what underpins the transmission dynamics of JEV, making it a persistent public health concern in endemic regions.
  • #74 Japanese encephalitis | Beacon Health System
    https://www.beaconhealthsystem.org/library/topic/encefalitis-japonesa?content_id=ABT-20329934
    An illness caused by a virus that is spread through the bites of infected mosquitos. […] Japanese encephalitis mainly happens in some parts of Asia and the Western Pacific. Spending lots of time outdoors in rural areas can raise the risk of the illness. The risk also is higher during the summer and fall when mosquitos are more common. […] A vaccine can help prevent Japanese encephalitis in people at higher risk.
  • #75 A Preventable Disease: Japanese Encephalitis Explained
    https://www.careinsurance.com/blog/health-insurance-articles/what-is-the-japanese-encephalitis-virus
    Japanese encephalitis, caused by the Japanese Encephalitis Virus (JEV), is a potentially severe mosquito-borne disease that affects the central nervous system. […] The bite of an infected mosquito of culex species causes Japanese encephalitis virus infection. This mosquito commonly breeds in rice fields or water like puddles, open sewers or fish tanks. The infected mosquito acts as the carrier of JEV passed between the mosquito, pigs, or water birds. […] The disease is mainly transmitted during the summer and monsoon seasons. It is important to note that the virus cannot be transmitted from human to human and can only be transmitted through blood.
  • #76 What is Japanese encephalitis (and should I be worried?) – myDr.com.au
    https://mydr.com.au/travel-health/japanese-encephalitis/
    Japanese encephalitis is a viral disease that is spread by a particular type of mosquito. […] The virus that causes Japanese encephalitis a flavivirus can affect both animals (pigs and birds) and humans. […] Japanese encephalitis is the leading cause of viral encephalitis in many countries in Asia. […] Immunisation is an effective way of preventing Japanese encephalitis in people travelling to affected areas or if you live or work with pigs. […] Vaccination is also recommended for people who work with or are exposed to mosquitoes.
  • #77 Factsheet for health professionals about Japanese encephalitis
    https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/japanese-encephalitis/facts
    Japanese encephalitis virus is present in Asia and Oceania, from Japan to India, Pakistan and Australia. […] The virus is a leading cause of viral encephalitis in Asia, with 30 000 to 50 000 cases reported annually. […] Japanese encephalitis virus is an enveloped RNA virus of the genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae, and is in the same antigenic complex as West Nile virus. […] Although five distinct viral genotypes have been identified, the diseases caused by these different viruses seem to present the same way in humans. […] Japanese encephalitis primarily affects children. […] The overall global incidence of Japanese encephalitis is unknown, but estimates suggest that there are approximately 14 000 to 20 000 fatal cases of acute illness per year. […] There is a possible risk of introduction of Japanese encephalitis virus in European Union/European Economic Area countries via international travel and commerce with Asia and Oceania, which could facilitate the introduction of mosquitoes infected with the virus. […] Changes in agricultural practices seem to have substantially decreased the risk of transmission to humans.
  • #78 Japanese Encephalitis – Viral Diseases – Infectious Diseases – Diseases – McMaster Textbook of Internal Medicine
    https://empendium.com/mcmtextbook/chapter/B31.II.18.1.21.
    1. Etiologic agent: Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) belonging to the genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae. Five JEV genotypes have been identified to date, with genotype I currently being the dominant one in Asia. […] 3. Reservoir and transmission: The reservoir of JEV is vertebrates, primarily pigs and wading birds. The vector is mosquitoes, mainly Culex spp, which are common in wet areas with rice fields and shallow freshwater reservoirs. […] In endemic countries adults acquire immunity through vaccination or natural infection, and the disease is mainly seen in children. […] The risk of infection associated with travels to Asia is very low (1/1,000,000 travelers) and depends on a number of factors that affect the exposure.
  • #79 The Military Significance of Japanese Encephalitis virus – JMVH
    https://jmvh.org/article/the-military-significance-of-japanese-encephalitis-virus/
    Japanese encephalitis was first recognized in 1935 in Japan and has been recognised as an emerging infection in the region. […] The northern countries with the temperate pattern include Japan, Taiwan, China, Korea, northern Vietnam, northern Thailand, Nepal and northern India. […] The southern tropical countries with tropical endemic patterns are southern Vietnam, southern Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka and southern India. […] The case for Japanese encephalitis as a difficult disease of military significance is not persuasive as the incidence in military populations is very low and the operational impact of non-battle casualties negligible to Australian expeditionary forces.
