Japońskie zapalenie mózgu
Epidemiologia

Japońskie zapalenie mózgu (JE) pozostaje główną przyczyną wirusowego zapalenia mózgu w Azji, z roczną liczbą przypadków klinicznych szacowaną na 30 000-70 000, a wg WHO nawet do 68 000, z 75% zachorowań u dzieci poniżej 15 roku życia. Wskaźnik śmiertelności wśród objawowych przypadków wynosi 20-30%, a 30-50% przeżyłych doświadcza trwałych powikłań neurologicznych lub psychiatrycznych. JE jest endemiczne w 24 krajach Azji Południowo-Wschodniej i Zachodniego Pacyfiku, narażając ponad 3 miliardy ludzi. Epidemiologia wykazuje dwa wzorce: epidemiczny (sezonowy, głównie w północnych obszarach) i endemiczny (sporadyczny, w południowych regionach). Diagnostyka opiera się na testach MAC-ELISA wykrywających przeciwciała IgM w płynie mózgowo-rdzeniowym, jednak ograniczenia w dostępie do badań i nadzoru powodują niedoszacowanie zachorowań. Nadzór epidemiologiczny jest kluczowy dla monitorowania obciążenia chorobą, skuteczności szczepień i ekspansji wirusa, zwłaszcza w kontekście nowych ognisk w Australii, gdzie w latach 2021-2022 odnotowano szeroką transmisję wirusa.

Epidemiologia Japońskiego zapalenia mózgu

Japońskie zapalenie mózgu (JE) jest wiodącą przyczyną wirusowego zapalenia mózgu w Azji, z szacunkową liczbą od 30 000 do 70 000 przypadków klinicznych zgłaszanych rocznie na świecie. Rzeczywista liczba zachorowań może być znacznie wyższa, gdyż wiele przypadków pozostaje niezdiagnozowanych lub niezgłoszonych z powodu ograniczeń w systemach nadzoru i diagnostyce.12 Według Światowej Organizacji Zdrowia (WHO), około 68 000 przypadków klinicznych JE występuje rocznie, z czego 75% dotyczy dzieci poniżej 15 roku życia.3 Wskaźniki śmiertelności w przypadkach objawowych wahają się od 20% do 30%, a u 30-50% osób, które przeżyły infekcję, występują trwałe neurologiczne lub psychiatryczne powikłania.45

Zasięg geograficzny

JE jest endemiczne w 24 krajach regionów Azji Południowo-Wschodniej i Zachodniego Pacyfiku, narażając ponad 3 miliardy ludzi na ryzyko infekcji.67 Wirus występuje w większości Azji, od Japonii po Indie, Pakistan i Australię.2 Obszar transmisji wirusa JE poszerzył się w ostatnich latach, najwyraźniej w Australii, gdzie w latach 2021-2022 wykryto szerokie obszary transmisji.8 W lutym 2022 roku wirus JE został po raz pierwszy wykryty w południowo-wschodniej Australii (Wiktoria, Nowa Południowa Walia, południowy Queensland i Australia Południowa).9

Kraje, które w przeszłości doświadczyły dużych epidemii, ale które kontrolują chorobę głównie poprzez szczepienia, obejmują Chiny, Koreę Południową, Singapur, Japonię, Tajwan i Tajlandię. Inne kraje, w których nadal występują okresowe epidemie, to Wietnam, Kambodża, Mjanma, Indie, Nepal i Malezja.5 W Indiach, JE jest obecne w 355 dystryktach w 24 stanach/terytoriach, a prawie 30-50% wszystkich przypadków JE w ostatnich latach odnotowano tylko w stanie Assam.10

Wzorce epidemiologiczne

Rozpoznaje się dwa wzorce epidemiologiczne JE: epidemiczny i endemiczny. Wzorce epidemiczne, obserwowane głównie w obszarach północnych, wykazują typowe cechy sezonowe z okazjonalnymi wybuchami. Wzorce endemiczne, spotykane w obszarach południowych, występują sporadycznie przez cały rok.1112

W obszarach o klimacie umiarkowanym Azji, transmisja ma charakter sezonowy, a zachorowania u ludzi zwykle osiągają szczyt latem i jesienią. W subtropikach i tropikach, sezonowa transmisja zależy od deszczów monsunowych i praktyk nawadniania i może być wydłużona lub nawet występować przez cały rok.8 Na przykład w Chinach, sezonowa dystrybucja JE trwa od czerwca do października, z największym nasileniem w lipcu i sierpniu.1112

W Malezji odnotowano trzy wybuchy JE w latach 1974, 1988 i 1999, z 154 zgłoszonymi przypadkami JE (42 przypadki potwierdzone laboratoryjnie) i 56 zgonami podczas wybuchu w 1999 roku.12 Na Filipinach dane z nadzoru od stycznia 2011 do marca 2014 roku zidentyfikowały 73 (15%) przypadki JE potwierdzone laboratoryjnie z 497 przebadanych przypadków.13

Czynniki ryzyka

Japońskie zapalenie mózgu występuje głównie na wiejskich obszarach rolniczych, często związanych z uprawą ryżu i nawadnianiem zalewowym. W niektórych obszarach Azji, te warunki ekologiczne mogą występować w pobliżu lub okazjonalnie w obrębie ośrodków miejskich.814

W krajach endemicznych, gdzie dorośli nabyli odporność poprzez naturalne infekcje, JE jest przede wszystkim chorobą dzieci. Jednak JE związane z podróżami może wystąpić u osób w każdym wieku.82 Badanie z Tajwanu wykazało, że osoby urodzone przed 1976 rokiem oraz osoby zatrudnione w rolnictwie, leśnictwie, rybołówstwie lub hodowli zwierząt miały wyższe ryzyko zachorowania na JE.1516

Wraz z wprowadzeniem programów szczepień, przypadki JE przesunęły się z dzieci na dorosłych w niektórych krajach.15 Chińskie doniesienie zauważyło, że nawet starsi dorośli są równie podatni na zakażenie JE. W 2018 roku w Chinach zgłoszono 1800 przypadków JE; 64% z nich stanowili dorośli w wieku 40 lat lub starsi.4

Nadzór nad Japońskim zapaleniem mózgu

Nadzór nad Japońskim zapaleniem mózgu jest kluczowy dla zrozumienia obciążenia chorobą, informowania o wprowadzaniu szczepionek i monitorowania programów szczepień. Silny nadzór pomaga również identyfikować alternatywne przyczyny zapalenia mózgu, oceniać skuteczność szczepionek w różnych środowiskach epidemiologicznych oraz monitorować ekspansję wirusa JE na nowe obszary.17

Systemy nadzoru

WHO zaleca dwa systemy nadzoru JE, które są ważne dla monitorowania obciążenia JE i zmian w czasie:18

  1. System ponadnarodowy z szpitalami sentinel
  2. Ogólnokrajowy nadzór oparty na przypadkach

Każdy kraj wdraża jeden z tych systemów w zależności od dostępnych zasobów.18

W 2016 roku, 22 (92%) z 24 krajów z ryzykiem transmisji wirusa JE prowadziło jakiś rodzaj nadzoru nad JE, co stanowi wzrost z 18 (75%) krajów w 2012 roku.1920 Od 2012 roku, krajowe programy nadzoru ustanowiono w Brunei, Korei Północnej i Timorze Wschodnim, a rozszerzono w Indiach i Nepalu.1920

W Chinach, system zgłaszania przypadków JE jest obowiązkowy od 1951 roku. Wraz z poprawą systemu nadzoru JE w Chinach, ponad 90% zgłoszonych przypadków JE jest diagnozowanych badaniami laboratoryjnymi.11 Na Filipinach, jako część Zintegrowanego Nadzoru i Reagowania na Choroby, w 2008 roku ustanowiono nadzór nad ostrym zespołem zapalenia mózgu (AES) jako zastępstwo dla JE.13

Metody diagnostyczne

WHO zaleca diagnozę przy użyciu specyficznego dla wirusa JE testu enzymatycznego immunosorbcyjnego wychwytującego przeciwciała IgM (MAC-ELISA) w płynie mózgowo-rdzeniowym w dwóch punktach czasowych.18 Diagnoza może być również przeprowadzona poprzez hodowlę próbki klinicznej, wykrywanie antygenu lub serologiczny test ELISA.21

Diagnozowanie JE jest trudne ze względu na brak próbek płynu mózgowo-rdzeniowego oraz fakt, że przypadki zazwyczaj występują na obszarach wiejskich, gdzie możliwości nadzoru i laboratoryjne mogą być ograniczone. Z tych powodów, liczba zgłoszonych przypadków JE jest ogólnie uważana za niedoszacowanie rzeczywistej częstości występowania JE.17

Wyzwania dla nadzoru

Pomimo postępu, pozostają luki i wyzwania, w tym niepełne raportowanie przypadków i błędna klasyfikacja przypadków.1920 Globalny współczynnik zachorowalności na JE jest nieznany, ponieważ intensywność i jakość nadzoru JE oraz dostępność diagnostycznych badań laboratoryjnych różnią się na całym świecie.3

