Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Pathophysiology of valvular heart disease

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4812598/

  Valvular heart disease (VHD) is caused by either damage or defect in one of the four heart valves, aortic, mitral, tricuspid or pulmonary. […] The pathogenesis of congenital and acquired CAVD is likely due to the interplay of genetic and environmental influences, even though the precise mechanisms are not known. […] Changes in the functionality and localization of matrix components potentially lead to VHD, since the proper organization of extracellular matrix (ECM) is essential in maintaining overall valve morphology and normal valve function. […] Genetic or acquired/environmental causes that disrupt the normal organization and composition of the ECM and communication between VECs and VICs alter valve mechanics and interfere with the valve leaflet function, culminating in heart failure.

• #2 Pathophysiology of valvular heart disease (Review)

  https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/etm.2016.3048

  Valvular heart disease (VHD) is caused by either damage or defect in one of the four heart valves, aortic, mitral, tricuspid or pulmonary. […] The pathogenesis of congenital and acquired CAVD is likely due to the interplay of genetic and environmental influences, even though the precise mechanisms are not known. […] Changes in the functionality and localization of matrix components potentially lead to VHD, since the proper organization of extracellular matrix (ECM) is essential in maintaining overall valve morphology and normal valve function. […] Genetic or acquired/environmental causes that disrupt the normal organization and composition of the ECM and communication between VECs and VICs alter valve mechanics and interfere with the valve leaflet function, culminating in heart failure.

• #3 Mechanisms of heart valve development and disease

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7338271/

  The valves of the heart are crucial for ensuring that blood flows in one direction from the heart, through the lungs and back to the rest of the body. […] Heart valve disease is an increasing health-care burden, with an overall incidence of 2.5% in the USA and an incidence of over 10% in individuals older than 65 years of age in the USA and Europe. […] Understanding valve development has important implications for identifying the mechanisms that underlie heart valve disease and for developing new therapeutic approaches to treat it. […] There is increasing evidence linking congenitally malformed valves and/or the reactivation of developmental pathways with acquired valve disease. […] There are many different valve diseases but the most common include bicuspid aortic valve (BAV), calcific aortic valve disease (CAVD) and myxomatous mitral valve disease (MMVD).

• #4 Valvular heart disease: Types and presentation | Kenhub

  https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/valvular-heart-disease

  Valvular heart disease is associated with high morbidity and mortality across the world. […] It may be the result of an underlying cardiac disorder (e.g. valvular incompetence secondary to hypertensive heart disease) or it may be the primary site of a pathological series of events (e.g. stenotic valves in rheumatic heart disease). […] The discussions will focus on the pathogenesis and pathophysiology underlying the disorders. […] The development of the heart valves is dependent on the formation and maturation of the endocardial cushions. […] Unfortunately, the process of genetic replication is susceptible to error either randomly or as a result of interference from external factors (i.e. teratogens). […] The pathogenesis is such that there is an unequal division of the atrioventricular canal where the left atrioventricular valve is significantly larger than the right atrioventricular valve.

• #5 Biology and Biomechanics of the Heart Valve Extracellular Matrix

  https://www.mdpi.com/2308-3425/7/4/57

  Homeostasis of the valve ECM is regulated by a heterogeneous population of VICs that, in healthy adults, are phenotypically similar to fibroblasts and mediate physiological ECM remodeling within the leaflet/cusp in response to the normal ‘wear and tear’ with aging. […] Therefore, the VIC population plays a critical role in preserving the architecture of the valve for functional biomechanics. […] In addition to the VICs, the valve leaflet or cusp is encapsulated by a single cell layer of VECs that primarily form a tight and functional barrier between the blood and the inner valve tissue, thereby, protecting it against the physical and mechanical stress of the hemodynamic environment, and preventing excess infiltration of circulating risk factors and inflammatory cells. […] Therefore, this review aims to highlight the critical role of the ECM in establishing and maintaining the “lub-dub” during the cardiac cycle by highlighting the predominant compositions, their organization, and function in health and valve pathology.