  • #80 The Military Significance of Japanese Encephalitis virus – JMVH
    https://jmvh.org/article/the-military-significance-of-japanese-encephalitis-virus/
    Japanese encephalitis was first recognized in 1935 in Japan and has been recognised as an emerging infection in the region. […] The northern countries with the temperate pattern include Japan, Taiwan, China, Korea, northern Vietnam, northern Thailand, Nepal and northern India. […] The southern tropical countries with tropical endemic patterns are southern Vietnam, southern Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka and southern India. […] The case for Japanese encephalitis as a difficult disease of military significance is not persuasive as the incidence in military populations is very low and the operational impact of non-battle casualties negligible to Australian expeditionary forces.
  • #81 Ten facts about Japanese encephalitis
    https://www.awayclinic.com/post/ten-facts-about-japanese-encephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis virus (Flavivirus) | Vaccines at Sanofi […] There is no specific treatment for Japanese encephalitis. […] Japanese encephalitis is endemic in many parts of Asia and the Western Pacific, including Japan, China, Southeast Asia, and the Indian subcontinent. […] The countries with the highest burden of Japanese encephalitis are China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh and Vietnam. […] Yes, there is a vaccine for Japanese encephalitis. […] Most Japanese encephalitis infections are asymptomatic. […] People who get full-blown Japanese encephalitis (approximately 2 people out of 100,000 who get the virus) have a 30% chance of dying. […] Up to 50% of survivors continue to have neurologic, cognitive, and psychiatric symptoms. […] Encephalitis means inflammation of the brain. […] Japanese encephalitis (JE) is spread through the bite of an infected mosquito, specifically Culex mosquitoes. […] The Japanese encephalitis virus is maintained in a cycle between mosquitoes and animals, particularly pigs and wading birds, which act as amplifying hosts.
  • #82 Japanese encephalitis – Uniprix
    https://www.uniprix.com/en/article/health/japanese-encephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis is a potentially serious brain infection. It is caused by a virus found in Asian countries, primarily in Southeast Asia and Western Pacific regions. […] The Japanese encephalitis virus is transmitted through the bite of an infected mosquito. […] The infection can be transmitted year-round in Asian countries with a tropical climate, such as Burma, Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, East Timor, and Vietnam. […] There is no specific treatment for Japanese encephalitis.
  • #83 The Military Significance of Japanese Encephalitis virus – JMVH
    https://jmvh.org/article/the-military-significance-of-japanese-encephalitis-virus/
    Japanese encephalitis was first recognized in 1935 in Japan and has been recognised as an emerging infection in the region. […] The northern countries with the temperate pattern include Japan, Taiwan, China, Korea, northern Vietnam, northern Thailand, Nepal and northern India. […] The southern tropical countries with tropical endemic patterns are southern Vietnam, southern Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka and southern India. […] The case for Japanese encephalitis as a difficult disease of military significance is not persuasive as the incidence in military populations is very low and the operational impact of non-battle casualties negligible to Australian expeditionary forces.
  • #84 Japanese Encephalitis Causes Second Death in Australia’s NSW — Vax-Before-Travel
    https://www.vax-before-travel.com/japanese-encephalitis-causes-second-death-australias-nsw-2025-03-14
    According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is the leading cause of viral encephalitis in twenty-four countries. […] Since 2022, when Australia’s government declared a Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) outbreak of National Significance, infected mosquitoes have spread this flavivirus into most of the country. Pigs have also served as an amplifier host. […] As of March 2025, the WHO says safe and effective vaccines are available to prevent JE. […] In Australia, the JE vaccine is free for people who meet the eligibility criteria and is available through local General Practitioners, Aboriginal health services, and pharmacists. […] In the United States, one JE vaccine (IXIARO) is U.S. FDA-approved, and the CDC recommends it for travelers visiting endemic areas in 2025.
