Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Everything You Need to Know About Peanut Allergy

  https://www.aaaai.org/tools-for-the-public/conditions-library/allergies/peanut-allergy

  Peanut allergy is one of the nine most common food allergies, affecting approximately 1-2% of the U.S. population. […] Most allergic reactions to peanuts are mediated by immunoglobulin-E (IgE) antibodies, causing immediate symptoms that can range from mild reactions to severe anaphylaxis. […] Several allergenic proteins have been identified that play a role in IgE-mediated peanut allergy. The proteins Ara h 1, Ara h 2 and Ara h 3 are the dominant allergens. […] Serum IgE testing to allergenic peanut protein components can help identify individuals who may have favorable food challenges outcomes. […] In 2020, an oral immunotherapy medication for peanut allergy was approved by the FDA. This treatment helps reduce the risk of anaphylaxis associated with accidental peanut exposure and involves slowly increasing the dose of the medication, at times in the allergists office, over the course of several months.

• #2 Clinical Insights: Palforzia is the First FDA-approved Treatment of Peanut Allergy

  https://www.pharmacytimes.com/view/clinical-insights-palforzia-is-the-first-fda-approved-treatment-of-peanut-allergy

  Peanut allergies affect approximately 1.2% of the entire US population and an estimated 2.5% of the childhood population. […] According to the FDAs Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, approximately 1 million children have a peanut allergy and only 20% of them can outgrow their allergy. […] It is also the most common food allergy in kids (25%) and the number 1 cause of death related to allergy in children. […] The exact mechanism of action of Palforzia [Peanut (Arachis hypogaea) allergen Powder-dnfp] is not known. […] Allergic reactions to peanut occur when the bodys immune system recognizes peanut allergen as harmful, which produces allergic reactions, such as hives, swelling, redness, digestive problems, or even dangerous reactions such as anaphylaxis. […] Palforzia is thought to work as an oral immunotherapy in which the body is slowly exposed to a small amount of allergen with increased dosing exposure over a long period of time.

• #3 Peanut allergy – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/peanut-allergy/symptoms-causes/syc-20376175

  Peanut allergy occurs when the immune system flags peanut proteins as harmful. When exposed to peanuts, the immune system releases symptom-causing chemicals into the bloodstream. These chemicals cause an allergic reaction. […] Peanut allergy is the most common cause of anaphylaxis due to food. This medical emergency requires treatment with an epinephrine autoinjector (EpiPen, Auvi-Q, others) and a trip to the emergency room. […] Complications of peanut allergy can include anaphylaxis. Children and adults who have a severe peanut allergy are especially at risk of having this life-threatening reaction.

• #4 Peanut allergy – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut_allergy

  Peanut allergy is a type of food allergy to peanuts. It is due to a type I hypersensitivity reaction of the immune system in susceptible individuals. The allergy arises due to dendritic cells recognizing peanut allergens as foreign pathogens. They present the antigens on MHC class II receptors and these antigens are recognized by cell receptors on T cells. The contact along with the release of the cytokine IL-4 induces their differentiation into CD4+ Th2 cells. The Th2 cells proliferate and release pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13, which can be bound to receptors on undifferentiated B cells or B cells of the IgM subtype. The receptor-cytokine binding causes their differentiation into IgE which can then be bound onto FcRI on mast cells, eosinophils and basophils. This elicits degranulation of the aforementioned cells which release potent cytokines and chemokines, thus triggering inflammation and causing the symptoms characteristic of allergy.

• #5 Peanut allergy

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/peanut-allergy

  Peanut allergy is an adverse immune response to a peanut allergen. Reactions include: […] Peanut allergy is the most common cause of food-related anaphylaxis. […] The cause of peanut allergy is not fully understood. […] Peanuts are highly allergenic due to the abundance of allergens in seed storage proteins. […] Peanuts are highly resistant to enzymatic digestion when in the gastrointestinal tract, and their allergens maintain their conformational epitope (a three-dimensional folded polypeptide) structure. Most IgE binds to Ara h 2 conformational epitopes; an allergic immune response can be invoked when IgE binds to a peanut allergen. […] Dendritic cells have specific receptors for identifying carbohydrate residues. The carbohydrate residues on the surface of peanuts can activate dendritic cells and invoke an allergic immune response.

• #6 Peanut allergy

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/peanut-allergy

  Peanut allergy is an adverse immune response to a peanut allergen. Reactions include: […] Peanut allergy is the most common cause of food-related anaphylaxis. […] The cause of peanut allergy is not fully understood. […] Peanuts are highly allergenic due to the abundance of allergens in seed storage proteins. […] Peanuts are highly resistant to enzymatic digestion when in the gastrointestinal tract, and their allergens maintain their conformational epitope (a three-dimensional folded polypeptide) structure. Most IgE binds to Ara h 2 conformational epitopes; an allergic immune response can be invoked when IgE binds to a peanut allergen. […] Dendritic cells have specific receptors for identifying carbohydrate residues. The carbohydrate residues on the surface of peanuts can activate dendritic cells and invoke an allergic immune response.

• #7 Peanut allergy – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut_allergy

  Peanut allergy is a type of food allergy to peanuts. It is due to a type I hypersensitivity reaction of the immune system in susceptible individuals. The allergy arises due to dendritic cells recognizing peanut allergens as foreign pathogens. They present the antigens on MHC class II receptors and these antigens are recognized by cell receptors on T cells. The contact along with the release of the cytokine IL-4 induces their differentiation into CD4+ Th2 cells. The Th2 cells proliferate and release pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13, which can be bound to receptors on undifferentiated B cells or B cells of the IgM subtype. The receptor-cytokine binding causes their differentiation into IgE which can then be bound onto FcRI on mast cells, eosinophils and basophils. This elicits degranulation of the aforementioned cells which release potent cytokines and chemokines, thus triggering inflammation and causing the symptoms characteristic of allergy.

• #8 Peanut allergy – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut_allergy

  Peanut allergy is a type of food allergy to peanuts. It is due to a type I hypersensitivity reaction of the immune system in susceptible individuals. The allergy arises due to dendritic cells recognizing peanut allergens as foreign pathogens. They present the antigens on MHC class II receptors and these antigens are recognized by cell receptors on T cells. The contact along with the release of the cytokine IL-4 induces their differentiation into CD4+ Th2 cells. The Th2 cells proliferate and release pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13, which can be bound to receptors on undifferentiated B cells or B cells of the IgM subtype. The receptor-cytokine binding causes their differentiation into IgE which can then be bound onto FcRI on mast cells, eosinophils and basophils. This elicits degranulation of the aforementioned cells which release potent cytokines and chemokines, thus triggering inflammation and causing the symptoms characteristic of allergy.