• #6 Pathophysiology of valvular heart disease

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4812598/

  The histopathologic heterogeneity of CAVD indicates the involvement of diverse cell-dependent mechanisms that regulate calcium load on the valve leaflets, as well as the participation of different cell types, including interstitial cells, endothelial cells and cardiac chondrocytes, in valve biomineralization. […] During the pathogenesis of CAVD, one of the earliest events following endothelial cell dysfunction is the accumulation of lipids and subendothelial matrix at the ventricular surface of the valve with downward displacement of the subjacent elastic lamina while plaque-like subendothelial deposits occur on the aortic surface of the valve. […] Inflammation is known to play a significant role in many types of macrovascular calcification, including CAVD. […] A number of the inflammation-associated factors, including tumor necrosis factor, interleukin 1-, advanced glycosylation-end products, and oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) cholesterol, activate vascular biomineralization and vascular osteogenic signaling processes.

• #7 Heart valve disease module 2: pathophysiology – The British Journal of Cardiology

  https://bjcardio.co.uk/2016/03/heart-valve-disease-module-2-pathophysiology-2/

  The purpose of this module is to review some of the major pathophysiological mechanisms that underlie heart valve disease. […] This common condition is now recognised to be an active, highly-regulated inflammatory condition with common risk factors and similar pathological characteristics to atherosclerosis. […] Mechanical stress is believed to act as the initiating trigger. This causes damage to the endothelium on the aortic aspect of the valve, facilitating the infiltration of inflammatory cells and lipid. This is believed to be a two stage process, with an initiation phase resulting from endothelial injury and inflammatory cell infiltration and a propagation phase resulting in progressive calcification.

• #8 Reactivation of Developmental Biology in Adult Valve Disease – BUTCHER LAB

  https://www.butcherlab.com/research/developmental-biology-avd/

  We identified that mechanical stress is required for osteogenic differentiation and matrix calcification in 3D cultured VIC, but is inhibited by co-culture with VEC. […] Diseased VEC (via inflammation and/or oxidative stress) produce less NO, which when combined with inflammatory stimulus results in osteogenic differentiation of VIC and the deposition of calcified matrix. […] Calcific lesions in the valve contain hydroxyapatite, a mineral found in bone but in valves has distinctly different crystal structure. […] We are testing how HA presence and crystallinity independently affect VEC-VIC interactions towards CAVD. […] We discovered that anisotropic strain is a potent driver of cellular reorganization and matrix remodeling. Furthermore, anisotropic strain can uniquely activate signaling activity and affect cell phenotype based on their orientation to the strain field. […] We also elucidate the mechanotransduction pathways involved, which will open a new path for treating valve disease through restoration of cellular mechanosensitivity.

• #9 Pathophysiology of valvular heart disease (Review)

  https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/etm.2016.3048

  The histopathologic heterogeneity of CAVD indicates the involvement of diverse cell-dependent mechanisms that regulate calcium load on the valve leaflets, as well as the participation of different cell types, including interstitial cells, endothelial cells and cardiac chondrocytes, in valve biomineralization. […] Inflammation is known to play a significant role in many types of macrovascular calcification, including CAVD. […] A number of the inflammation-associated factors, including tumor necrosis factor, interleukin 1-, advanced glycosylation-end products, and oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) cholesterol, activate vascular biomineralization and vascular osteogenic signaling processes. […] Advances in genomic technologies have led to the identification of several genes that contribute to the normal development and function of the four heart valves and to the identification of many genetic abnormalities in some of these genes in congenital form of CAVD. […] The most common congenital valve anomalies are bicuspid aortic valve (BAV) and mitral valve prolapse (MVP). […] Despite the many advances, there is still a lack of pharmacological treatments for the valve diseases and the most widely accepted approach is surgery.