  • #85 Japanese encephalitis | Better Health Channel
    https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/japanese-encephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis is a rare but potentially serious infection of the brain caused by a virus that can be spread to humans through mosquito bites. […] Japanese encephalitis is a rare but potentially serious infection of the brain caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus. It can be spread to humans through mosquito bites. […] Japanese encephalitis virus occurs in many parts of southern and eastern Asia, and in recent years has extended beyond its traditional boundaries to eastern Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and the Torres Strait. […] In early 2022, Japanese encephalitis virus was detected in pigs in Victoria and several other Australian jurisdictions (New South Wales, Queensland, the Northern Territory and South Australia). […] Japanese encephalitis virus was detected in Victoria for the first time in February 2022 in pigs, humans, and mosquitoes. […] Japanese encephalitis virus is spread to humans through the bite of an infected mosquito. […] There is no specific treatment available for Japanese encephalitis.
  • #86 Japanese encephalitis | Better Health Channel
    https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/japanese-encephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis is a rare but potentially serious infection of the brain caused by a virus that can be spread to humans through mosquito bites. […] Japanese encephalitis is a rare but potentially serious infection of the brain caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus. It can be spread to humans through mosquito bites. […] Japanese encephalitis virus occurs in many parts of southern and eastern Asia, and in recent years has extended beyond its traditional boundaries to eastern Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and the Torres Strait. […] In early 2022, Japanese encephalitis virus was detected in pigs in Victoria and several other Australian jurisdictions (New South Wales, Queensland, the Northern Territory and South Australia). […] Japanese encephalitis virus was detected in Victoria for the first time in February 2022 in pigs, humans, and mosquitoes. […] Japanese encephalitis virus is spread to humans through the bite of an infected mosquito. […] There is no specific treatment available for Japanese encephalitis.
  • #87 Japanese Encephalitis Causes Second Death in Australia’s NSW — Vax-Before-Travel
    https://www.vax-before-travel.com/japanese-encephalitis-causes-second-death-australias-nsw-2025-03-14
    According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is the leading cause of viral encephalitis in twenty-four countries. […] Since 2022, when Australia’s government declared a Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) outbreak of National Significance, infected mosquitoes have spread this flavivirus into most of the country. Pigs have also served as an amplifier host. […] As of March 2025, the WHO says safe and effective vaccines are available to prevent JE. […] In Australia, the JE vaccine is free for people who meet the eligibility criteria and is available through local General Practitioners, Aboriginal health services, and pharmacists. […] In the United States, one JE vaccine (IXIARO) is U.S. FDA-approved, and the CDC recommends it for travelers visiting endemic areas in 2025.
  • #88 Japanese Encephalitis Virus (JEV): The Disease & Vaccines | Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia
    https://www.chop.edu/vaccine-education-center/vaccine-details/japanese-encephalitis-vaccine
    Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a virus that causes encephalitis (inflammation of the brain) and, like yellow fever virus, is transmitted by the bite of a mosquito. […] JEV is the most common cause of encephalitis in the world. […] JEV infections occur in many areas throughout the world. […] JEV is transmitted by the bite of a mosquito. […] The vaccine cannot possibly cause JEV because the virus is killed. […] JEV is a devastating illness that frequently causes permanent brain damage or death in those infected. […] Therefore, the benefits of the JEV vaccine only outweigh its risks for those who are traveling to the Far East and who plan on staying for a long time and engaging in high-risk activities.
  • #89 Factsheet for health professionals about Japanese encephalitis
    https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/japanese-encephalitis/facts
    Japanese encephalitis virus is present in Asia and Oceania, from Japan to India, Pakistan and Australia. […] The virus is a leading cause of viral encephalitis in Asia, with 30 000 to 50 000 cases reported annually. […] Japanese encephalitis virus is an enveloped RNA virus of the genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae, and is in the same antigenic complex as West Nile virus. […] Although five distinct viral genotypes have been identified, the diseases caused by these different viruses seem to present the same way in humans. […] Japanese encephalitis primarily affects children. […] The overall global incidence of Japanese encephalitis is unknown, but estimates suggest that there are approximately 14 000 to 20 000 fatal cases of acute illness per year. […] There is a possible risk of introduction of Japanese encephalitis virus in European Union/European Economic Area countries via international travel and commerce with Asia and Oceania, which could facilitate the introduction of mosquitoes infected with the virus. […] Changes in agricultural practices seem to have substantially decreased the risk of transmission to humans.