• #9 Peanut allergy

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/peanut-allergy

  When peanuts are roasted, they undergo a non-enzymatic glycosylation reaction called the Maillard reaction. This alters the structure of the amino acids and sugars in the peanut and makes the peanut more allergenic. […] To develop a peanut allergy, the individual must be exposed to one of the peanut allergens via a gastrointestinal, cutaneous, or respiratory route. […] The peanut allergen is detected by a dendritic cell, which moves to a lymph node to interact with a specific T-cell receptor. In an abundance of interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5, and IL-13, a T-helper type 2 (TH2) cell response is initiated. […] The TH2 response signals B cells to produce allergen-specific clonal IgE. The IgE binds to the high-affinity IgE receptor (FcRI) on the surface of mast cells. The expression of FcRI on mast cells is upregulated (increased) so that more IgE can bind to the mast cell (leading to allergic priming or sensitisation).

• #10 Peanut allergy – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut_allergy

  Peanut allergy is a type of food allergy to peanuts. It is due to a type I hypersensitivity reaction of the immune system in susceptible individuals. The allergy arises due to dendritic cells recognizing peanut allergens as foreign pathogens. They present the antigens on MHC class II receptors and these antigens are recognized by cell receptors on T cells. The contact along with the release of the cytokine IL-4 induces their differentiation into CD4+ Th2 cells. The Th2 cells proliferate and release pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13, which can be bound to receptors on undifferentiated B cells or B cells of the IgM subtype. The receptor-cytokine binding causes their differentiation into IgE which can then be bound onto FcRI on mast cells, eosinophils and basophils. This elicits degranulation of the aforementioned cells which release potent cytokines and chemokines, thus triggering inflammation and causing the symptoms characteristic of allergy.

• #11

  https://www.jci.org/articles/view/18233

  Peanut allergy is one of the most serious of the immediate hypersensitivity reactions to foods in terms of persistence and severity and appears to be a growing problem. […] Due to the persistence of the reaction and the lack of effective treatment, peanut-specific immunotherapy is currently being examined as a treatment option. An understanding of the molecular mechanisms is vital to ensure the eventual, effective treatment of peanut-allergic patients. […] Peripheral blood lymphocytes in the peanut-allergic individuals demonstrated a Th2 polarization of cytokine production by peanut-specific cells with low levels of IFN- and TNF- and high levels of IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13. […] In the peanut-allergic individual, the T cells will secrete increased amounts of IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13, among other mediators, and reduced amounts of IFN- and TNF- when compared to that in an individual who is not allergic to peanuts.

• #12 Peanut allergy – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut_allergy

  Peanut allergy is a type of food allergy to peanuts. It is due to a type I hypersensitivity reaction of the immune system in susceptible individuals. The allergy arises due to dendritic cells recognizing peanut allergens as foreign pathogens. They present the antigens on MHC class II receptors and these antigens are recognized by cell receptors on T cells. The contact along with the release of the cytokine IL-4 induces their differentiation into CD4+ Th2 cells. The Th2 cells proliferate and release pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13, which can be bound to receptors on undifferentiated B cells or B cells of the IgM subtype. The receptor-cytokine binding causes their differentiation into IgE which can then be bound onto FcRI on mast cells, eosinophils and basophils. This elicits degranulation of the aforementioned cells which release potent cytokines and chemokines, thus triggering inflammation and causing the symptoms characteristic of allergy.

• #13 Peanut allergy

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/peanut-allergy

  When peanuts are roasted, they undergo a non-enzymatic glycosylation reaction called the Maillard reaction. This alters the structure of the amino acids and sugars in the peanut and makes the peanut more allergenic. […] To develop a peanut allergy, the individual must be exposed to one of the peanut allergens via a gastrointestinal, cutaneous, or respiratory route. […] The peanut allergen is detected by a dendritic cell, which moves to a lymph node to interact with a specific T-cell receptor. In an abundance of interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5, and IL-13, a T-helper type 2 (TH2) cell response is initiated. […] The TH2 response signals B cells to produce allergen-specific clonal IgE. The IgE binds to the high-affinity IgE receptor (FcRI) on the surface of mast cells. The expression of FcRI on mast cells is upregulated (increased) so that more IgE can bind to the mast cell (leading to allergic priming or sensitisation).

• #14 Peanut allergy: an overview

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC154188/

  PEANUT ALLERGY ACCOUNTS FOR THE MAJORITY of severe food-related allergic reactions. […] Peanut allergy deserves particular attention. It accounts for the majority of severe food-related allergic reactions, it tends to present early in life, it does not usually resolve, and in highly sensitized people, trace quantities can induce an allergic reaction. […] Although many foods can cause clinical syndromes in susceptible individuals, the allergic reaction provoked by peanuts is strictly an IgE-mediated type I hypersensitivity reaction. In such reactions, peanut-specific IgE antibodies bind to high-affinity receptors on mast cells and basophils. At least 7 peanut proteins have been identified that confer allergy. When peanut allergens penetrate mucosal barriers, cell-bound IgE and peanut allergens crosslink, which results in degranulation of preformed allergic mediators and subsequent cell activation. These cells may then produce a variety of cytokines and chemokines, which recruit other inflammatory cells and contribute to the IgE-mediated late-phase allergic response.

• #15 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Peanut-Allergy.aspx

  Aaround 70% of children with peanut allergy develop the allergy on their first known exposure to peanuts. However, this has usually been preceded by an unknown exposure to the nut when no noticeable symptoms were triggered but the child became sensitized or primed for allergy. […] On this original, first exposure, the immune system reacts to proteins in the peanuts by producing the antibody immunoglobulin E (IgE) which binds to receptors present on mast cells and basophils. Subsequent exposure to peanut leads to an inflammatory response governed by these cells, as the peanut protein causes the IgE/receptor complexes to cross link and activate the release of the inflammatory mediators (eg histamine) inside them. Histamine and other inflammatory mediators then trigger the symptoms of an allergic reaction.

• #16 Peanut allergy

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/peanut-allergy

  When the individual is subsequently exposed to the peanut allergen, the allergen can immediately bind to IgE on the surface of the mast cell, leading to the elicitation of an allergic response. The mast cell degranulates and releases several chemicals including histamine, which causes vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, and the clinical signs and symptoms of an allergic reaction. […] In non-allergic individuals, T-regulatory cells lead to tolerance to the peanut allergen.

• #17 Everything You Need to Know About Peanut Allergy

  https://www.aaaai.org/tools-for-the-public/conditions-library/allergies/peanut-allergy

  Peanut allergy is one of the nine most common food allergies, affecting approximately 1-2% of the U.S. population. […] Most allergic reactions to peanuts are mediated by immunoglobulin-E (IgE) antibodies, causing immediate symptoms that can range from mild reactions to severe anaphylaxis. […] Several allergenic proteins have been identified that play a role in IgE-mediated peanut allergy. The proteins Ara h 1, Ara h 2 and Ara h 3 are the dominant allergens. […] Serum IgE testing to allergenic peanut protein components can help identify individuals who may have favorable food challenges outcomes. […] In 2020, an oral immunotherapy medication for peanut allergy was approved by the FDA. This treatment helps reduce the risk of anaphylaxis associated with accidental peanut exposure and involves slowly increasing the dose of the medication, at times in the allergists office, over the course of several months.