• #10 What Is the Pathophysiology and Underlying Mechanism of Rheumatic Heart Valve Disease?

  https://www.icliniq.com/articles/heart-circulatory-health/decoding-the-pathophysiology-of-rheumatic-heart-valve-disease

  The immune response in RHVD involves activating various immune system components, including T cells, B cells, and macrophages. […] The immune system activation in RHVD is a double-edged sword. While the immune response is essential for clearing the streptococcal infection, the subsequent autoimmune response against heart valve tissue leads to progressive damage and dysfunction. […] Understanding the immune system activation in RHVD opens up avenues for therapeutic interventions. […] The autoimmune-mediated valve damage is a crucial component of the pathophysiology of RHVD, leading to progressive deterioration of valve structure and function. […] Once the immune system is activated in response to group A streptococcal infection, autoimmunity occurs due to molecular mimicry, wherein the antibodies produced against the bacteria cross-react with self-antigens present on the surface of heart valves.

• #11 Etiology of Valvular Heart Disease

  https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/circj/78/8/78_CJ-14-0510/_html/-char/en

  CAVD is associated with endothelial dysfunction, lipid accumulation and inflammatory cell infiltration. […] Environmental factors are thought to increase the risk for development of CAVD by a process initiated by endothelial cell dysfunction that results in activation of VICs leading to the expression of bone development genes, including Runx2, Osteopontin and Osteocalcin, as found in calcified human aortic valves. […] The significance of this in disease initiation and progression remains unclear and is an active area of investigation.

• #12 Calcific aortic valve disease: mechanisms, prevention and treatment | Nature Reviews Cardiology

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41569-023-00845-7

  Calcific aortic valve disease (CAVD) is the most common disorder affecting heart valves and is characterized by thickening, fibrosis and mineralization of the aortic valve leaflets. […] Analyses of surgically explanted aortic valve leaflets have shown that dystrophic mineralization and osteogenic transition of valve interstitial cells co-occur with neovascularization, microhaemorrhage and abnormal production of extracellular matrix. […] Genetic and molecular studies have identified that the NOTCH, WNT-catenin and myocardin signalling pathways are involved in the control and commitment of valvular cells to a fibrocalcific lineage. […] Complex interactions between valve endothelial and interstitial cells and immune cells promote the remodelling of aortic valve leaflets and the development of CAVD.

• #13 Calcified aortic valve disease complicated with and without diabetes mellitus: the underlying pathogenesis

  https://www.imrpress.com/journal/RCM/23/1/10.31083/j.rcm2301007

  As the most prevalent valvular heart disease, calcific aortic valve disease (CAVD) is a major health problem with risk of severe morbidity and mortality in the absence of effective medical treatment beyond surgical or interventional aortic valve replacement. The pathology involved in CAVD is multifactorial, including valvular endothelial cells damage, valvular interstitial cells differentiation, extracellular matrix remodeling, inflammation, fibrosis and calcification. […] Recently, diabetes mellitus has also been shown to accelerate the progression of CAVD. CAVD patients complicated with diabetes mellitus may benefit from early aortic valve replacement when compared with those without diabetes mellitus. Hence, diabetes mellitus is considered as an independent risk factor for CAVD. Therefore, in-depth understanding of the pathogenesis of these two diseases and their relationship may help us find appropriate prevention and therapeutic strategies for CAVD patients complicated with diabetes mellitus.

• #14 Pathophysiology of valvular heart disease

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4812598/

  Advances in genomic technologies have led to the identification of several genes that contribute to the normal development and function of the four heart valves and to the identification of many genetic abnormalities in some of these genes in congenital form of CAVD. […] Despite the many advances, there is still a lack of pharmacological treatments for the valve diseases and the most widely accepted approach is surgery.

• #15 Calcific aortic valve disease: mechanisms, prevention and treatment | Nature Reviews Cardiology

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41569-023-00845-7

  Genetic studies are revealing the polygenic architecture of CAVD, and the risk loci identified so far have emphasized the importance of lipids and cell signalling related to fibrosis, mineralization and inflammation in its pathogenesis. […] Evidence suggests that decreasing the plasma levels of lipids such as lipoprotein(a) might be most effective for preventing the onset of aortic valve mineralization.