  • #90 QUESTION AND ANSWERS ABOUT JAPANESE ENCEPHALITIS :: National Center for Vector Borne Diseases Control (NCVBDC)
    https://ncvbdc.mohfw.gov.in/index4.php?lang=1&level=0&linkid=480&lid=3763
    By rice field breeding mosquitoes (primarily the Culex tritaeniorhynchus group) that become infected with Japanese encephalitis virus (a flavivirus antigenically related to St. Louis encephalitis virus). […] By the bite of mosquitoes infected with the Japanese encephalitis virus. […] Mosquitoes become infected by feeding on domestic pigs and wild birds infected with the Japanese encephalitis virus. Infected mosquitoes then transmit the Japanese encephalitis virus to humans and animals during the feeding process. The Japanese encephalitis virus is amplified in the blood systems of domestic pigs and wild birds. […] No. Only domestic pigs and wild birds are carriers of the Japanese encephalitis virus. […] Japanese encephalitis is the leading cause of viral encephalitis in Asia with 30-50,000 cases reported annually. […] Epidemics occur when the virus is brought into the peridomestic environment by mosquito bridge vectors where there are pigs, which serve as amplification hosts, infecting more mosquitoes which then may infect humans.
  • #91 Encephalitis: Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, Types, Viral EEE & Diagnosis
    https://www.emedicinehealth.com/encephalitis/article_em.htm
    Viral Infections Encephalitis is a general term for inflammation of the brain. It may be caused by a variety of different viral infections. […] There are many causes of encephalitis: viruses, bacteria, parasites, chemicals, and even autoimmune reactions. […] In clinical practice, most doctors consider encephalitis to be a viral illness. […] Major causes of viral encephalitis are herpesviruses and arboviruses. […] The equine (meaning horse), West Nile, Japanese, La Crosse, and St. Louis encephalitis viruses are all mosquito-borne arboviruses. […] Although viruses are the most common source of infection, bacteria, fungi, parasites, chemicals, and autoimmune reactions (limbic encephalitis) can also be responsible for encephalitis. […] Japanese encephalitis virus is the most common arbovirus in the world (a virus transmitted by blood-sucking mosquitoes or ticks) and is responsible for 50,000 cases and 15,000 deaths per year worldwide. Most of China, Southeast Asia, and the Indian subcontinent are affected.
  • #92 Japanese encephalitis: a review of the Indian perspective | The Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases
    https://bjid.org.br/en-japanese-encephalitis-review-indian-perspective-articulo-resumen-S1413867012002073
    Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) causes Japanese encephalitis, which is a leading form of viral encephalitis in Asia, with around 50,000 cases and 10,000 deaths per year in children below 15 years of age. […] Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a common mosquito borne flaviviral encephalitis. It is one of the leading forms of viral encephalitis worldwide, mostly prevalent in eastern and southern Asia, covering a region with a population of over three billion. […] Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) belongs to the family flaviviridae and genus Flavivirus. […] JEV exists in a zoonotic cycle between mosquitoes and pigs and/or water birds. […] The ecology of JEV has come from various studies carried out in Japan by Scherer et al., and JEV ecology has been the subject of several reviews. […] The JEV is transmitted to vertebrates by mosquitoes.
  • #93 Japanese encephalitis | MedLink Neurology
    https://www.medlink.com/articles/japanese-encephalitis
    The Japanese encephalitis virus is a flavivirus and a mosquito-borne human pathogen. […] It is the world’s most important cause of viral encephalitis and is present in many countries in Asia, causing nearly 68,000 clinical cases every year. […] The case fatality rate can be as high as 30%. […] Permanent neurologic or psychiatric sequelae can occur in 30% to 50% of patients. […] An observation noted that TLR3 gene polymorphism might confer host genetic susceptibility to Japanese encephalitis in Indian populations. […] Japanese encephalitis is caused by the flavivirus Japanese encephalitis virus, which has a small (50 nm) lipoprotein envelope surrounding a nucleocapsid comprising of core protein and 11 KB single stranded RNA. […] Almost all children living in endemic areas become infected with the Japanese encephalitis virus, but only about 1 in 25 to 1 in 1000 develops clinical features.