• #18 Crude Peanut Extract (CPE) and Mouse Anti-CPE IgE Monoclonal Antibody

  https://www.chondrex.com/crude-peanut-extract-cpe-and-mouse-anti-cpe-ige-monoclonal-antibody

  Immediate hypersensitivity reactions to peanuts, an IgE-mediated food allergy, has been a major public health concern for many years, particularly in westernized countries where peanut allergies can persist into adulthood. […] Peanut allergens contain eleven potentially major components: Ara h1, Ara h2, Ara h3, and Ara h6. Ara h2 and Ara h6, two highly related 2S albumins, especially contribute to the development of allergic reactions. […] Mouse peanut allergy models are used to study the pathogenesis of the peanut allergy and to evaluate new treatments. […] The mouse models can be induced by administration of crude peanut extract (CPE) or each purified Ara allergen and evaluated for humoral immune responses such as serum anti-IgE and IgG antibodies against the allergen, T-cell mediated immune response associated cytokines levels, as well as body temperature and clinical signs of anaphylaxis.

• #19

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40629-021-00164-8

  Peanut allergy is a potentially life-threatening disease because it leads to severe allergic reactions, especially in children but also in adults. […] These include sublingual, epicutaneous and oral peanut immunotherapy. Nonspecific treatment approaches with new-targeted antibodies such as anti-IgE (omalizumab) or anti-IL-4/IL-13 receptor antibodies (dupilumab) can also be used to treat peanut allergy with regard to the mode of action of these antibodies. […] The peanut allergens clinically relevant for severe reactions are heat-stable and belong to the family of storage proteins. They include the 7S globulins (Ara h 1), the 11S globulins (Ara h 3), and the 2S albumins (Ara h 2/6). Of these, Ara h 2 is reported to be a marker allergen for severe reactions in many patients. […] In contrast to inhalation allergies, specific immunotherapy is not yet established for the treatment of peanut allergies.

• #20 Crude Peanut Extract (CPE) and Mouse Anti-CPE IgE Monoclonal Antibody

  https://www.chondrex.com/crude-peanut-extract-cpe-and-mouse-anti-cpe-ige-monoclonal-antibody

  Immediate hypersensitivity reactions to peanuts, an IgE-mediated food allergy, has been a major public health concern for many years, particularly in westernized countries where peanut allergies can persist into adulthood. […] Peanut allergens contain eleven potentially major components: Ara h1, Ara h2, Ara h3, and Ara h6. Ara h2 and Ara h6, two highly related 2S albumins, especially contribute to the development of allergic reactions. […] Mouse peanut allergy models are used to study the pathogenesis of the peanut allergy and to evaluate new treatments. […] The mouse models can be induced by administration of crude peanut extract (CPE) or each purified Ara allergen and evaluated for humoral immune responses such as serum anti-IgE and IgG antibodies against the allergen, T-cell mediated immune response associated cytokines levels, as well as body temperature and clinical signs of anaphylaxis.

• #21 IgE-mediated food allergy | Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology | Full Text

  https://aacijournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13223-018-0284-3

  Although food allergy can arise to any food, Health Canada has identified the following 10 priority allergens: cows milk (CM), egg, peanut, tree nuts, fish/shellfish, wheat, sesame seed, soy, mustard and sulphites (a food additive). […] With the exception of a carbohydrate known as galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose (also known as alpha-gal), it is the protein component, not the fat or carbohydrate components, of these foods that leads to sensitization and allergy. […] The allergenic segments or epitopes of these proteins tend to be small (10-70 kd in size), water-soluble glycoproteins that have varying degrees of resistance to denaturation by heat or acid and, therefore, can remain intact even after processing, storage, cooking and digestion. […] Examples of these glycoproteins include casein in CM, vicilin in peanut, and ovomucoid in egg.

• #22 Peanut allergy

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/peanut-allergy

  Peanut allergy is an adverse immune response to a peanut allergen. Reactions include: […] Peanut allergy is the most common cause of food-related anaphylaxis. […] The cause of peanut allergy is not fully understood. […] Peanuts are highly allergenic due to the abundance of allergens in seed storage proteins. […] Peanuts are highly resistant to enzymatic digestion when in the gastrointestinal tract, and their allergens maintain their conformational epitope (a three-dimensional folded polypeptide) structure. Most IgE binds to Ara h 2 conformational epitopes; an allergic immune response can be invoked when IgE binds to a peanut allergen. […] Dendritic cells have specific receptors for identifying carbohydrate residues. The carbohydrate residues on the surface of peanuts can activate dendritic cells and invoke an allergic immune response.

• #23 IgE-mediated food allergy | Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology | Full Text

  https://aacijournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13223-018-0284-3

  Although food allergy can arise to any food, Health Canada has identified the following 10 priority allergens: cows milk (CM), egg, peanut, tree nuts, fish/shellfish, wheat, sesame seed, soy, mustard and sulphites (a food additive). […] With the exception of a carbohydrate known as galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose (also known as alpha-gal), it is the protein component, not the fat or carbohydrate components, of these foods that leads to sensitization and allergy. […] The allergenic segments or epitopes of these proteins tend to be small (10-70 kd in size), water-soluble glycoproteins that have varying degrees of resistance to denaturation by heat or acid and, therefore, can remain intact even after processing, storage, cooking and digestion. […] Examples of these glycoproteins include casein in CM, vicilin in peanut, and ovomucoid in egg.

• #24 Peanut allergy – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut_allergy

  Some of the peanut allergens can undergo enzymatic and non-enzymatic modifications which makes them more likely to bind to ligands on antigen-presenting cells. Ara h 1 can undergo glycosylation modifications which have been shown to induce immunomodulatory responses; it stimulates lectin receptors MR and DC-SIGN on dendritic cells which further propagate cytokines and bias the immune system towards a Th2 type response. Peanut proteins that undergo non-enzymatic changes through Maillard reactions when cooked or exposed to room temperature have an increase in AGE modifications on their structure. These changes have been shown to stimulate RAGE receptors and SR-AI/II on dendritic cells and thus lead to an increase in IL-4 and IL-5-releasing Th2 cells.