Chociaż JE podlega zgłoszeniu do Światowej Organizacji Zdrowia (WHO) przez jej państwa członkowskie, raportowanie jest wysoce zmienne i niepełne.3 Spośród 24 krajów objętych ryzykiem, 18 prowadzi jakąś formę nadzoru. Zakres tego nadzoru jednak różni się od prowadzonego na poziomie krajowym w niektórych krajach do tylko w obszarach wysokiego ryzyka w innych.22

Konsekwencje tego suboptymalnego nadzoru są znaczące, ponieważ nawet po wdrożeniu programów immunizacji, mogą wystąpić niewykryte transmisje choroby.22 Według CDC, głównym problemem dla tych krajów jest to, że dalszy postęp w kierunku kontroli JE wymaga zwiększonej świadomości obciążenia chorobą na poziomie krajowym i regionalnym oraz międzynarodowego wsparcia dla nadzoru i wprowadzenia szczepionek w krajach o ograniczonych zasobach.22

Nadzór nad wektorami i zwierzętami gospodarskimi

Nadzór nad JE obejmuje również monitorowanie wektorów komarów i zwierząt gospodarskich, które służą jako gospodarze wzmacniające wirusa JE. Wirus JE jest utrzymywany w enzootypowych cyklach między ptakami a świniami; ptaki wodne są głównym rezerwuarem do rozprzestrzeniania wirusa, podczas gdy świnie są ważnymi gospodarzami wzmacniającymi.9

W Australii, rząd i niektóre stany i terytoria ustanowiły programy nadzoru nad komarami. Monitorują one względną liczebność różnych gatunków komarów w różnych miejscach pobierania próbek.23 W stanie Wiktoria w Australii istnieje program nadzoru i kontroli komarów, który monitoruje liczbę i gatunki komarów, obecność wirusów w komarach (w tym wirusa japońskiego zapalenia mózgu) oraz wspiera lokalne rady w zarządzaniu ryzykiem związanym z komarami na ich lokalnych obszarach.9

W Republice Korei, amerykańskie wojsko rutynowo prowadzi nadzór nad komarami, aby zrozumieć ryzyko patogenów przenoszonych przez komary i kierować wysiłkami kontroli komarów, ponieważ instalacje i miejsca szkoleniowe znajdują się wokół obszarów, gdzie populacje komarów są liczne.24 Podobne nadzory prowadzone są w Okinawie w Japonii.2526

Szczepienia i kontrola Japońskiego zapalenia mózgu

Szczepienie jest najbardziej skuteczną strategią zapobiegania i kontroli Japońskiego zapalenia mózgu, a immunizacja wykazała zmniejszenie ekonomicznego obciążenia chorobą JE.1920 WHO zaleca wprowadzenie szczepień przeciwko JE do krajowych harmonogramów szczepień we wszystkich obszarach, gdzie choroba jest priorytetem zdrowia publicznego.6

Programy szczepień

W 2016 roku, 12 (50%) krajów posiadało program szczepień przeciwko JE, w porównaniu z 11 (46%) krajami w 2012 roku.1920 Wprowadzenie rutynowych programów szczepień dzieci w Japonii, Korei i na Tajwanie niemal wyeliminowało ryzyko u zaszczepionych pacjentów, mimo trwającej infekcji u endemicznych zwierząt i ptaków. Większość przypadków w tych obszarach jest obecnie zgłaszana u niezaszczepionych odwiedzających.27

Na Tajwanie wprowadzono dwudawkową inaktywowaną szczepionkę przeciwko JE pochodzącą z mózgu myszy (JE-MB) do rutynowych szczepień dziecięcych w 1968 roku, ze szczepionkami przypominającymi wdrożonymi w 1974 i 1983 roku.15 W Indiach, w odpowiedzi na laboratoryjne potwierdzenie JE jako etiologii epidemii AES, szczepienia przeciwko JEV zostały wdrożone od 2017 roku w endemicznych dystryktach stanu Odisha. W okresie po szczepieniach (2017-2018), nie odnotowano żadnej epidemii JE.28

Skuteczność szczepień

Dzięki ustanowieniu nadzoru nad JE i stosowaniu szczepionek w niektórych krajach, współczynnik zachorowalności na JE zmniejszył się; jednak nadal występują poważne wybuchy.11 W prowincji Shandong w Chinach, współczynnik zachorowalności na JE zmniejszył się znacząco z 2,05 na 100 000 w 1967 roku do 0,03 na 100 000 w 1997 roku.12

W Malezji, współczynnik zachorowalności na JE zmniejszył się do 1,3 na 100 000 po kampanii szczepień przeciwko JE.12 W Japonii, nadzór nad japońskim zapaleniem mózgu jest prowadzony od 1965 roku jako część Krajowego Nadzoru Epidemiologicznego nad Chorobami Zapobiegalnymi Szczepieniami. Rocznie zgłaszano ponad 1000 przypadków japońskiego zapalenia mózgu w późnych latach 60. Liczba przypadków JE od tego czasu znacznie się zmniejszyła, z mniej niż 10 przypadkami zgłaszanymi rocznie od 1992 do 2004 roku.4

Wyzwania związane ze szczepieniami

Pomimo dostępności skutecznych szczepionek, ich stosowanie w krajach endemicznych pozostaje niskie. Brak dobrych danych o obciążeniu JE utrudnia kontekstualizację znaczenia szczepień przeciwko JE w stosunku do innych szczepionek o wysokim priorytecie konkurujących o zasoby rządowe.17

Obawy dotyczące bezpieczeństwa szczepionek, zwłaszcza związane z poważnymi zdarzeniami niepożądanymi, takimi jak zapalenie mózgu, mogą wywołać wahania przed szczepieniami.17 Ponadto, dostępność szczepionki przeciwko JE nadal jest ograniczona w Australii.29

Inne metody kontroli

Oprócz szczepień, inne metody kontroli JE obejmują kontrolę komarów i zmiany w praktykach rolniczych. Najskuteczniejszym sposobem zapobiegania japońskiemu zapaleniu mózgu i innym chorobom przenoszonym przez komary jest unikanie ukąszeń komarów i usuwanie miejsc rozmnażania komarów wokół domu i posesji.29

Zmiany w praktykach rolniczych wydają się znacznie zmniejszyć ryzyko transmisji na ludzi.2 Na przykład, wyraźny brak wirusa japońskiego zapalenia mózgu u dorosłych komarów na Okinawie jest prawdopodobnie spowodowany wieloma czynnikami, w tym zmianami w praktykach rolniczych, które znacznie zmniejszyły liczbę pól ryżowych na wyspie, będących preferowanym środowiskiem hodowlanym dla Cx. tritaeniyorhynchus.25

Chociaż JE pozostaje problemem zdrowia publicznego w Azji, liczba zgłaszanych przypadków zmniejsza się dzięki immunizacji JE, zmianom w wzorcach rolniczych, urbanizacji i poprawie warunków życia.11

Zmiany w epidemiologii Japońskiego zapalenia mózgu

Epidemiologia Japońskiego zapalenia mózgu i ryzyko dla podróżujących zmieniły się i nadal ewoluują.30 Obszar transmisji wirusa JE poszerzył się, z pojawieniem się JE w nowych obszarach Australii. W latach 2021-2022 zgłoszono epidemię, która skupiała się na obszarach wiejskich otaczających rzekę Murray w południowo-wschodniej Australii, ale przypadki zgłaszano z rozległych obszarów kraju.31

Ekspansja geograficzna

Znaczącą zmianą w globalnym ryzyku JE było główne rozszerzenie geograficzne w Azji.30 Obszar geograficzny dotknięty wirusem japońskiego zapalenia mózgu rozszerzył się w ciągu ostatnich 50 lat. Epidemie występowały w Chinach od 1935 roku, w Korei Południowej od końca lat 40., a w Wietnamie i Tajlandii od połowy lat 60. Choroba rozprzestrzeniła się również w całej Azji Południowo-Wschodniej i wzdłuż Pacyfiku, docierając do kontynentalnej Australii po raz pierwszy w 1998 roku.4

W 2022 roku, zauważalny wzrost dystrybucji wirusa w Australii spowodowany zmianami klimatycznymi stał się przedmiotem troski dla urzędników zdrowia, ponieważ populacja ma ograniczoną odporność na chorobę, a obecność dużej liczby hodowlanych i dzikich świń mogłaby działać jako rezerwuar dla wirusa.5

Czynniki wpływające na zmianę wzorców epidemiologicznych

Rozprzestrzenianie się wirusa JE do nowych środowisk, zmiany w praktykach rolniczych i wektorach zwierzęcych, zmiany klimatu, wzrost obszarów podmiejskich, zmiany w międzynarodowych podróżach do Azji, osobiste czynniki ryzyka, transmisja bez udziału wektora komara, interakcje z innymi flawisami i lepsze informacje o infekcjach bez zapalenia mózgu i inne czynniki sprawiają, że JE jest niedocenianym ryzykiem.30