  • #94 Japanese Encephalitis: Symptoms, Causes And Treatment, All You Need To Know – Watch Video
    https://www.india.com/video-gallery/japanese-encephalitis-symptoms-causes-and-treatment-all-you-need-to-know-watch-video-5783547/
    The disease, caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus is spread by mosquitoes. It is a flavivirus linked to dengue, West Nile virus, and yellow fever. […] According to the WHO, the disease is rare but one in 250 cases. It has potential to turn severe. And when it gets serious the Japanese encephalitis case fatality rate can be as high as 30 %.
  • #95 Japanese encephalitis | MedLink Neurology
    https://www.medlink.com/articles/japanese-encephalitis
    The Japanese encephalitis virus is a flavivirus and a mosquito-borne human pathogen. […] It is the world’s most important cause of viral encephalitis and is present in many countries in Asia, causing nearly 68,000 clinical cases every year. […] The case fatality rate can be as high as 30%. […] Permanent neurologic or psychiatric sequelae can occur in 30% to 50% of patients. […] An observation noted that TLR3 gene polymorphism might confer host genetic susceptibility to Japanese encephalitis in Indian populations. […] Japanese encephalitis is caused by the flavivirus Japanese encephalitis virus, which has a small (50 nm) lipoprotein envelope surrounding a nucleocapsid comprising of core protein and 11 KB single stranded RNA. […] Almost all children living in endemic areas become infected with the Japanese encephalitis virus, but only about 1 in 25 to 1 in 1000 develops clinical features.
  • #96 Ten facts about Japanese encephalitis
    https://www.awayclinic.com/post/ten-facts-about-japanese-encephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis virus (Flavivirus) | Vaccines at Sanofi […] There is no specific treatment for Japanese encephalitis. […] Japanese encephalitis is endemic in many parts of Asia and the Western Pacific, including Japan, China, Southeast Asia, and the Indian subcontinent. […] The countries with the highest burden of Japanese encephalitis are China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh and Vietnam. […] Yes, there is a vaccine for Japanese encephalitis. […] Most Japanese encephalitis infections are asymptomatic. […] People who get full-blown Japanese encephalitis (approximately 2 people out of 100,000 who get the virus) have a 30% chance of dying. […] Up to 50% of survivors continue to have neurologic, cognitive, and psychiatric symptoms. […] Encephalitis means inflammation of the brain. […] Japanese encephalitis (JE) is spread through the bite of an infected mosquito, specifically Culex mosquitoes. […] The Japanese encephalitis virus is maintained in a cycle between mosquitoes and animals, particularly pigs and wading birds, which act as amplifying hosts.
  • #97 Japanese encephalitis | MedLink Neurology
    https://www.medlink.com/articles/japanese-encephalitis
    The Japanese encephalitis virus is a flavivirus and a mosquito-borne human pathogen. […] It is the world’s most important cause of viral encephalitis and is present in many countries in Asia, causing nearly 68,000 clinical cases every year. […] The case fatality rate can be as high as 30%. […] Permanent neurologic or psychiatric sequelae can occur in 30% to 50% of patients. […] An observation noted that TLR3 gene polymorphism might confer host genetic susceptibility to Japanese encephalitis in Indian populations. […] Japanese encephalitis is caused by the flavivirus Japanese encephalitis virus, which has a small (50 nm) lipoprotein envelope surrounding a nucleocapsid comprising of core protein and 11 KB single stranded RNA. […] Almost all children living in endemic areas become infected with the Japanese encephalitis virus, but only about 1 in 25 to 1 in 1000 develops clinical features.
  • #98 Japanese encephalitis clinical update: Changing diseases under a changing climate
    https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2023/may/japanese-encephalitis-clinical-update
    The main risk factors for JE are exposure to mosquitoes in areas where JEV is present. […] JE is one of the most important causes of infective encephalitis globally. […] The vast majority of those infected with JEV remain asymptomatic, with the rate of symptomatic illness generally considered to be 1%. […] However, estimates of the proportion of those experiencing symptomatic disease vary significantly, from 1 in 25 to 1 in 1000, and are likely to be higher in non-endemic populations. […] Although local environmental factors remain important, the advent of a widespread JE outbreak in Australia is a clear example of the potential for climate change to disrupt the epidemiology of vector-borne diseases.