• #25 Peanut allergy – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut_allergy

  Some of the peanut allergens can undergo enzymatic and non-enzymatic modifications which makes them more likely to bind to ligands on antigen-presenting cells. Ara h 1 can undergo glycosylation modifications which have been shown to induce immunomodulatory responses; it stimulates lectin receptors MR and DC-SIGN on dendritic cells which further propagate cytokines and bias the immune system towards a Th2 type response. Peanut proteins that undergo non-enzymatic changes through Maillard reactions when cooked or exposed to room temperature have an increase in AGE modifications on their structure. These changes have been shown to stimulate RAGE receptors and SR-AI/II on dendritic cells and thus lead to an increase in IL-4 and IL-5-releasing Th2 cells.

• #26 AAIR :: Allergy, Asthma & Immunology Research

  https://www.e-aair.org/search.php?where=aview&id=10.4168/aair.2009.1.1.19&code=9999AAIR&vmode=AFTR

  Several host factors can influence the development of food allergies. […] Gastric digestion normally serves to breakdown food proteins, and in many cases destroys immunogenic epitopes in the process. […] The role of gastric acidity was investigated by Untersmayr et al. using a murine model. […] Additional properties of peanut make it a highly allergenic protein. Glycosylated Ara h 1, a major peanut allergen, has been shown to act as a Th2 adjuvant by activating dendritic cells to drive Th2 cell maturation. […] In contrast, deglycoslyated Ara h 1 did not activate dendritic cells. […] Recently, peanut proteins were shown to have the ability to induce production of complement (C3a) leading to increased platelet-activating factor and histamine production by macrophages, basophils, and mast cells.

• #27 AAIR :: Allergy, Asthma & Immunology Research

  https://www.e-aair.org/search.php?where=aview&id=10.4168/aair.2009.1.1.19&code=9999AAIR&vmode=AFTR

  Several host factors can influence the development of food allergies. […] Gastric digestion normally serves to breakdown food proteins, and in many cases destroys immunogenic epitopes in the process. […] The role of gastric acidity was investigated by Untersmayr et al. using a murine model. […] Additional properties of peanut make it a highly allergenic protein. Glycosylated Ara h 1, a major peanut allergen, has been shown to act as a Th2 adjuvant by activating dendritic cells to drive Th2 cell maturation. […] In contrast, deglycoslyated Ara h 1 did not activate dendritic cells. […] Recently, peanut proteins were shown to have the ability to induce production of complement (C3a) leading to increased platelet-activating factor and histamine production by macrophages, basophils, and mast cells.

• #28 Peanut allergy

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/peanut-allergy

  When peanuts are roasted, they undergo a non-enzymatic glycosylation reaction called the Maillard reaction. This alters the structure of the amino acids and sugars in the peanut and makes the peanut more allergenic. […] To develop a peanut allergy, the individual must be exposed to one of the peanut allergens via a gastrointestinal, cutaneous, or respiratory route. […] The peanut allergen is detected by a dendritic cell, which moves to a lymph node to interact with a specific T-cell receptor. In an abundance of interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5, and IL-13, a T-helper type 2 (TH2) cell response is initiated. […] The TH2 response signals B cells to produce allergen-specific clonal IgE. The IgE binds to the high-affinity IgE receptor (FcRI) on the surface of mast cells. The expression of FcRI on mast cells is upregulated (increased) so that more IgE can bind to the mast cell (leading to allergic priming or sensitisation).

• #29 Peanut allergy – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut_allergy

  Some of the peanut allergens can undergo enzymatic and non-enzymatic modifications which makes them more likely to bind to ligands on antigen-presenting cells. Ara h 1 can undergo glycosylation modifications which have been shown to induce immunomodulatory responses; it stimulates lectin receptors MR and DC-SIGN on dendritic cells which further propagate cytokines and bias the immune system towards a Th2 type response. Peanut proteins that undergo non-enzymatic changes through Maillard reactions when cooked or exposed to room temperature have an increase in AGE modifications on their structure. These changes have been shown to stimulate RAGE receptors and SR-AI/II on dendritic cells and thus lead to an increase in IL-4 and IL-5-releasing Th2 cells.

• #30 Peanut Allergy: An Overview | Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology | Full Text

  https://aacijournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1710-1492-4-4-139

  The methods by which peanuts are prepared may contribute to the increase prevalence of peanut allergy in the Western hemisphere. […] Roasting has been shown to alter both the structure and the allergenicity of peanut. […] Dry roasting also induces functional alterations by causing a 3.6-fold increase in the function of Ara h2, which acts as a trypsin inhibitor protecting Ara h1 from proteolytic digestion.

• #31 Pathogenesis of food allergy – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pathogenesis-of-food-allergy

  Pathogenesis of food allergy […] Tolerance is the normal immune response to the food an individual eats over a lifetime. Food allergy is an abnormal immune reaction consisting of hypersensitivity to food components, most commonly proteins. […] This topic will focus on food allergy due to primary sensitization through the gut and will review organization of the gut immune system and factors that influence oral tolerance induction. Theories addressing the increasing prevalence of food allergy are briefly mentioned. The pathogenesis of pollen-food allergy syndrome, seen more frequently in adolescents and adults, is discussed separately. […] The prevalence of food allergies, particularly to peanut, appears to have increased from the late 1990s to the early 2010s. While there are a number of theories regarding the apparent increase in prevalence of food allergies, especially peanut allergy, definitive answers are still lacking. Postulated hypotheses have focused on hygiene, dietary fat, antioxidants, vitamin D, and dual allergen exposure (ie, initial exposure to a food allergen via a nonoral route, such as the skin).

• #32 AAIR :: Allergy, Asthma & Immunology Research

  https://www.e-aair.org/search.php?where=aview&id=10.4168/aair.2009.1.1.19&code=9999AAIR&vmode=AFTR

  Food allergies are adverse immune reactions to food proteins that can range from immediate, potentially life-threatening reactions to chronic disorders such as atopic dermatitis and allergic gastrointestinal disorders. […] Advances have been made in the understanding of how these factors interact in the pathophysiology of food allergy. […] The mechanisms by which ingested proteins are able to interact with unique populations of antigen presenting cells leading to suppression of cellular and humoral immune responses has been termed oral tolerance. […] Loss of oral tolerance can occur or may be bypassed by antigen presentation via alternative routes, such as through cutaneous exposures or via the respiratory tract. […] Breakdown of oral tolerance can also occur as a result of defective regulatory T cells.

• #33 AAIR :: Allergy, Asthma & Immunology Research

  https://www.e-aair.org/search.php?where=aview&id=10.4168/aair.2009.1.1.19&code=9999AAIR&vmode=AFTR

  Food allergies are adverse immune reactions to food proteins that can range from immediate, potentially life-threatening reactions to chronic disorders such as atopic dermatitis and allergic gastrointestinal disorders. […] Advances have been made in the understanding of how these factors interact in the pathophysiology of food allergy. […] The mechanisms by which ingested proteins are able to interact with unique populations of antigen presenting cells leading to suppression of cellular and humoral immune responses has been termed oral tolerance. […] Loss of oral tolerance can occur or may be bypassed by antigen presentation via alternative routes, such as through cutaneous exposures or via the respiratory tract. […] Breakdown of oral tolerance can also occur as a result of defective regulatory T cells.