• #16

  https://www.cnic.es/en/noticias/circulation-research-cnic-researchers-identify-new-signaling-mechanism-implicated

  These genes form part of a signaling mechanism that is possibly altered in patients with a bicuspid aortic valve (BAV), a prevalent condition that compromises cardiovascular health […] Researchers at the Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares Carlos III (CNIC) have demonstrated the crucial role of the NOTCH signaling pathway in the development of a fundamental heart structure, the heart valves. […] The research team has demonstrated the essential role of genes encoding components of the NOTCH signaling pathway in the development of the heart valves […] Using genetically modified mouse strains, the research team showed that the NOTCH signaling pathway plays an essential role throughout the process of heart valve formation. […] The study identifies a new NOTCH-regulated molecular mechanism that controls proliferation during late valve development.

• #17

  https://www.cnic.es/en/noticias/circulation-research-cnic-researchers-identify-new-signaling-mechanism-implicated

  The resulting excessive growth results in the fusion of the original 3 valves into 2, producing a bicuspid aortic valve instead of the normal tricuspid valve. […] The research findings could have important clinical implications in relation to both early genetic diagnosis and the classification of patients with heart valve malformations, and could contribute to the eventual development of therapies aimed at controlling excessive valve growth.

• #18 Mechanisms of heart valve development and disease

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7338271/

  BAV is defined by an aortic valve consisting of two leaflets instead of the normal three and has an incidence of at least 1% of all live births. […] CAVD is a progressive disease that involves the mineralization of valve leaflets leading to aortic valve stenosis, which often necessitates surgical valve repair and/or replacement, with age being the main risk factor. […] MMVD can be the result of genetic mutations, aberrant mechanical forces due to structural defects, the reactivation of developmental pathways, or a combination thereof. […] These studies highlight the connections between valve development, valve disease and mechanical forces.

• #19 CV Physiology | Valvular Stenosis

  https://cvphysiology.com/heart-disease/hd004

  Stenosis of atrioventricular valves (tricuspid, mitral) or outflow tract valves (pulmonic, aortic) leads to an elevated pressure gradient across the valve as blood is flowing through the valve opening. This increased pressure gradient results from an increase in the pressure proximal to the valve and a small fall in pressure distal to the valve. […] Mitral valve stenosis results from a narrowing of the opened mitral valve orifice so that it is more difficult for blood to flow from the left atrium (LA) into the left ventricle (LV) during ventricular diastole. The high resistance across the stenotic mitral valve causes blood to back up into the left atrium, increasing LA pressure, which in this example is 25 mmHg (normally ~10 mmHg). This results in the LA pressure being much greater than the LV pressure during diastolic filling.

• #20 CV Physiology | Valvular Stenosis

  https://cvphysiology.com/heart-disease/hd004

  The left atrium enlarges (hypertrophies) over time because it has to generate higher than normal pressures when it contracts against the high resistance of the stenotic valve. […] The increase in LA pressure can cause pulmonary congestion and edema because of increased pulmonary capillary hydrostatic pressure. […] Aortic valve stenosis is characterized by the left ventricular pressure being much greater than aortic pressure during left ventricular (LV) ejection. The elevated pressure gradient across the stenotic valve results from both increased resistance (related to narrowing of the valve opening) and turbulence distal to the valve. Increased flow across the valve enhances the magnitude of the pressure gradient (e.g., during exercise). […] Because the ventricle is required to generate greater pressures, this leads to ventricular hypertrophy (thickening of the muscular walls) and diastolic dysfunction (impaired filling). Hypertrophied ventricles are less compliant and therefore have a higher filling pressure at a given end-diastolic volume. Elevated left ventricular end-diastolic pressure causes blood to back up into the left atrium and pulmonary veins, which increases left atrial pressure (and pulmonary capillary wedge pressure). […] A pressure gradient occurs across the pulmonic valve during right ventricular ejection.