  • #99 Japanese encephalitis clinical update: Changing diseases under a changing climate
    https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2023/may/japanese-encephalitis-clinical-update
    The main risk factors for JE are exposure to mosquitoes in areas where JEV is present. […] JE is one of the most important causes of infective encephalitis globally. […] The vast majority of those infected with JEV remain asymptomatic, with the rate of symptomatic illness generally considered to be 1%. […] However, estimates of the proportion of those experiencing symptomatic disease vary significantly, from 1 in 25 to 1 in 1000, and are likely to be higher in non-endemic populations. […] Although local environmental factors remain important, the advent of a widespread JE outbreak in Australia is a clear example of the potential for climate change to disrupt the epidemiology of vector-borne diseases.
  • #100 Japanese Encephalitis | Encephalitis International
    https://www.encephalitis.info/types-of-encephalitis/infectious-encephalitis/japanese-encephalitis/
    JE is a type of infectious encephalitis caused by Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). The virus is found in pigs and birds and is transmitted by Culex mosquitoes which breed in water pools and flooded rice fields which bite mainly during the night or just after sunset. […] A vaccination programme is now in place in several affected countries however, it continues to cause a huge health and economic burden. […] Safe and effective vaccines are available to prevent JE. The WHO recommends that JE vaccination be integrated into national immunization schedules in all areas where JE disease is recognized as a public health issue.
  • #101 Japanese encephalitis: a review of the Indian perspective | The Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases
    https://bjid.org.br/en-japanese-encephalitis-review-indian-perspective-articulo-resumen-S1413867012002073
    The natural cycle of JE virus in Asia involves water birds and Culex mosquitoes. However, unlike many other mosquito-borne diseases, an amplifying host is important in the epidemiology of human JE. In Asia, pigs are considered to be the most important amplifying host, providing a link to humans through their proximity to housing. […] The incubation period of JEV ranges between six and 16 days. […] The factors determining who of all the infected develop the disease are unknown, but could include viral factors such as route of entry, titer, and neurovirulence of the inoculum, and host factors such as age, genetic make-up, general health, and pre-existing immunity. […] There is no cure for JE and treatment is mainly supportive. […] The prevention of JE is based largely on two interventions; mosquito control, and by an immunization system. […] To prevent JE, it is necessary to implement a large-scale immunization of the susceptible human population.
  • #102 Japanese encephalitis clinical update: Changing diseases under a changing climate
    https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2023/may/japanese-encephalitis-clinical-update
    The main risk factors for JE are exposure to mosquitoes in areas where JEV is present. […] JE is one of the most important causes of infective encephalitis globally. […] The vast majority of those infected with JEV remain asymptomatic, with the rate of symptomatic illness generally considered to be 1%. […] However, estimates of the proportion of those experiencing symptomatic disease vary significantly, from 1 in 25 to 1 in 1000, and are likely to be higher in non-endemic populations. […] Although local environmental factors remain important, the advent of a widespread JE outbreak in Australia is a clear example of the potential for climate change to disrupt the epidemiology of vector-borne diseases.
  • #103 Factsheet for health professionals about Japanese encephalitis
    https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/japanese-encephalitis/facts
    Japanese encephalitis virus is present in Asia and Oceania, from Japan to India, Pakistan and Australia. […] The virus is a leading cause of viral encephalitis in Asia, with 30 000 to 50 000 cases reported annually. […] Japanese encephalitis virus is an enveloped RNA virus of the genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae, and is in the same antigenic complex as West Nile virus. […] Although five distinct viral genotypes have been identified, the diseases caused by these different viruses seem to present the same way in humans. […] Japanese encephalitis primarily affects children. […] The overall global incidence of Japanese encephalitis is unknown, but estimates suggest that there are approximately 14 000 to 20 000 fatal cases of acute illness per year. […] There is a possible risk of introduction of Japanese encephalitis virus in European Union/European Economic Area countries via international travel and commerce with Asia and Oceania, which could facilitate the introduction of mosquitoes infected with the virus. […] Changes in agricultural practices seem to have substantially decreased the risk of transmission to humans.

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