• #34 AAIR :: Allergy, Asthma & Immunology Research

  https://www.e-aair.org/search.php?where=aview&id=10.4168/aair.2009.1.1.19&code=9999AAIR&vmode=AFTR

  Food allergies are adverse immune reactions to food proteins that can range from immediate, potentially life-threatening reactions to chronic disorders such as atopic dermatitis and allergic gastrointestinal disorders. […] Advances have been made in the understanding of how these factors interact in the pathophysiology of food allergy. […] The mechanisms by which ingested proteins are able to interact with unique populations of antigen presenting cells leading to suppression of cellular and humoral immune responses has been termed oral tolerance. […] Loss of oral tolerance can occur or may be bypassed by antigen presentation via alternative routes, such as through cutaneous exposures or via the respiratory tract. […] Breakdown of oral tolerance can also occur as a result of defective regulatory T cells.

• #35 Natural course of IgE-mediated food allergy in children

  https://www.e-cep.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.3345/cep.2022.01004

  The prevalence of food allergy and food-induced anaphylaxis in children is increasing worldwide. […] Although our understanding of the mechanism underlying the resolution of food allergy is incomplete, the roles of dendritic cells, regulatory T cells, and regulatory B cells are important. […] Dendritic, regulatory T, and regulatory B cells significantly contribute to the natural course of food allergy. […] Our understanding remains poor about why some food allergies outgrow earlier versus persist longer. Tolerance to food allergens is driven mainly by antigen-presenting cells within the gut lamina propria by the promotion of T-cell differentiation. […] Regulatory T cells, especially Foxp3+ regulatory T cells characterized by CD25 expression, play an essential role in oral tolerance.

• #36 Peanut Allergy: An Overview | Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology | Full Text

  https://aacijournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1710-1492-4-4-139

  Peanut allergies have been increasing in prevalence in most industrialized countries. […] The allergy is lifelong in most affected children, although 15-22% will outgrow their peanut allergy, usually before their teenage years. […] However, even in the absence of risk factors, peanut allergic individuals may still experience life-threatening anaphylactic reactions. […] The three major allergenic proteins in peanut are Ara h1, h2, and h3. […] The major peanut allergens have been detected in the breast milk of lactating women. […] This occult exposure through breast milk from mothers ingesting peanut during lactation may sensitize the infants to peanut and thus explain the occurrence of allergic reactions to peanut on first exposure in the majority of children. […] Alternatively, exposure of infants to peanut protein via breast milk in the perinatal period may aid in the development of immunologic tolerance in some infants.

• #37 Pathogenesis of allergic diseases and implications for therapeutic interventions | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-023-01344-4

  Allergic diseases such as allergic rhinitis (AR), allergic asthma (AAS), atopic dermatitis (AD), food allergy (FA), and eczema are systemic diseases caused by an impaired immune system. […] The pathogenesis of allergic diseases is complex and involves many factors, including maternal-fetal environment, living environment, genetics, epigenetics, and the body’s immune status. […] The pathogenesis of allergic diseases exhibits a marked heterogeneity, with phenotype and endotype defining visible features and associated molecular mechanisms, respectively. […] The pathogenesis of AD is mainly reflected by a complex interplay between epidermal barrier dysfunction, abnormal skin microbiota and dysregulated type 2 T cell immunity. […] FA is an IgE-dependent type I hypersensitivity to a specific food allergen.

• #38 Pathogenesis of allergic diseases and implications for therapeutic interventions | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-023-01344-4

  The pathogenesis of allergic diseases is complex, involving many factors such as genetics, epigenetics, environmental factors, microecology and the body’s immune function. […] The immunopathological profiles of AR and AAS are very similar in terms of eosinophil, mast cell and Th2 cell infiltration. […] The pathogenesis of allergic diseases is complex and involves many factors, including maternal-fetal environment, living environment, genetics, epigenetics, and the body’s immune status. […] The pathogenesis of allergic diseases is complex and involves many factors, including maternal-fetal environment, living environment, genetics, epigenetics, and the body’s immune status. […] The pathogenesis of allergic diseases is complex and involves many factors, including maternal-fetal environment, living environment, genetics, epigenetics, and the body’s immune status.

• #39 Do Genes Play a Role in Peanut Allergies? New Study Suggests Yes | Johns Hopkins | Bloomberg School of Public Health

  https://publichealth.jhu.edu/2015/do-genes-play-a-role-in-peanut-allergies-new-study-suggests-yes

  Researchers have pinpointed a region in the human genome associated with peanut allergy in U.S. children, offering strong evidence that genes can play a role in the development of food allergies. […] But in an additional finding that suggests genes are not the only players in food allergies, the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health-led research team found there may be other molecular mechanisms that may contribute to whether those who are genetically predisposed to peanut allergies actually develop them. […] They found that a genomic region harboring genes such as HLA-DQ and HLA-DR and located on chromosome six is linked to peanut allergy. This study suggests that the HLA-DR and -DQ gene region probably poses significant genetic risk for peanut allergy as it accounted for about 20 percent of peanut allergy in the study population.

• #40 Do Genes Play a Role in Peanut Allergies? New Study Suggests Yes | Johns Hopkins | Bloomberg School of Public Health

  https://publichealth.jhu.edu/2015/do-genes-play-a-role-in-peanut-allergies-new-study-suggests-yes

  One possible reason, they determined, was that epigenetic changes may also play a role. Epigenetic changes, in which a methyl group attaches itself to the DNA, alter the expression of a gene without altering its underlying code. The levels of DNA methylation regulate whether people with genetic susceptibility to the peanut allergy actually developed it. […] Unlike genes themselves, DNA methylation levels can change in response to environmental exposures, (in particular, in-utero and during the first few years of life) and the changes are potentially reversible. By identifying what environmental factors can alter DNA methylation levels in people with genes that make them susceptible to peanut allergy, researchers could potentially open a new avenue for prevention and treatment of peanut allergy.

• #41 Pathogenesis of allergic diseases and implications for therapeutic interventions | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-023-01344-4

  Allergic diseases such as allergic rhinitis (AR), allergic asthma (AAS), atopic dermatitis (AD), food allergy (FA), and eczema are systemic diseases caused by an impaired immune system. […] The pathogenesis of allergic diseases is complex and involves many factors, including maternal-fetal environment, living environment, genetics, epigenetics, and the body’s immune status. […] The pathogenesis of allergic diseases exhibits a marked heterogeneity, with phenotype and endotype defining visible features and associated molecular mechanisms, respectively. […] The pathogenesis of AD is mainly reflected by a complex interplay between epidermal barrier dysfunction, abnormal skin microbiota and dysregulated type 2 T cell immunity. […] FA is an IgE-dependent type I hypersensitivity to a specific food allergen.