Epidemia JE w Australii została poprzedzona kilkoma miesiącami intensywnych opadów deszczu związanych z La Niña, które doprowadziły do powstania śródlądowych terenów podmokłych, migracji ptaków brodzących do regionów południowych i namnażania się komarów.32

Obszerne badania powiązały dystrybucję arbovirusów z temperaturą i opadami deszczu i podkreśliły ryzyko ekspansji na nowe obszary, z immunologicznie naiwnymi populacjami, w wyniku zmian klimatycznych.32 Chociaż lokalne czynniki środowiskowe pozostają ważne, pojawienie się szeroko rozpowszechnionej epidemii JE w Australii jest wyraźnym przykładem potencjalnego wpływu zmian klimatycznych na zakłócenie epidemiologii chorób przenoszonych przez wektory.32

Zmiana wzorców w grupach wiekowych

Obserwuje się zmianę paradygmatu w epidemiologii, gdyż japońskie zapalenie mózgu staje się coraz bardziej powszechne wśród dorosłych z powodu rozszerzających się obszarów transmisji JE, lepszej kontroli JE u dzieci prowadzącej do większej liczby przypadków u dorosłych oraz zwiększonej turystyki do obszarów ryzyka JE.4

Dane z regionu endemicznego zauważyły, że 26,9%, 99% i 14,8% przypadków ostrego zespołu zapalenia mózgu miało pozytywną serologię płynu mózgowo-rdzeniowego na JE w latach 2011, 2012 i 2013, odpowiednio. Z wszystkich potwierdzonych przypadków JE, 30% stanowili dorośli.4

Implikacje dla nadzoru i polityki szczepień

Zmiany w epidemiologii JE wymagają przeglądu wytycznych praktyki i rekomendacji ekspertów, które obecnie nie odzwierciedlają aktualnego stanu wiedzy.30 Podczas gdy szczepienia przyczyniły się do względnego przesunięcia przypadków do starszych grup wiekowych w niektórych krajach, inne kraje bez programów szczepień również wykazały znaczny odsetek przypadków u dorosłych, co rodzi pytanie o potrzebę szczepień dorosłych.17

Potrzeba silnego nadzoru i diagnostyki nie kończy się, gdy szczepionka zostaje wprowadzona w kraju. Wiele krajów endemicznych dla JE nadal będzie potrzebować wsparcia w obszarach nadzoru JE, diagnostyki i monitorowania programu szczepień po wprowadzeniu szczepionki przeciwko JE.17

Podsumowanie stanu Japońskiego zapalenia mózgu na świecie

Japońskie zapalenie mózgu pozostaje znaczącym zagrożeniem dla zdrowia publicznego w wielu krajach Azji i regionu Zachodniego Pacyfiku, pomimo postępów w nadzorze i programach szczepień.1920 Szacuje się, że w latach 2000-2015 na całym świecie było 1 976 238 (95% CIs: 1 722 533-2 725 647) przypadków JE. Uwzględniając znane roczne informacje o szczepieniach, szacuje się, że w tym samym okresie, gdyby nie było szczepień, byłoby 2 284 012 (95% CIs: 1 495 964-3 102 542) przypadków JE. Oznacza to, że programy szczepień zapobiegły 307 774 przypadkom JE na całym świecie (95% CI: 167 442-509 583) i 74 769 zgonom z powodu JE (95% CIs: 37 837-129 028).18

Obecne dane o rozpowszechnieniu

Pomimo osiągniętego postępu, wirus JE nadal krąży na rozległych obszarach, a zachorowania stanowią zagrożenie dla niezaszczepionych populacji. JE jest endemiczne w całej większości Azji i częściach regionu Zachodniego Pacyfiku, a obszar transmisji JEV rozszerzył się wraz z pojawieniem się JE w nowych obszarach Australii.31

Dla podróżujących do Azji, ryzyko JE jest bardzo niskie, ale różni się w zależności od sezonu, celu podróży, czasu trwania i działań. Szacowany współczynnik zachorowalności na JE wśród podróżujących do Azji z krajów nieendemicznych wynosi mniej niż 1 przypadek na 1 milion podróżujących.31

Wyzwania i rekomendacje dla nadzoru i kontroli

Istnieje potrzeba lepszego zrozumienia obecnej epidemiologii JE w celu informowania i poprawy strategii zapobiegania i kontroli.24 Zwiększony nadzór i diagnostyka JE są wymagane, ponieważ zmiany klimatyczne i zakłócenia społeczne prawdopodobnie ułatwią dalszą ekspansję geograficzną wektorów Culex i obszarów ryzyka JE.33

Wzmocniony nadzór, ciągłe zaangażowanie i odpowiednie zasoby na szczepienia przeciwko JE powinny pomóc utrzymać postęp w kierunku zapobiegania i kontroli JE.1920 Ponieważ wirus JE prawdopodobnie pozostanie w przyrodzie, a ryzyko JE utrzyma się, ważne jest wdrożenie strategii wzmacniających systemy nadzoru JE w celu zrozumienia obciążenia chorobą i zastosowania protokołów szczepień w krajowych programach szczepień dzieci.11

Region/Kraj Stan nadzoru Styl epidemiologiczny Główne wyzwania
Azja Południowo-Wschodnia 22 z 24 krajów prowadzi jakiś rodzaj nadzoru Mieszany: epidemiczny i endemiczny Ograniczone zasoby, niepełne raportowanie
Chiny System zgłaszania od 1951 roku Epidemiczny, sezonowy (czerwiec-październik) Przypadki u dorosłych mimo szczepień
Japonia Nadzór od 1965 roku Historycznie epidemiczny, obecnie sporadyczny Utrzymanie wysokiego poziomu szczepień
Australia Krajowy system nadzoru chorób podlegających zgłoszeniu Nowy, rozszerzający się Adaptacja do zmieniających się warunków klimatycznych
Indie Rozszerzony w niektórych stanach Epidemiczny w obszarach endemicznych Zasięg szczepień w obszarach wiejskich i plemiennych
Tajwan Krajowy system statystyki chorób zakaźnych Sporadyczny po szczepieniach Przesunięcie przypadków z dzieci na dorosłych

1119491034

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  1. 10.04.2026
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Materiały źródłowe