• #21 Heart Valve Disease: Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17639-what-you-need-to-know-heart-valve-disease

  Also known as insufficiency or „leaky valve,” this happens when your leaflets dont close completely. This lets blood leak backward across your valve. Your heart has to pump harder to make up for this backward flow, and the rest of your body may get less blood flow. […] Your mitral valve may not close tightly because the leaflets are extra stretchy. They go back into your left atrium when your heart beats. This is usually harmless, but can lead to regurgitation in some people. […] Valvular atresia happens when a heart valve forms without an opening before birth. Healthcare providers usually diagnose this very early in infancy. […] Common heart valve disease causes include: Rheumatic fever from strep throat that wasnt treated, Heart attack that damages your heart, High blood pressure (advanced), A congenital (present at birth) issue, like a pulmonary or aortic valve that didnt develop right, Decline or calcification of the valve tissue, with loss of function over time, Thoracic aortic aneurysm (widening of your aorta, which stretches the aortic valve leaflets and can cause leakage), Heart failure, Infection in your heart (infective endocarditis), Lupus, Marfan syndrome.

• #22 Blood Leakage May Occur With Mitral Valve Prolapse – Ask the Doctors | UExpress

  https://www.uexpress.com/health/ask-the-doctors/2025/05/07

  Mitral valve prolapse is a condition that interferes with the one-way flow of blood through two of the four chambers of the heart. […] When someone has mitral valve prolapse, it means there is a malfunction in a pair of structures in the valve known as leaflets. These are flaps of strong tissue that keep blood pumped into the left ventricle from returning to the left atrium. Rather than forming a tight seal, one or both of the leaflets collapse back into the left atrium, which can allow a small amount of blood to return to the upper chamber. When this happens, not enough blood exits the left ventricle and flows into the aorta. It can leave the tissues of the body short of the oxygen and nutrients they need at that moment, and cause an array of symptoms, including the lightheadedness you experienced.

• #23 Blood Leakage May Occur With Mitral Valve Prolapse – Ask the Doctors | UExpress

  https://www.uexpress.com/health/ask-the-doctors/2025/05/07

  The good news is that mitral valve prolapse does not always require treatment. However, when the prolapse is severe, the resulting leakage can lead to the enlargement of the upper left chamber of the heart. This, in turn, can trigger heart arrhythmias, including atrial fibrillation, and increase the risk of having a heart attack of a stroke.

• #24 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/Rheumatic-heart-disease-pathophysiology.aspx

  Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) is a chronic and progressive form of damage to the heart valves resulting in dysfunction of the heart. It is a complication of an autoimmune disorder called acute rheumatic fever (ARF), which is in turn precipitated by group A streptococcal infections of the throat. […] The basic mechanism of RHD is called T-cell molecular mimicry. This means that antigens on group A streptococci stimulate the activation of CD4+ T cells which then cross-react with similar peptides in the heart tissue. […] The overexpression of VCAM-1 molecules causes CD4+ cells to stick to and burrow into the valve endothelium, activating a cellular immune response in the valve. This produces an inflammation of the valve tissue with the growth of new blood vessels. […] While this is the accepted mechanism of RHD, newer research is focusing on the endothelium covering the heart valves as the target of immunologic damage in this condition.

• #25 Valvular heart disease – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valvular_heart_disease

  Aortic stenosis is characterized by a thickening of the valvular annulus or leaflets that limits the ability of blood to be ejected from the left ventricle into the aorta. Stenosis is typically the result of valvular calcification but may be the result of a congenitally malformed bicuspid aortic valve. […] Aortic insufficiency, or regurgitation, is characterized by an inability of the valve leaflets to appropriately close at the end systole, thus allowing blood to flow inappropriately backward into the left ventricle. […] Mitral stenosis is caused largely by rheumatic heart disease, though is rarely the result of calcification. […] Mitral insufficiency can be caused by dilation of the left heart, often a consequence of heart failure. […] Inflammation of the heart valves due to any cause is called valvular endocarditis; this is usually due to bacterial infection but may also be due to cancer (marantic endocarditis), certain autoimmune conditions (Libman-Sacks endocarditis, seen in systemic lupus erythematosus) and hypereosinophilic syndrome (Loeffler endocarditis). Endocarditis of the valves can lead to regurgitation through that valve, which is seen in the tricuspid, mitral, and aortic valves.