• #42 Pathogenesis of allergic diseases and implications for therapeutic interventions | Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-023-01344-4

  Allergic diseases such as allergic rhinitis (AR), allergic asthma (AAS), atopic dermatitis (AD), food allergy (FA), and eczema are systemic diseases caused by an impaired immune system. […] The pathogenesis of allergic diseases is complex and involves many factors, including maternal-fetal environment, living environment, genetics, epigenetics, and the body’s immune status. […] The pathogenesis of allergic diseases exhibits a marked heterogeneity, with phenotype and endotype defining visible features and associated molecular mechanisms, respectively. […] The pathogenesis of AD is mainly reflected by a complex interplay between epidermal barrier dysfunction, abnormal skin microbiota and dysregulated type 2 T cell immunity. […] FA is an IgE-dependent type I hypersensitivity to a specific food allergen.

• #43 Pathogenesis of food allergy – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pathogenesis-of-food-allergy

  Hygiene hypothesis – Early life exposure to infectious pathogens, as well as normal gut microbiota, may influence the development of the immune system away from a T helper type 2 (Th2) and towards a T regulatory cell (Treg) response. Better hygiene, resulting in less microbial exposure, may lead to an increase in atopic disease. […] Microbiome depletion hypothesis – This hypothesis evolved from the hygiene hypothesis. The ecosystem of the human body (the human biome) can influence immune function. Loss of species diversity from the human microbiome can result in allergy, autoimmune disease, and other disorders related to increased inflammation.

• #44 Pathogenesis of food allergy – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pathogenesis-of-food-allergy

  Hygiene hypothesis – Early life exposure to infectious pathogens, as well as normal gut microbiota, may influence the development of the immune system away from a T helper type 2 (Th2) and towards a T regulatory cell (Treg) response. Better hygiene, resulting in less microbial exposure, may lead to an increase in atopic disease. […] Microbiome depletion hypothesis – This hypothesis evolved from the hygiene hypothesis. The ecosystem of the human body (the human biome) can influence immune function. Loss of species diversity from the human microbiome can result in allergy, autoimmune disease, and other disorders related to increased inflammation.

• #45 Pathogenesis of food allergy – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pathogenesis-of-food-allergy

  Hygiene hypothesis – Early life exposure to infectious pathogens, as well as normal gut microbiota, may influence the development of the immune system away from a T helper type 2 (Th2) and towards a T regulatory cell (Treg) response. Better hygiene, resulting in less microbial exposure, may lead to an increase in atopic disease. […] Microbiome depletion hypothesis – This hypothesis evolved from the hygiene hypothesis. The ecosystem of the human body (the human biome) can influence immune function. Loss of species diversity from the human microbiome can result in allergy, autoimmune disease, and other disorders related to increased inflammation.

• #46 AAIR :: Allergy, Asthma & Immunology Research

  https://www.e-aair.org/search.php?where=aview&id=10.4168/aair.2009.1.1.19&code=9999AAIR&vmode=AFTR

  Several host factors can influence the development of food allergies. […] Gastric digestion normally serves to breakdown food proteins, and in many cases destroys immunogenic epitopes in the process. […] The role of gastric acidity was investigated by Untersmayr et al. using a murine model. […] Additional properties of peanut make it a highly allergenic protein. Glycosylated Ara h 1, a major peanut allergen, has been shown to act as a Th2 adjuvant by activating dendritic cells to drive Th2 cell maturation. […] In contrast, deglycoslyated Ara h 1 did not activate dendritic cells. […] Recently, peanut proteins were shown to have the ability to induce production of complement (C3a) leading to increased platelet-activating factor and histamine production by macrophages, basophils, and mast cells.

• #47 Researcher discovers peanut allergy mechanism in the intestines

  https://medicalxpress.com/news/2020-01-peanut-allergy-mechanism-intestines.html

  Peanut allergens cross a model of the gut lining, causing it to leak, new research by Dr. Dwan Price from Deakin University in Victoria has revealed. […] The allergens hijack the transport mechanisms of cells in the intestine, disrupting the bonds that hold the gut lining together, making it permeable. […] „This is an extremely exciting finding because it helps explain why peanut allergens are so very potent,” Dr. Price says. […] „It helps us understand why peanut allergy persists lifelong and only trace amounts are needed to trigger fatal anaphylaxis.” […] „It’s important to note, that this work was performed on intestinal cells and doesn’t mean that peanuts will make your gut leaky. What it means is we know more about this powerful allergen and how it acts to trigger allergy.” […] The discovery provides new opportunities to tackle the condition, which affects 4% of the population. These include finding ways to prevent the allergen attacking the gut lining—and the development of a novel nut that doesn’t trigger an allergic reaction.

• #48 Food Allergies: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/135959-overview

  IgE antibodymediated responses are the most widely recognized form of food allergy and account for most reactions. IgE-mediated reactions are generally acute, and most reactions occur within minutes of ingesting the offending food. […] Patients with atopy produce IgE antibodies to specific epitopes (areas of the protein or carbohydrate moieties) of one or more food allergens. These antibodies bind to high-affinity IgE receptors on circulating basophils and tissue mast cells present throughout the body, including in the skin, gastrointestinal tract, and respiratory tract. […] Subsequent allergen exposure binds and cross links IgE antibodies on the cell surface, resulting in receptor activation and intracellular signaling that initiates the release of inflammatory mediators (eg, histamine) and synthesis of additional factors (eg, chemotactic factors, cytokines) that promote allergic inflammation. The effects of these mediators on surrounding tissues result in vasodilation, smooth muscle contraction, and mucus secretion, which, in turn, are responsible for the spectrum of clinical symptoms observed during acute allergic reactions to food.

• #49 Food Allergies: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/135959-overview

  IgE antibodymediated responses are the most widely recognized form of food allergy and account for most reactions. IgE-mediated reactions are generally acute, and most reactions occur within minutes of ingesting the offending food. […] Patients with atopy produce IgE antibodies to specific epitopes (areas of the protein or carbohydrate moieties) of one or more food allergens. These antibodies bind to high-affinity IgE receptors on circulating basophils and tissue mast cells present throughout the body, including in the skin, gastrointestinal tract, and respiratory tract. […] Subsequent allergen exposure binds and cross links IgE antibodies on the cell surface, resulting in receptor activation and intracellular signaling that initiates the release of inflammatory mediators (eg, histamine) and synthesis of additional factors (eg, chemotactic factors, cytokines) that promote allergic inflammation. The effects of these mediators on surrounding tissues result in vasodilation, smooth muscle contraction, and mucus secretion, which, in turn, are responsible for the spectrum of clinical symptoms observed during acute allergic reactions to food.