  • #1
    https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/vaccine-preventable-diseases-surveillance-standards-je
    Japanese encephalitis ( JE) is one of the most common encephalitides worldwide, with an estimated 68 000 cases and 13 20600 400 deaths annually. […] The disease is caused by a mosquito-borne flavivirus and is found across south and east areas of Asia (currently 24 countries with JE virus transmission). […] JE virus is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected Culex mosquitoes, which lay their eggs in irrigated rice paddies and other pools of stagnant water.
  • #2 Factsheet for health professionals about Japanese encephalitis
    https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/japanese-encephalitis/facts
    Japanese encephalitis virus is present in Asia and Oceania, from Japan to India, Pakistan and Australia. Outbreaks are erratic and spatially and temporally limited phenomena, occurring quite unpredictably. The virus is a leading cause of viral encephalitis in Asia, with 30 000 to 50 000 cases reported annually. An apparent decrease of incidence in Asia has been attributed to widespread vaccination in children and changes in agricultural practices and human behaviour. […] Human cases of Japanese encephalitis virus have occurred in southern, south-eastern and eastern Asia, as well as in Oceania. […] The overall global incidence of Japanese encephalitis is unknown, but estimates suggest that there are approximately 14 000 to 20 000 fatal cases of acute illness per year. […] Japanese encephalitis primarily affects children. In endemic countries, adults are likely to have developed natural immunity from prior infection during their childhood; however, infection may occur at any age.
  • #2 Factsheet for health professionals about Japanese encephalitis
    https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/japanese-encephalitis/facts
    There is a possible risk of introduction of Japanese encephalitis virus in European Union/European Economic Area countries via international travel and commerce with Asia and Oceania, which could facilitate the introduction of mosquitoes infected with the virus. If the virus is introduced, it could become established in Europe due to the significant number of susceptible mosquito vectors and vertebrate hosts. […] Changes in agricultural practices seem to have substantially decreased the risk of transmission to humans.
  • #3 Japanese Encephalitis and its Epidemiology | OMICS International
    https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/japanese-encephalitis-and-its-epidemiology-2090-7214-1000243.php?aid=61757
    Japanese encephalitis (JE) is among the most common cause of viral encephalitis in human beings and is found worldwide. […] WHO estimated that approximately 67 900 JE cases occur annually in the 24 JE-endemic countries with an overall incidence of 1.8 per 100 000 population and 75% of these cases occur in children aged 0-14 years, which gives an estimated overall annual incidence of 5.4 per 100 000 in this age group. […] The global incidence of JE is unknown because the intensity and quality of JE surveillance and the availability of diagnostic laboratory testing vary throughout the world. […] Although JE is reportable to the World Health Organization (WHO) by its Member States, reporting is highly variable and incomplete. […] Presently, Japanese encephalitis is a public health problem, not only for Asia but it has spread to the entire world with high fatality rate of 20-30%. […] Hence a strong surveillance system along with implementation of high quality vaccination program for children is the key ingredients to reduce the number of JE cases in endemic areas.
  • #4 Japanese encephalitis | MedLink Neurology
    https://www.medlink.com/articles/japanese-encephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis is the most important cause of viral encephalitis in many countries of Asia, with nearly 68,000 clinical cases every year. The annual incidence of clinical disease varies (both across and within countries), ranging from less than 10 to more than 100 per 100,000 population. The case-fatality rate can be as high as 30%. Permanent neurologic or psychiatric sequelae can occur in 30% to 50% of patients. […] Japanese encephalitis surveillance has been conducted since 1965 as a part of the National Epidemiological Surveillance of Vaccine Preventable Diseases in Japan. Over 1000 Japanese encephalitis cases were reported annually in the late 1960s. The number of Japanese encephalitis cases has since markedly decreased, with less than 10 cases reported annually from 1992 to 2004.
  • #4 Japanese encephalitis | MedLink Neurology
    https://www.medlink.com/articles/japanese-encephalitis
    Data from an endemic region noted that 26.9%, 99%, and 14.8% of acute encephalitic syndrome cases were positive CSF serology for Japanese encephalitis in the years 2011, 2012, and 2013, respectively. Of the total Japanese encephalitis confirmed cases, 30% were adults. […] Japanese encephalitis is, generally, considered a disease of young children. A Chinese report noted that even older adults are equally liable to be affected with Japanese encephalitis. In 2018, 1800 Japanese encephalitis cases were reported in China; 64% of these cases were adults aged 40 years or older. […] The geographical area affected by Japanese encephalitis virus has expanded in the last 50 years. Epidemics have occurred in China since 1935, in South Korea since the late 1940s, and in Vietnam and Thailand since the mid-1960s. The disease has also spread across Southeast Asia and the Pacific Rim, reaching mainland Australia for the first time in 1998.
  • #4 Japanese encephalitis | MedLink Neurology
    https://www.medlink.com/articles/japanese-encephalitis
    A paradigm shift in epidemiology has been observed as Japanese encephalitis is becoming increasingly more common among adults due to expanding Japanese encephalitis transmission areas, improved Japanese encephalitis control in children leading to more adult cases, and increased tourism to Japanese encephalitis risk areas.
  • #5 Japanese encephalitis – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_encephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis (JE) is the leading cause of viral encephalitis in Asia, with up to 70,000 cases reported annually. Of those with symptoms case-fatality rates range from 20% to 30%. Rare outbreaks in U.S. territories in the Western Pacific have also occurred. Residents of rural areas in endemic locations are at highest risk; Japanese encephalitis does not usually occur in urban areas. […] Countries that have had major epidemics in the past, but which have controlled the disease primarily by vaccination, include China, South Korea, Singapore, Japan, Taiwan and Thailand. Other countries that still have periodic epidemics include Vietnam, Cambodia, Myanmar, India, Nepal, and Malaysia. Japanese encephalitis has been reported in the Torres Strait Islands, and two fatal cases were reported in mainland northern Australia in 1998. There were reported cases in Kachin State, Myanmar in 2013. There were 116 deaths reported in Odisha’s Malkangiri district of India in 2016.
  • #5 Japanese encephalitis – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_encephalitis
    In 2022, the notable increase in the distribution of the virus in Australia due to climate change became a concern to health officials as the population has limited immunity to the disease and the presence of large numbers of farmed and feral pigs could act as reservoirs for the virus. In February 2022, Japanese encephalitis was detected and confirmed in piggeries in Victoria, Queensland and New South Wales. On 4 March, cases were detected in South Australia. By October 2022, the outbreak in eastern mainland Australia had caused 42 symptomatic human cases of the disease, resulting in seven deaths. In 2025, further cases and a fatality were recorded in south-eastern Australia. […] Humans, cattle, and horses are dead-end hosts as the disease manifests as fatal encephalitis. Pigs act as amplifying hosts and have a vital role in the epidemiology of the disease. Infection in swine is asymptomatic, except in pregnant sows when abortion and fetal abnormalities are common sequelae. The most important vector is Culex tritaeniorhynchus, which feeds on cattle in preference to humans. The natural hosts of the Japanese encephalitis virus are birds, not humans, and many believe the virus will never be eliminated.
  • #6
    https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/japanese-encephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is the main cause of viral encephalitis in many countries of Asia with an estimated 100 000 clinical cases every year. […] Twenty-four countries in the WHO South-East Asia and Western Pacific Regions have endemic JEV transmission, exposing more than 3 billion people to risks of infection. […] Surveillance of the disease is mostly syndromic for acute encephalitis syndrome. Confirmatory laboratory testing is often conducted in dedicated sentinel sites, and efforts are undertaken to expand laboratory-based surveillance. Case-based surveillance is established in countries that effectively control JE through vaccination. […] WHO recommends having strong JE prevention and control activities, including JE immunization in all regions where the disease is a recognized public health priority, along with strengthening surveillance and reporting mechanisms.
  • #7 Japanese Encephalitis Outbreaks — Vax-Before-Travel
    https://www.vax-before-travel.com/japanese-encephalitis-outbreaks
    Japanese Encephalitis outbreaks continue in Australia, India, Nepal, and other countries. […] As of May 2025, JEV is the leading cause of viral encephalitis in twenty-four countries in the WHO South-East Asia and Western Pacific Regions, exposing more than 3 billion people to infection risks. […] JE infections cause approximately 13,60020,400 deaths in people annually, primarily children. […] The CDC states that the risk for JE varies based on destination, accommodations, activities, trip duration, and travel season. […] Australia’s National Notifiable Disease Surveillance System dashboard has reported JEV cases from 2002 to 2025. […] The WHO reported various JEV cases across Australia, including Queensland, New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria, the Australian Capital Territory, Tasmania, Western Australia, the Northern Territory, and parts of the Torres Strait region.
  • #8 Japanese Encephalitis | Yellow Book | CDC
    https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/travel-associated-infections-diseases/japanese-encephalitis.html
    Japanese encephalitis (JE) virus is the most common vaccine-preventable cause of encephalitis in Asia, occurring throughout most of Asia and parts of the western Pacific. The area of transmission of JE virus has expanded in recent years, most notably in Australia, with widespread areas of transmission detected during 20212022. […] Transmission of JE virus principally occurs in rural agricultural areas, often associated with rice cultivation and flood irrigation. In some areas of Asia, these ecologic conditions can occur near, or occasionally within, urban centers. In temperate areas of Asia, transmission is seasonal, and human disease usually peaks in summer and fall. In the subtropics and tropics, seasonal transmission varies with monsoon rains and irrigation practices and might be prolonged or even occur year-round.
  • #8 Japanese Encephalitis | Yellow Book | CDC
    https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/travel-associated-infections-diseases/japanese-encephalitis.html