• #26 Valvular Disease – Cardiovascular Pathophysiology for Pre-Clinical Students

  https://pressbooks.lib.vt.edu/cardiovascularpathophysiology/chapter/chapter-4-valvular-disease/

  Infective endocarditis (IE) is divided into acute and subacute forms, depending on the virulence of the causal pathogen. Acute IE is rapid in onset and involves highly destructive pathogens that cause necrosis and significant lesions that can lead to death in a matter of days. Subacute IE, alternatively, can deform the valves over weeks to months and generally involves a much less destructive pathogen. […] The infection leads to vegetations on the valve that are the hallmark of IE. These lesions contain fibrin, inflammatory cells, and bacteria. […] The risk is twofold as the vegetations can disrupt valve function and form abscesses into the underlying myocardium, and embolize and carry the pathogens to a new septic infarcts or obstruct vasculature. […] Carcinoid heart disease is the cardiac manifestation of carcinoid syndrome. Carcinoid tumors are neuroendocrine tumors that usually arise in the gastrointestinal tract or lungs, and they secrete a number of mediators that can give rise to carcinoid heart disease. The liver normally metabolizes these circulating mediators, but when the metastatic burden overwhelms hepatic clearance, the right heart is exposed to their effects.

• #27 Novel Nitric Oxide-Mediated Mechanism Facilitates Calcific Aortic Valve Disease – Pediatrics Nationwide

  https://pediatricsnationwide.org/2021/03/02/novel-nitric-oxide-mediated-mechanism-facilitates-calcific-aortic-valve-disease/

  The novel pathway could be targeted to prevent or reverse aortic valve calcification in humans. […] Researchers have recently described a novel nitric oxide-mediated mechanism in calcific aortic valve disease that involves the ubiqutin-proteasome pathway, and its modulation in animal models was shown to cause aortic valve calcification. […] The proposed mechanisms are initiated by injury of the endothelial cells lining the aortic valve leaflets that ultimately drives a gene expression program within the valve cells leading to calcification, says Dr. Garg. […] Current evidence in the field demonstrates that nitric oxide prevents calcification through the cyclic GMP pathway. Our data demonstrates that the activation of NOTCH1 signaling pathway is functioning through this post-translational mechanism, explains Dr. Garg.

• #28 Novel Nitric Oxide-Mediated Mechanism Facilitates Calcific Aortic Valve Disease – Pediatrics Nationwide

  https://pediatricsnationwide.org/2021/03/02/novel-nitric-oxide-mediated-mechanism-facilitates-calcific-aortic-valve-disease/

  This is the first time the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway has been linked to calcific aortic valve disease. Importantly, this pathway is targetable; studies of cancer patients are already testing drug targets in this pathway, which with further investigation may ultimately be applicable in calcific aortic valve disease, says Dr. Majumdar.

• #29 Reactivation of Developmental Biology in Adult Valve Disease – BUTCHER LAB

  https://www.butcherlab.com/research/developmental-biology-avd/

  The only treatment for heart valve disease is prosthetic valve replacement. There remain no clinically useful biologically based diagnostics specific to valve disease or biologically based therapies. This is largely due to the limited understanding of how the resident endothelial and interstitial cells of the valve work together to appropriately maintain function. […] Inflammatory activation of VEC is present at the earliest stages of valve disease, but the pathological consequences of this are not known. […] During disease pathogenesis, these same molecules and cellular decisions are markedly reactivated, but this time instead of restoring tissue health promote pathogenic remodeling towards fibrosis and calcification. […] We have discovered that transformed endothelium is a uniquely calcifying progenitor.