• #50 Crude Peanut Extract (CPE) and Mouse Anti-CPE IgE Monoclonal Antibody

  https://www.chondrex.com/crude-peanut-extract-cpe-and-mouse-anti-cpe-ige-monoclonal-antibody

  These factor changes observed in the disease models are useful for studying the efficacy of protective effects against the development of allergic reactions. […] Food allergies are immunologically characterized by dysregulated responses and the development of immediate hypersensitivity reactions to ingested food components. […] In allergic reactions, IgE antibodies against an allergen play critical roles. […] IgE antibodies can bind to two types of IgE receptors: the high-affinity FcRI and the low-affinity FcRII. […] FcRI is expressed primarily on mast cells, basophils, and dendritic cells. […] Crosslinking of FcRI by IgE antibodies and allergens (with IgG antibodies) can activate the receptors and initiate intracellular signaling pathways. […] The activated signaling induces both cell degranulation and release of preformed mediators, such as amines (histamine), proteoglycans, proteases, lysosomal enzymes ( b-hexosaminidase), newly formed lipid mediators, cytokines, and chemokines (GM-CSF, IL-1b, IL-8, IL-13, MCP-1).

• #51 Crude Peanut Extract (CPE) and Mouse Anti-CPE IgE Monoclonal Antibody

  https://www.chondrex.com/crude-peanut-extract-cpe-and-mouse-anti-cpe-ige-monoclonal-antibody

  In murine models, the roles of IgE antibodies, FcRI, and mast cells are verified in the onset of immediate hypersensitivity reactions and anaphylaxis following acute food allergen challenge in sensitized animals. […] The prozone effect can be explained by the formation of monovalent complexes between multivalent antigens and IgE antibodies on their receptors at high concentrations. […] RBL-2H3 cells express TLR2 and TLR4 receptors on their cell surface and even with washing by PBS, remaining serum components such as CD14 and MyD88 in the wells may work with the LPS in CPE to activate TLR4 receptors, resulting in some activation of the cells.

• #52 Food Allergies: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/135959-overview

  T-cellmediated responses to food allergens may also mediate allergic responses, particularly in disorders with delayed or chronic symptoms. For example, food proteininduced enterocolitis syndrome (FPIES), a gastrointestinal food allergy, appears to be mediated by T-cell production of the cytokine tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha. […] Eosinophilic esophagitis and gastrointestinal disease are eosinophilic mediated. Eosinophil granules release substances toxic to multiple tissues. These substances include major basic protein 1 and 2, eosinophilic cationic protein, eosinophilic-derived neurotoxin, and eosinophil peroxidase. Triggering of eosinophils leads to the generation of proinflammatory cytokines including Il-1, Il-3, Il-4, Il-5, and Il-13, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor.

• #53

  https://www.jci.org/articles/view/18233

  Peanut allergy is one of the most serious of the immediate hypersensitivity reactions to foods in terms of persistence and severity and appears to be a growing problem. […] Due to the persistence of the reaction and the lack of effective treatment, peanut-specific immunotherapy is currently being examined as a treatment option. An understanding of the molecular mechanisms is vital to ensure the eventual, effective treatment of peanut-allergic patients. […] Peripheral blood lymphocytes in the peanut-allergic individuals demonstrated a Th2 polarization of cytokine production by peanut-specific cells with low levels of IFN- and TNF- and high levels of IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13. […] In the peanut-allergic individual, the T cells will secrete increased amounts of IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13, among other mediators, and reduced amounts of IFN- and TNF- when compared to that in an individual who is not allergic to peanuts.

• #54 Peanut Allergy May Hold Clues to Other Food Allergies, Study Finds < Yale School of Medicine

  https://medicine.yale.edu/news-article/peanut-allergy-may-hold-clues-to-other-food-allergies-study-finds/

  Some food allergies last a lifetime and the reason might have to do with a particular type of antibody-producing immune cells identified in the blood of children with allergies to peanuts, according to a new study published in Science Translational Medicine. […] One conundrum is that the cells that produce the antibodies usually associated with food allergies appear to be short-lived, while allergies are often lifelong. Now, a study co-authored by Kenneth Hoehn, PhD, shows that a particular subset of immune cells which produce the antibody type IgG could explain why peanut allergies persist in some children. […] Allergic reactions to food are largely caused by a group of antibodies called IgE. […] IgE is a key step in causing allergies, says Hoehn. […] But memory B cells that make IgE are very rare which seems odd given the fact that some people have allergies their whole lives, he says.

• #55 Peanut Allergy May Hold Clues to Other Food Allergies, Study Finds < Yale School of Medicine

  https://medicine.yale.edu/news-article/peanut-allergy-may-hold-clues-to-other-food-allergies-study-finds/

  Lafaille’s work showed that rodents might store allergen information in a different type of B cell, one that produces an antibody type called IgG. […] Hoehn investigated the other genes expressed in the CD23 B cells of a subset of the children and found that a number of immune-related genes were active in the cells of children with peanut allergies. […] One important observation was that the researchers could compel IgG-producing cells taken from children with peanut allergies to make IgE in the lab. […] Together, these findings suggest that targeting this population of CD23 expressing IgG B memory cells could result in more long-lasting treatment of allergies. […] Those who develop CD23 IgG memory B cells primed to respond to certain allergens might be more likely to hold on to their food allergies later in life. […] With some research suggesting that food allergies are becoming more common among both children and adults, identifying what is causing allergies to last so long could help treat them on a more long-term basis, says Hoehn.

• #56 Peanut Allergy May Hold Clues to Other Food Allergies, Study Finds < Yale School of Medicine

  https://medicine.yale.edu/news-article/peanut-allergy-may-hold-clues-to-other-food-allergies-study-finds/

  Lafaille’s work showed that rodents might store allergen information in a different type of B cell, one that produces an antibody type called IgG. […] Hoehn investigated the other genes expressed in the CD23 B cells of a subset of the children and found that a number of immune-related genes were active in the cells of children with peanut allergies. […] One important observation was that the researchers could compel IgG-producing cells taken from children with peanut allergies to make IgE in the lab. […] Together, these findings suggest that targeting this population of CD23 expressing IgG B memory cells could result in more long-lasting treatment of allergies. […] Those who develop CD23 IgG memory B cells primed to respond to certain allergens might be more likely to hold on to their food allergies later in life. […] With some research suggesting that food allergies are becoming more common among both children and adults, identifying what is causing allergies to last so long could help treat them on a more long-term basis, says Hoehn.