    In endemic countries, where adults have acquired immunity through natural infection, JE is primarily a disease of children. However, travel-associated JE can occur among people of any age. For most travelers to Asia, the risk for JE is extremely low but varies based on travel duration, season, location, activities, and accommodations. […] The overall incidence of JE among people from non-endemic countries traveling to Asia is estimated to be 1 case per 1 million travelers. However, expatriates and travelers who stay for prolonged periods in rural areas with active JE virus transmission might be at similar risk as the susceptible pediatric resident population, which is 611 cases per 100,000 children per year. […] Travelers, even those on brief trips, might be at increased risk if they have extensive outdoor or nighttime exposure in rural areas during periods of active transmission. Shorter-term (e.g., 1 month) travelers whose visits are restricted to major urban areas are at minimal risk for JE. […] In some endemic areas, few human cases occur among residents because of immunization or natural immunity among older people, but JE virus is still maintained locally in an enzootic cycle between animals and mosquitoes. Therefore, susceptible visitors could be at risk for infection.
  • #9 Japanese encephalitis virus
    https://www.health.vic.gov.au/infectious-diseases/japanese-encephalitis
    In early 2022 JE virus detections in humans, pigs and mosquitoes were reported for the first time in south-eastern Australia (Victoria, New South Wales, southern Queensland and South Australia), much further south than where the virus had previously been detected. […] JE virus was detected in Victoria for the first time in February 2022. […] The JE virus is maintained in enzootic cycles between birds and pigs; waterbirds are the main reservoir for disseminating the virus, while pigs are important amplifier hosts. […] JE virus is transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected mosquito, primarily the Culex species. […] There is no evidence of transmission of JE virus from person to person. […] A mosquito surveillance and control program is in place in Victoria to monitor the number and species of mosquitoes, presence of viruses in mosquitoes (including Japanese encephalitis virus) and support local councils to manage the risk of mosquitoes in their local areas.
  • #9 Japanese encephalitis virus
    https://www.health.vic.gov.au/infectious-diseases/japanese-encephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a rare but potentially serious infection of the central nervous system caused by the JE virus. […] Cases of JE have been reported in Victoria and other south-eastern Australian states. Cases were reported for the first time in Victoria in 2022. […] JE virus is transmitted to humans by infected mosquitoes. […] JE is an urgent notifiable condition. Suspected and confirmed cases must be notified immediately to the Department of Health by medical practitioners and pathology services. […] A mosquito surveillance and control program is in place in Victoria to monitor the number and species of mosquitoes, presence of viruses in mosquitoes (including Japanese encephalitis virus) and support local councils to manage the risk of mosquitoes in their local areas. […] JE is endemic throughout most of Asia and parts of the Western Pacific region with more than 65,000 cases occurring each year.
  • #10 What is the extent of problem of Japanese Encephalitis in India and control activities of JE? :: National Center for Vector Borne Diseases Control (NCVBDC)
    https://ncvbdc.mohfw.gov.in/index1.php?lang=1&level=2&sublinkid=5926&lid=3760
    JE viral activity has been widespread in India. The first evidence of presence of JE virus dates back to 1952. First case was reported in 1955. Japanese Encephalitis (JE) continues to pose a significant public health problem in India. The first evidence of JE viral activity was documented by Virus Research Centre (VRC-NIV) in 1952. The first human JE case was reported in India in 1955 in Vellore, Tamil Nadu. A major outbreak occurred in 1973 and 1976 in the Burdwan district of West Bengal. In 1978, JE cases started appearing in the North Eastern States (Assam). In 2003, JE was included under National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme (NVBDCP). Since then, JE and Acute Encephalitis Syndrome (AES) have been reported in 355 districts across 24 States/UTs in India. The number of endemic States / UTs have been increased in recent years. Some of the NE States have been included in endemic zone e.g. Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur etc. Other endemic states include Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu etc. Almost 30-50% of total JE incident cases are found only in Assam in recent years. Outbreaks have been reported from different parts of the country. It is endemic in 355 districts of 24 States/UTs. JE cases in India often follow a seasonal pattern, with increased transmission during the monsoon (July to August) and post-monsoon period (October to November) when breeding places and mosquito population are increased. Outbreaks typically occur from July to October, peaking during the rainy season. JEV is the main cause of viral encephalitis in many countries of Asia with an estimated 68 000 clinical cases every year (WHO). India accounts for a significant proportion of JE cases in Asia. The exact number of cases can vary from year to year, but several thousand cases are reported annually. However, it is worth noting that the reported numbers may not fully reflect the actual burden. Japanese encephalitis primarily affects children and individuals living in rural areas, especially those involved in agricultural activities. Children under the age of 15 are particularly susceptible to severe forms of the disease, and the infection can lead to long-term neurological complications or death. In response to the burden of Japanese encephalitis, India has implemented vaccination programme in endemic areas. Vaccination coverage has been expanded in recent years, targeting children in endemic regions to reduce the incidence of the disease. Adult vaccination has been started in 3 high prevalent States (Assam, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh). Mosquito control programme, including larval source reduction, use of insecticide-treated bed nets, and community-based initiatives including awareness campaign are important strategies for prevention and control of JE in affected areas.
  • #11 Epidemiology of Japanese encephalitis: past, present, and future prospects
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4373597/
    Japanese encephalitis (JE) is one of severe viral encephalitis that affects individuals in Asia, western Pacific countries, and northern Australia. Although 67,900 JE cases have been estimated among 24 JE epidemic countries annually, only 10,426 have been reported in 2011. With the establishment of JE surveillance and vaccine use in some countries, the JE incidence rate has decreased; however, serious outbreaks still occur. Understanding JE epidemics and identifying the circulating JE virus genotypes will improve JE prevention and control. This review summarizes the current epidemiology data in these countries. […] Two epidemiological patterns of JE are recognized: epidemic and endemic. Epidemic patterns observed mainly in northern areas demonstrate typical seasonal characteristics with occasional outbreaks. Endemic patterns found in southern areas occur sporadically throughout the year.
  • #11 Epidemiology of Japanese encephalitis: past, present, and future prospects
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4373597/
    The characteristics of JE epidemics among the 27 countries and regions have changed with adjustments in JE prevention and control measures. […] The JE case reporting system has been mandated by law since 1951. The morbidity due to JE was 10-15 per 100,000 in 1960-1979, which reached the highest level (20.92 per 100,000) in 1971. The seasonal distribution of JE in the Peoples Republic of China is from June to October, with a peak in July and August. Children under 15 years of age constitute the majority of JE cases. […] The JE lab-net were set up in 2011 and with the improved JE surveillance system in the Peoples Republic of China, more than 90% of reported JE cases have been diagnosed by laboratory testing. […] According to the current epidemic/endemic characteristics of JE, the disease surveillance and vaccination strategies in these countries and regions could be divided into four levels.
  • #11 Epidemiology of Japanese encephalitis: past, present, and future prospects
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4373597/
    Although JE remains a prominent public health problem in Asia, the reported cases are decreasing due to JE immunization, agricultural pattern changes, urbanization, and improved living conditions. As JEV will likely remain in nature and the risk of JE will persist, it is important to implement strategies that strengthen JE surveillance systems in order to understand the disease burden and apply vaccination protocols in national childhood immunization programs.
  • #12 Epidemiology of Japanese encephalitis: past, present, and future prosp | TCRM
    https://www.dovepress.com/epidemiology-of-japanese-encephalitis-past-present-and-future-prospect-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-TCRM
    Japanese encephalitis (JE) is one of severe viral encephalitis that affects individuals in Asia, western Pacific countries, and northern Australia. Although 67,900 JE cases have been estimated among 24 JE epidemic countries annually, only 10,426 have been reported in 2011. […] Understanding JE epidemics and identifying the circulating JE virus genotypes will improve JE prevention and control. This review summarizes the current epidemiology data in these countries. […] Two epidemiological patterns of JE are recognized: epidemic and endemic. Epidemic patterns observed mainly in northern areas demonstrate typical seasonal characteristics with occasional outbreaks. Endemic patterns found in southern areas occur sporadically throughout the year. […] The characteristics of JE epidemics among the 27 countries and regions have changed with adjustments in JE prevention and control measures.
  • #12 Epidemiology of Japanese encephalitis: past, present, and future prosp | TCRM
    https://www.dovepress.com/epidemiology-of-japanese-encephalitis-past-present-and-future-prospect-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-TCRM
    The JE case reporting system has been mandated by law since 1951. The morbidity due to JE was 10-15 per 100,000 in 1960-1979, which reached the highest level (20.92 per 100,000) in 1971. The seasonal distribution of JE in the Peoples Republic of China is from June to October, with a peak in July and August. […] The reported cases of JE decreased dramatically from 10,308 in 1996 to 2,541 in 2010. However, adult JE cases and outbreaks have been reported. […] The incidence rate of confirmed JE cases decreased significantly from 2.05 per 100,000 in 1967 to 0.03 per 100,000 in 1997. The epidemic season appeared from May to October, with a sharp peak in July and August. […] Mosquito surveillance showed that Cx. tritaeniorhynchus and Cx. annulus were the most important JEV vectors to human and domestic animals.
  • #12 Epidemiology of Japanese encephalitis: past, present, and future prosp | TCRM
    https://www.dovepress.com/epidemiology-of-japanese-encephalitis-past-present-and-future-prospect-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-TCRM