• #30 Models for calcific aortic valve disease in vivo and in vitro | Cell Regeneration | Full Text

  https://cellregeneration.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s13619-024-00189-8

  Understanding VICs’ intricate differentiation between myofibroblast and osteoblast pathways is crucial in modeling calcific aortic valve disease. […] Recent studies have shown that the pathological changes of CAVD are similar to atherosclerosis in the early stage, and may be similar to bone formation in the late stage. […] Animal models, aside from defined traits obtained from clinical patients with CAVD, are the most commonly used method for understanding its pathological processes. […] Diet-induced animal models are vital in understanding CAVD pathogenesis. […] Genetically modified animal models serve as crucial tools to replicate human disease traits, aiding the study of underlying mechanisms and therapeutic avenues. […] Mechanical injury models involve applying stress or damage to valve leaflets, initiating an inflammatory response and pathological tissue remodeling leading to CAVD.

• #31 Models for calcific aortic valve disease in vivo and in vitro | Cell Regeneration | Full Text

  https://cellregeneration.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s13619-024-00189-8

  In vitro models, utilizing valve interstitial cells (VICs), have provided valuable insights into CAVD pathogenesis by examining the effects of various stimuli, such as chemical factors, shear stress, and cyclic strain. […] 3D culture systems, including bioreactors, microfluidic systems, and hydrogel hybrid systems, have emerged as promising advancements in CAVD in vitro disease modeling. […] Despite the shortcomings of various models, the intersection of disciplines and the emergence of new technologies hold immense potential to further refine CAVD models.

• #32 Heart Valve Disease: Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17639-what-you-need-to-know-heart-valve-disease

  Heart valve disease treatments depend on the cause and may include: Protecting your valve from further damage, Taking medications, Having surgery or invasive procedures if necessary, Seeing your cardiologist (heart doctor) for regular visits. […] Heart valve disease is a problem with the opening or closing of your leaflets, and you may need surgery to repair or replace your valve. Some infants who have congenital (present at birth) valve issues need surgery during childhood. […] Heart valve repair allows your surgeon to fix your faulty valve, often without the use of artificial parts. In some cases, like a narrow mitral valve, your provider may use a balloon on a catheter (valvuloplasty) to widen your valve. They may perform an annuloplasty to fix or reinforce the ring around your valve so it closes better.

• #33 Heart Valve Disease: Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17639-what-you-need-to-know-heart-valve-disease

  Replacing your heart valve involves removing your old valve and sewing a new valve to the ring-shaped part of your old one. The new valve could be mechanical or biological (made with tissue from a human, cow or pig). These replacement valves can provide function when repair cant. But depending on the type of valve you get, you may have to take certain medications to prevent blood clots or get a new valve again in 10 or 15 years.

• #34 A new transcatheter heart valve concept | Mechanical Engineering – UCL – University College London

  https://www.ucl.ac.uk/mechanical-engineering/case-studies/2022/oct/new-transcatheter-heart-valve-concept

  Open heart surgical replacement of the aortic valve was previously an effective option for treating patients with heart valve disease. However, demographic changes mean that this surgery is not usually the best option anymore. The most relevant heart valve disease has now become aortic valve calcification, which is a mostly the age related stiffening of the valve leaflets, affecting more than 10% of people aged over 75. […] One of the key improvements in the device that Professor Burriesci has designed is that it is fully retrievable and repositionable in case of procedural error. It also has enhanced anchoring and sealing properties, which makes it a suitable option to treat a larger range of pathologies compared to previous designs. In addition, the use of polymer for the leaflets can reduce calcification. This is the main cause of structural degeneration in current prosthetic valves, meaning the new valves may also result in extended durability. […] Our research effort has resulted in a solution that has confirmed potential to improve safety, procedural simplification and reduced costs in replacing aortic valves, Professor Burriesci says. This could contribute to the expansion of TAVI to lower risk patients.

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