    Although information is scarce regarding the national JE epidemic in Malaysia, three JE outbreaks were recorded in 1974, 1988, and 1999, with 154 reported JE cases (42 laboratory confirmed cases) and 56 deaths in the 1999 outbreak. […] The JE incidence rate decreased to 1.3 per 100,000 after the JE immunization campaign. […] Though JE is highly distributed, outbreaks still occur in epidemic areas. Other than the present conventional practices (mosquito control, health education propaganda, etc), emergency vaccination campaigns are currently the most effective measures against outbreaks. […] As JEV will likely remain in nature and the risk of JE will persist, it is important to implement strategies that strengthen JE surveillance systems in order to understand the disease burden and apply vaccination protocols in national childhood immunization programs.
  • #13 Epidemiology of Japanese Encephalitis in the Philippines: A Systematic Review | PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
    https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0003630
    Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is an important cause of encephalitis in most of Asia, with high case fatality rates and often significant neurologic sequelae among survivors. The epidemiology of JE in the Philippines is not well defined. To support consideration of JE vaccine for introduction into the national schedule in the Philippines, we conducted a systematic literature review and summarized JE surveillance data from 2011 to 2014. […] Surveillance data from January 2011 to March 2014 identified 73 (15%) laboratory-confirmed JE cases out of 497 cases tested. […] This comprehensive review demonstrates the endemicity and extensive geographic range of JE in the Philippines, and supports the use of JE vaccine in the country. Continued and improved surveillance with laboratory confirmation is needed to systematically quantify the burden of JE, to provide information that can guide prioritization of high risk areas in the country and determination of appropriate age and schedule of vaccine introduction, and to measure the impact of preventive measures including immunization against this important public health threat.
  • #13 Epidemiology of Japanese Encephalitis in the Philippines: A Systematic Review | PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
    https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0003630
    The national laboratory initiated testing of referred cases in 2009 and surveillance for acute encephalitis syndrome (AES) with laboratory confirmation of a subset of cases was established in 2011. […] As part of the Philippine Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response, surveillance for acute encephalitis syndrome (AES), as a proxy for JE, was established in 2008. […] Data on suspected JE cases from the line list, and suspected and confirmed JE cases from the sentinel surveillance and clinician referral systems, were tabulated and mapped. […] From January 2011 to March 2014, 1,032 suspected JE cases were reported. Of 497 cases with specimens, 73 (15%) had laboratory-confirmed JE. […] The majority of suspected JE cases were children: 68% were under 15 years old and 78% were under 19 years old. Among confirmed JE cases, 75% were children under 15 years of age and 85% were under 19 years old.
  • #14 Japanese Encephalitis | Health Knowledge
    https://www.healthknowledge.org.uk/public-health-textbook/disease-causation-diagnostic/2b-epidemiology-diseases-phs/infectious-diseases/japanese-encephalitis
    The majority of cases of JE infections are mild (fever and headache) or are asymptomatic. […] JE is endemic in tropical parts of South East Asia and the Far East including; Australia (islands of Torres Strait), Bangladesh, Bhutan, Brunei, Myanmar, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam and the Pacific Islands. […] JE occurs primarily in rural agricultural areas where flooding irrigation is practiced, especially where rice growing and pig farming coexist. However, in many areas of Asia these ecological conditions may occur near or occasionally within urban area. […] JE is the leading cause of childhood viral encephalitis in Asia with 30,000-50,000 clinical cases reported each year. […] The risk of infection with JE in travellers is extremely low.
  • #15 Epidemiology and risk factors of Japanese encephalitis in Taiwan, 2010–2022 | medRxiv
    https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2023.05.30.23290705v1.full-text
    Taiwan introduced a two-dose inactivated Japanese encephalitis (JE) mouse brain-derived (JE-MB) vaccine into routine childhood immunization in 1968, with booster vaccination implemented in 1974 and 1983. […] After implementation of JE vaccination programs, JE cases have shifted from children to adults. In this study, we described the JE epidemiology and identify high-risk groups to further inform vaccine policy. […] From 2010 to 2022, a total of 313 cases of JE were diagnosed, resulting in an overall incidence rate of 0.10 cases per 100,000 person-years and a mortality rate of 0.006 per 100,000 population. […] In Taiwan, individuals born before 1976 and those employed in agriculture, forestry, fishing, or animal husbandry had a higher risk of JE. We recommend JE vaccination for people in these high-risk groups who have not been fully vaccinated or have an unknown vaccination history.
  • #16 Epidemiology and risk factors of Japanese encephalitis in Taiwan, 2010–2022 | medRxiv
    https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2023.05.30.23290705v1.full-text
    Furthermore, workers in agriculture, forestry, fishing, or animal husbandry had a higher risk compared to individuals in other occupations. […] In Taiwan, different numbers of vaccine doses may result in varying levels of protection. […] The agriculture, forestry, fishing, and animal husbandry industries posed a higher risk of disease transmission, likely due to increased exposure to pigs, birds, and farmland. […] The incidence of JE in Taiwan exhibited regional variations, with the eastern region having the highest incidence, followed by the southern and central regions, while the northern region had the lowest incidence. […] JE is a life-threatening disease that should not be underestimated, despite its low incidence and mortality rates in Taiwan. It poses a particular risk to individuals born before 1976 and those employed in agriculture, forestry, fishing, or animal husbandry.
  • #17 The future of Japanese encephalitis vaccination: expert recommendations for achieving and maintaining optimal JE control | npj Vaccines
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41541-021-00338-z
    In addition to having better burden of disease estimates, JE surveillance is critical to inform vaccine introduction, monitor vaccination programs and identify alternative causes of encephalitis, evaluate vaccine effectiveness in different epidemiological settings, and monitor JEV expansion into new areas. […] While vaccination has contributed to a relative shift in cases to older age groups in some countries, other countries without vaccination programs have also shown a substantial proportion of cases in adults, raising the question of the need for adult vaccination. […] The need for strong surveillance and diagnostics does not end when a vaccine is introduced in the country. Many JE-endemic countries will still need support in the areas of JE surveillance, diagnostics, and vaccination program monitoring after JE vaccine has been introduced.
  • #17 The future of Japanese encephalitis vaccination: expert recommendations for achieving and maintaining optimal JE control | npj Vaccines
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41541-021-00338-z
    Vaccines against Japanese encephalitis (JE) have been available for decades. Currently, most JE-endemic countries have vaccination programs for their at-risk populations. Even so, JE remains the leading recognized cause of viral encephalitis in Asia. […] The World Health Organization (WHO) has long recommended JE vaccination programs in areas where JE is a public health problem. […] Poor surveillance resulting from the difficulty of diagnosing JE without cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples and because cases generally occur in rural areas where surveillance and laboratory capacity might be limited. […] Despite progress with JE diagnostics and laboratory testing, because of the difficulty diagnosing JE, reported JE case counts are generally considered to be underestimates of true JE incidence.
  • #17 The future of Japanese encephalitis vaccination: expert recommendations for achieving and maintaining optimal JE control | npj Vaccines
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41541-021-00338-z
    Vaccine safety concerns, especially around severe adverse events such as encephalitis, can trigger vaccine hesitancy. […] Without good JE burden data, it has been difficult to contextualize the importance of JE vaccination relative to other high-priority vaccines competing for government resources, such as rotavirus and human papillomavirus vaccines.
  • #18 Estimates of the global burden of Japanese encephalitis and the impact of vaccination from 2000-2015 | eLife
    https://elifesciences.org/articles/51027
    Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a mosquito-borne disease, known for its high mortality and disability rate among symptomatic cases. Many effective vaccines are available for JE, and the use of a recently developed and inexpensive vaccine, SA 14-14-2, has been increasing over the recent years particularly with Gavi support. Estimates of the local burden and the past impact of vaccination are therefore increasingly needed, but difficult due to the limitations of JE surveillance. […] WHO recommends two JE surveillance systems that are important for monitoring burdens of JE and changes over time (WHO, 2019), (i) a subnational system with sentinel hospitals, or (ii) case-based nationwide surveillance. Each country implements one of these systems depending on available resources (Hills et al., 2009). WHO recommends diagnosis using JEV-specific IgM antibody-capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (MAC-ELISA) in CSF at two time points (Donadeu et al., 2009; Burke and Leake, 1988).
  • #18 Estimates of the global burden of Japanese encephalitis and the impact of vaccination from 2000-2015 | eLife
    https://elifesciences.org/articles/51027
    Poor clinical outcomes and lack of specific treatment makes JE prevention a priority. Vaccination is the most effective method of prevention, however it is difficult to decide where vaccination should be implemented or to estimate the quantitative impact of vaccination (Fischer et al., 2008). […] In this study, we provide updated global JE burden and vaccination impact estimates using a modelling method which helps overcome some of the limitations of sparse and variable surveillance data. […] We estimate that from 2000 to 2015, there were 1,976,238 (95% CIs: 1,722,533-2,725,647) JE cases globally. By including known annual vaccination information in the catalytic model we estimate that in the same period had there been no vaccination there would have been 2,284,012 (95% CIs: 1,495,964-3,102,542) JE cases. Therefore we estimate that vaccination programs have prevented 307,774 JE cases globally (95% CI: 167,442-509,583) from 2000 to 2015 and vaccination programs similarly prevented 74,769 deaths from JE (95% CIs: 37,837-129,028).
  • #19 Japanese Encephalitis Surveillance and Immunization — Asia and Western Pacific Regions, 2016 | MMWR
    https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/66/wr/mm6622a3.htm
    In 2016, 22 (92%) of the 24 countries with JE virus transmission risk conducted JE surveillance, an increase from 18 (75%) countries in 2012, and 12 (50%) countries had a JE immunization program, compared with 11 (46%) countries in 2012. […] JE surveillance has been established or strengthened during the last 4 years in several countries; since 2012, national surveillance programs were established in Brunei, North Korea, and Timor Leste, and expanded in India and Nepal. […] Substantial progress has been made in establishing and strengthening JE immunization programs. […] Despite this progress, gaps and challenges remain, including incomplete case reporting and misclassification of cases. […] Vaccination is the most effective strategy to prevent and control JE, and immunization has been demonstrated to reduce the economic burden of JE disease. […] Strengthened surveillance, continued commitment, and adequate resources for JE vaccination should help maintain progress toward prevention and control of JE.
  • #19 Japanese Encephalitis Surveillance and Immunization — Asia and Western Pacific Regions, 2016 | MMWR
    https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/66/wr/mm6622a3.htm
    Japanese encephalitis (JE) virus is a leading cause of encephalitis in Asia. The World Health Organization recommends integration of JE vaccination into national immunization schedules in all areas where the disease is a public health priority. […] A review of surveillance and immunization program data in the 24 countries with JE virus transmission risk found that in 2016, 22 countries conducted at least some surveillance for JE, and 12 had implemented a JE immunization program. This represents substantial progress in JE prevention and control measures, but challenges remain, including incomplete case reporting, misclassification of cases, lack of immunization program monitoring data, and inadequate monitoring of JE vaccination coverage following vaccine introduction. […] Strengthened surveillance, continued commitment, and adequate resources for JE vaccination should help maintain progress toward prevention and control of JE.
  • #20 Japanese Encephalitis Surveillance and Immunization — Asia and Western Pacific Regions, 2016 | MMWR
    http://med.iiab.me/modules/en-cdc/www.cdc.gov//mmwr//volumes/66/wr/mm6622a3.htm
    In 2016, 22 (92%) of 24 countries with JE virus transmission risk conducted JE surveillance, an increase from 18 (75%) countries in 2012, and 12 (50%) countries had a JE immunization program, compared with 11 (46%) countries in 2012. […] JE surveillance has been established or strengthened during the last 4 years in several countries; since 2012, national surveillance programs were established in Brunei, North Korea, and Timor Leste, and expanded in India and Nepal. […] Substantial progress has been made in establishing and strengthening JE immunization programs. […] Despite this progress, gaps and challenges remain, including incomplete case reporting and misclassification of cases. […] Vaccination is the most effective strategy to prevent and control JE, and immunization has been demonstrated to reduce the economic burden of JE disease. […] Strengthened surveillance, continued commitment, and adequate resources for JE vaccination should help maintain progress toward prevention and control of JE.
  • #20 Japanese Encephalitis Surveillance and Immunization — Asia and Western Pacific Regions, 2016 | MMWR
    http://med.iiab.me/modules/en-cdc/www.cdc.gov//mmwr//volumes/66/wr/mm6622a3.htm
    Japanese encephalitis (JE) virus is a leading cause of encephalitis in Asia. The World Health Organization recommends integration of JE vaccination into national immunization schedules in all areas where the disease is a public health priority. […] A review of surveillance and immunization program data in the 24 countries with JE virus transmission risk found that in 2016, 22 countries conducted at least some surveillance for JE, and 12 had implemented a JE immunization program. This represents substantial progress in JE prevention and control measures, but challenges remain, including incomplete case reporting, misclassification of cases, lack of immunization program monitoring data, and inadequate monitoring of JE vaccination coverage following vaccine introduction. […] Strengthened surveillance, continued commitment, and adequate resources for JE vaccination should help maintain progress toward prevention and control of JE.
  • #21 Japanese Encephalitis Virus Agent Information Sheet | Office of Research
    https://www.bu.edu/research/ethics-compliance/safety/rohp/agent-information-sheets/japanese-encephalitis-virus-agent-information-sheet/
    Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a single stranded, enveloped RNA virus which is about 40-50 nm in diameter, and belongs to the Flaviviridae family. […] JEV is transmitted as an enzootic cycle involving Culex mosquitoes that bite hosts. Risks are highest in rural and agricultural areas. In endemic areas, most over 15 years old have protected immunity from natural exposure to JEV. […] Japanese Encephalitis (JE) vaccine licensed for age 17 years, is 2 doses administered 28 days apart, and given at least 1 week prior to potential exposure. […] Diagnosis can be through culturing a clinical sample, antigen detection or serological enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).
  • #22 The Status of Surveillance of Japanese Encephalitis in Asia | Rho Chi Post
    https://rhochistj.org/RhoChiPost/status-surveillance-japanese-encephalitis-asia/
    One recent stride towards combating worldwide infectious disease has been in the improved surveillance of Japanese encephalitis in Asia, predominantly in South and South-East Asia. […] Out of the 24 countries at risk, 18 practice some form of surveillance. The extent of this surveillance, however, varies from being conducted at a national level in some countries to only in high-risk areas in others. […] The ramifications of this subpar surveillance are significant because even after immunization programs are implemented, undetected disease transmissions can occur. […] Consequently, the main concern for these nations according to the CDC is that further progress toward [Japanese encephalitis] control requires increased awareness of disease burden at the national and regional levels and international support for surveillance and vaccine introduction in countries with limited resources. […] Advances in surveillance, more efficient usage of data to aid in immunizations, and a more thorough understanding of this virus have definitely improved the prospects of preventing disease transmission, but there are many obstacles left.
  • #23 Our One Health approach to Japanese encephalitis – CSIRO
    https://www.csiro.au/en/research/animals/pests/mosquito-borne-diseases_japaneseencephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis (JE) virus is a potentially fatal disease that infects about 100,000 people worldwide every year. […] JE occurs throughout most of Asia and parts of the western Pacific, including neighbouring Papua New Guinea, and is the most common cause of human viral encephalitis in Southeast Asia. […] The Australian Government and some states and territories have established mosquito surveillance programs. These monitor relative abundances of a range of mosquito species at various sampling sites. […] Scientists at our Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness (ACDP) provide diagnostic testing services for this surveillance program and others, including the National Arbovirus Monitoring Program and the National Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies (TSE) Surveillance Program.
  • #24 Japanese Encephalitis Virus Surveillance in U.S. Army Installations in the Republic of Korea from 2021 to 2023
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/13/8/705
    Japanese encephalitis is a disease caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) and is a concern for U.S. military personnel stationed in the Republic of Korea (ROK). […] The goal of this surveillance was to shed light on the current knowledge of the epidemiology of JEV in the ROK by analyzing mosquito collection data from three consecutive years, 2021–2023, and molecularly detecting and genotyping JEV in all Culex spp. collected in several military locations across the ROK. […] Japanese encephalitis is considered a serious health threat to U.S. military personnel stationed in the Republic of Korea (ROK), and vaccination against JEV is a requirement for all active-duty personnel spending more than 30 days in the ROK. […] The U.S. military routinely conducts mosquito surveillance in the ROK to understand the risk of mosquito-borne pathogens and guide mosquito control efforts as installations and training sites are located around areas where mosquito populations are abundant.
  • #24 Japanese Encephalitis Virus Surveillance in U.S. Army Installations in the Republic of Korea from 2021 to 2023
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/13/8/705
    In light of the aforementioned information, there is a need to better understand the current epidemiology of JEV in the ROK, with the goal of informing and improving prevention and control strategies. […] This study reinforces the importance of surveillance and suggests that different JEV genotypes might be preferentially transmitted by different local vectors. […] We present supporting evidence of a JEV genotype shift from GI to GV; thus, it is crucial to better understand GV transmission and epidemiology within the ROK to further develop effective prevention and control plans to protect civilians and military personnel from the disease.
  • #25 Mosquito surveillance on U.S military installations as part of a Japanese encephalitis virus detection program: 2016 to 2021 | PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
    https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0011422
    Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) continues to circulate throughout Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific where approximately 3 billion people in 24 countries are at risk of infection. […] Surveillance targeting the mosquito vectors of JEV was conducted at four military installations on Okinawa, Japan, between 2016 and 2021. […] JEV appears to be absent from mosquito populations on Okinawa, but further research on domestic pigs and ardeid birds is warranted. […] Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a vector borne disease of significant public health importance for over one third of the earths population. […] Since 2015, Japanese encephalitis vaccine became mandatory for United States military personnel assigned to Japan or South Korea. […] In an effort to evaluate the risk of JE infection to service members stationed on Okinawa, mosquito surveillance was conducted at four military installations between 2016 and 2021.
  • #25 Mosquito surveillance on U.S military installations as part of a Japanese encephalitis virus detection program: 2016 to 2021 | PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases
    https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0011422
    Over ten thousand mosquitoes were collected, identified to species, and subjected to PCR testing. None of these samples were positive for Japanese encephalitis virus, but further research is still necessary. […] The stark absence of Japanese encephalitis virus from adult mosquitoes in Okinawa is likely due to many factors. […] Changes in agricultural practices have greatly diminished the number of rice paddies on island, a preferred breeding environment for Cx. tritaeniyorhynchus. […] Currently, vaccination coverage is high in Japan. […] Our study had several limitations. […] In conclusion, we did not detect JEV in any of the mosquitoes we collected between 2016 and 2021.
  • #26 Mosquito surveillance on U.S military installations as part of a Japanese encephalitis virus detection program: 2016 to 2021 | medRxiv
    https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2023.06.07.23290771v1
    Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) continues to circulate throughout Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific where approximately 3 billion people in 24 countries are at risk of infection. Surveillance targeting the mosquito vectors of JEV was conducted at four military installations on Okinawa, Japan, between 2016 and 2021. Out of a total of 10,426 mosquitoes from 20 different species, zero were positive for JEV. […] Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a vector borne disease of significant public health importance for over one third of the earths population. […] In an effort to evaluate the risk of JE infection to service members stationed on Okinawa, mosquito surveillance was conducted at four military installations between 2016 and 2021. Over ten thousand mosquitoes were collected, identified to species, and subjected to PCR testing. None of these samples were positive for Japanese encephalitis virus, but further research is still necessary.
  • #27 Japanese Encephalitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470423/
    Japanese encephalitis is the most common preventable cause of mosquito-borne encephalitis in Asia, Australia, and the western Pacific. […] There are between 30,000 and 50,000 global cases of Japanese encephalitis each year. Severe disease is estimated to occur in about one in 250 infections. […] Twenty-four countries in South-East Asia and the Western Pacific have endemic Japanese encephalitis virus transmission placing more than three billion people at risk for infection. Major outbreaks occur every 2 to 15 years. […] The introduction of routine childhood vaccination programs in Japan, Korea, and Taiwan has nearly eliminated the risk in vaccinated patients despite ongoing infection in endemic animals and birds. Most cases in these areas are now reported in unvaccinated visitors.
  • #28
    https://journals.lww.com/ijph/fulltext/2023/67020/outbreaks_and_sporadic_cases_of_japanese.26.aspx
    In most outbreaks, children were seen to be largely affected. An outbreak in India (2005) reported 1700 deaths mostly involving children and other reports too indicated a larger burden of JE among children in developing countries. […] As a response to the laboratory confirmation of JE as the etiology of AES outbreaks and public concerns over the fatal illness, JEV vaccination was implemented from 2017 in endemic districts of Odisha. In the postvaccination period (2017-2018), there was no record of JE outbreak. Improved hospital-based surveillance detected many sporadic AES cases (n = 2364) but with low JEV contribution (n = 231, 9.77%). […] This report confirmed JEV as a major contributor toward acute encephalitis outbreaks and sporadic hospital admissions in Odisha, India. The challenges in public health diagnosis and management were evident in form of larger affection of the tribal population residing in outreach pockets and gives a message for continuing preparedness to deal with such emerging situations.
  • #29 Japanese encephalitis | Better Health Channel
    https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/japanese-encephalitis
    Human cases of Japanese encephalitis virus infection have been reported in Victoria, New South Wales, and South Australia. […] The most effective way to prevent Japanese encephalitis and other mosquito-borne diseases is by avoiding mosquito bites and removing mosquito breeding sites around your home and property. […] A vaccine is available to protect against Japanese encephalitis. In Victoria, Japanese encephalitis vaccine is free-of-charge for eligible individuals, including those not eligible for Medicare. […] Supply of Japanese encephalitis vaccine continues to be limited in Australia. […] Japanese encephalitis vaccine booster doses are recommended for some people one to 2 years after their primary course if they remain eligible in Victoria. […] There is no specific treatment available for Japanese encephalitis. For people with symptoms, treatment aims to reduce the severity of the symptoms and may include medication and hospitalisation.
  • #30 The changing epidemiology of Japanese encephalitis and New data: the implications for New recommendations for Japanese encephalitis vaccine | Tropical Diseases, Travel Medicine and Vaccines | Full Text
    https://tdtmvjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40794-017-0057-x
    The epidemiology of Japanese Encephalitis and risk to the traveler has changed and continues to evolve. […] The spread of Japanese Encephalitis virus into new environments, changes in agricultural practice and animal vectors, climate change, peri-urban growth, changes in international travel to Asia, personal risk factors, mosquito vector free transmission, interactions with other flaviviruses and better information on infections without encephalitis and other factors make Japanese Encephalitis an underappreciated risk. […] There has also been a change in the incidence of Japanese Encephalitis cases that questions the current travel duration and geographic based recommendations. […] The epidemiology of JE and risk to the traveler has changed and continues to evolve. […] These changes in the epidemiology and new data on the risks of the JEV require a review of the practice guidelines and expert recommendations which currently do not reflect the current state of knowledge.
  • #30 The changing epidemiology of Japanese encephalitis and New data: the implications for New recommendations for Japanese encephalitis vaccine | Tropical Diseases, Travel Medicine and Vaccines | Full Text
    https://tdtmvjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40794-017-0057-x
    A significant change in the global risk of JE has been a major geographic expansion in Asia. […] The transmission of JE is dependent on the transmission to humans by mosquitoes and the amplification in pigs and birds. […] The increased risk of suburban or peri-urban areas has been documented in multiple Asian countries (South Korea, China, Singapore, Taiwan). […] The current recommendations need revision for travelers and long-term residents or assignees. […] The current recommendations also include a number of groups for consideration of vaccination. […] Updated clean and concise ACIP recommendations for JE vaccine are needed to reflect current and changing at risk areas and address the needs for all travelers through a provider-patient discussion. […] The findings suggest that the risk of contracting the virus are growing and are underappreciated.
  • #31 Japanese encephalitis – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/japanese-encephalitis
    Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), a mosquito-borne flavivirus, is the most important cause of viral encephalitis in Asia based on its frequency and severity. Despite vaccination programs in many countries in Asia, JEV continues to cause substantial numbers of cases of childhood viral neurological infection and disability. About 68,000 cases of Japanese encephalitis (JE) are estimated to occur each year. JEV is endemic throughout most of Asia and parts of the western Pacific. For travelers to Asia, the risk of JE is very low but varies based on season, destination, duration, and activities. The estimated incidence of JE among travelers to Asia from nonendemic countries is <1 case per 1 million travelers. Risk is likely to be higher for individuals with longer duration of travel or whose plans include extensive outdoor activities in rural areas. Between 1973 and 2020, 88 cases of JE among individuals from nonendemic countries were reported. Since a JE vaccine became available in the United States in 1993, only 15 cases of JE were reported among United States travelers through 2023. JE is endemic throughout most of Asia and parts of the Western Pacific region. The JEV transmission area has expanded with emergence of JE in new areas of Australia. During 2021 to 2022, an outbreak was reported that was focused in rural areas surrounding the Murray River in southeastern Australia, but cases were reported from widespread areas of the country.
  • #32 Japanese encephalitis clinical update: Changing diseases under a changing climate
    https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2023/may/japanese-encephalitis-clinical-update
    The outbreak in Australia was preceded by several months of heavy rainfall associated with La Nia, which led to the formation of inland wetlands, the migration of wading birds to southern regions and the proliferation of mosquitoes. […] Extensive research has linked the distribution of arboviruses with temperature and rainfall, and has highlighted the risk of expansion into new areas, with immunologically nave populations, as a result of climate change. […] In Australia, recommendation for routine vaccination was previously limited to laboratory workers who may be exposed to JEV, travellers spending 1 month in endemic areas and individuals who live or work in the Torres Strait. […] Following the 2022 outbreak, vaccination has also been prioritised for travellers spending 1 month in endemic areas undertaking activities with increased risk of mosquito exposure, individuals with direct exposure or in close proximity to pigs and mosquitoes, those with high-level occupational exposures, as well as specified priority groups identified by state and territory health authorities. […] Although local environmental factors remain important, the advent of a widespread JE outbreak in Australia is a clear example of the potential for climate change to disrupt the epidemiology of vector-borne diseases.
  • #33 The Ecology and Evolution of Japanese Encephalitis Virus
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/10/12/1534
    Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus mainly spread by Culex mosquitoes that currently has a geographic distribution across most of Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific. […] Safe and effective JEV vaccines are available, but unfortunately, their use remains low in most endemic countries where they are most needed. Increased surveillance and diagnosis of JE is required as climate change and social disruption are likely to facilitate further geographical expansion of Culex vectors and JE risk areas. […] The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates global JE cases at 68,000 people annually. However, these figures are widely regarded as an underestimate, with actual disease burden probably closer to 175,000 cases annually. […] Despite the high JE disease burden, surveillance is still lacking throughout most of Southeast Asia. Many countries lack the diagnostic capabilities to confirm JEV infection, and JE is often misdiagnosed based on symptoms similar to other viral infections. Thus, the status of JEV in the Asia-Pacific region is hard to assess. […] Increased surveillance and reporting of JEV infection need to be undertaken to realise the true burden of JE.
  • #34 Japanese Encephalitis – Taiwan Centers for Disease Control
    https://www.cdc.gov.tw/En/Category/ListContent/bg0g_VU_Ysrgkes_KRUDgQ?uaid=FCBms2B8k0PJx4io35AsOw
    Japanese encephalitis (JE) is the most important cause of viral encephalitis in Asia. It is a mosquito-borne disease. The first case of JE was documented in 1871 in Japan. […] JE is transmitted to humans through bites from infected mosquitoes of the Culex species, mainly Culex tritaeniorhynchus in Taiwan. The incubation period for JE is 5-15 days. […] Japanese Encephalitis Virus (JEV) is transmitted mainly during the warm season. In the tropics and subtropics, transmission can occur year-round but often intensifies during the rainy season and pre-harvest period in rice-cultivating regions. In Taiwan, epidemics can occur from May to October, and intensify in June and July. Since the national vaccination program was implementing in 1968, there are now around 20 to 30 sporadic JE cases annually in Taiwan. […] Japanese Encephalitis Surveillance in Taiwan includes the Taiwan National Infectious Disease Statistics System and self-reporting through the toll-free 1922 hotline or local public health authority.