• #57 Food Allergies: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/135959-overview

  T-cellmediated responses to food allergens may also mediate allergic responses, particularly in disorders with delayed or chronic symptoms. For example, food proteininduced enterocolitis syndrome (FPIES), a gastrointestinal food allergy, appears to be mediated by T-cell production of the cytokine tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha. […] Eosinophilic esophagitis and gastrointestinal disease are eosinophilic mediated. Eosinophil granules release substances toxic to multiple tissues. These substances include major basic protein 1 and 2, eosinophilic cationic protein, eosinophilic-derived neurotoxin, and eosinophil peroxidase. Triggering of eosinophils leads to the generation of proinflammatory cytokines including Il-1, Il-3, Il-4, Il-5, and Il-13, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor.

• #58 AAIR :: Allergy, Asthma & Immunology Research

  https://www.e-aair.org/search.php?where=aview&id=10.4168/aair.2009.1.1.19&code=9999AAIR&vmode=AFTR

  Several host factors can influence the development of food allergies. […] Gastric digestion normally serves to breakdown food proteins, and in many cases destroys immunogenic epitopes in the process. […] The role of gastric acidity was investigated by Untersmayr et al. using a murine model. […] Additional properties of peanut make it a highly allergenic protein. Glycosylated Ara h 1, a major peanut allergen, has been shown to act as a Th2 adjuvant by activating dendritic cells to drive Th2 cell maturation. […] In contrast, deglycoslyated Ara h 1 did not activate dendritic cells. […] Recently, peanut proteins were shown to have the ability to induce production of complement (C3a) leading to increased platelet-activating factor and histamine production by macrophages, basophils, and mast cells.

• #59 Long Non-Coding RNAs Expressed in the Peanut Allergy for Understanding the Pathophysiology of Peanut Allergy Rat Model

  https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/11/23/3760

  Peanut allergy (PA) has become a clinical and public health problem, which is mainly regulated by genetics, immune responses, and environmental factors. […] Developing therapies for peanut allergy continues to be a challenge and our understanding of its etiology and pathobiology remain limited. […] Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) were defined as non-protein-coding RNA transcripts with greater than 200 nucleotides in length, accounting for approximately 98% of the total RNAs. […] The role of some non-coding RNAs in allergic diseases, including asthma and atopic dermatitis, has been demonstrated, indicating that they can be served as therapeutic targets and biomarkers for allergic diseases. […] To date, peanut allergy is clinically confirmed by in vivo methods, such as food challenges and skin prick tests (SPT), combined with serum-specific immunoglobulin E (sIgE) detection, which tends to overdiagnose for PA.

• #60 Long Non-Coding RNAs Expressed in the Peanut Allergy for Understanding the Pathophysiology of Peanut Allergy Rat Model

  https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/11/23/3760

  Therefore, in the present study, to identify differentially expressed lncRNA patterns and elucidate their potential roles in peanut allergy, we constructed a peanut allergy rat model and performed a systematic transcriptome analysis derived from deep transcription sequencing between PA individuals and a control. […] Moreover, the lncRNA–mRNA co-expression network was investigated to find the underlying mechanisms, which may provide new insights into exploring the food allergy-induced inflammatory response. […] In summary, we assessed the correlation between lncRNA expression levels and the diagnosis of peanut allergy, which may perform a vital role in guiding the management of peanut allergy.

• #61 Researchers Find Gene Mechanism Behind Peanut Allergy Remission with Potential for Other Allergies | SnackSafely.com

  https://snacksafely.com/2022/05/researchers-find-gene-mechanism-behind-peanut-allergy-remission-with-potential-for-other-allergies/

  The immunological changes leading to remission of peanut allergy were largely unknown. […] What we found was profound differences in network connectivity patterns between children who were allergic and those who were in remission. […] These same changes were also seen when we compared gene networks before and after immunotherapy in the children who achieved remission following immunotherapy. […] Certain changes in the allergen-specific immune cells, called Th2 cells, are critical to achieving lasting remission. […] Th2 cells are essential for generating allergen-specific antibodies and the development of food allergy. […] We found that the Th2 signaling that drives allergy is turned off in children in remission.

• #62 Researchers Find Gene Mechanism Behind Peanut Allergy Remission with Potential for Other Allergies | SnackSafely.com

  https://snacksafely.com/2022/05/researchers-find-gene-mechanism-behind-peanut-allergy-remission-with-potential-for-other-allergies/

  The immunological changes leading to remission of peanut allergy were largely unknown. […] What we found was profound differences in network connectivity patterns between children who were allergic and those who were in remission. […] These same changes were also seen when we compared gene networks before and after immunotherapy in the children who achieved remission following immunotherapy. […] Certain changes in the allergen-specific immune cells, called Th2 cells, are critical to achieving lasting remission. […] Th2 cells are essential for generating allergen-specific antibodies and the development of food allergy. […] We found that the Th2 signaling that drives allergy is turned off in children in remission.

• #63 Immunotherapy for Peanut Allergy | National Agricultural Library

  https://www.nal.usda.gov/research-tools/food-safety-research-projects/immunotherapy-peanut-allergy

  Peanut allergy is one of the most serious of the immediate hypersensitivity reactions to foods in terms of persistence and severity of reaction, and it appears to be a growing problem. A biased Th2/IgE immune reaction to peanut allergens is critical for the hypersensitivity response. The mechanisms leading to a lack of oral tolerance and generation of Th2/IgE bias to peanut allergens have remained undefined, hindering the development of new and effective approaches to prevent peanut as well as other food allergies. An understanding of the molecular mechanisms of peanut allergy is vital to ensure the eventual successful treatment of peanut allergic patients. […] We hypothesize that TLR-induced innate immune responses promote oral tolerance to peanut allergens and that inducing TLR-mediated innate immunity at the time of peanut allergen challenge may effectively decrease peanut allergenicity. […] The proposed studies are expected to determine the role of innate immune responses in the pathogenesis of peanut allergy by using a new murine model for the disease and also to provide new therapeutic reagents for peanut allergy by targeting the Toll-like receptors.

• #64 PRT100 Mechanism of Action | Prota Therapeutics

  https://protatherapeutics.com/index.php/aa/

  Principle: The acquisition of tolerance is achieved through immunomodulation of the bodys response to the allergen. Protas proprietary oral immunotherapy has been shown to have immunomodulatory effects that are expected to support acquisition of oral tolerance. […] Mechanism: In allergic individuals, an inappropriate T helper 2 (Th2) response has developed to the food allergen(s) leading to production of peanut-specific IgE antibodies (sIgE) and differentiation of mast cells. Upon re-exposure to peanut, peanut allergens bind to peanut sIgE antibodies on the surface of the mast cells, and crosslinking of adjacent peanut sIgE antibodies results in activation of mast cells, triggering the release of mast cell mediators which in turn lead to the symptoms of an allergic reaction. […] The immune modulating actions of PRT120 direct the immune system to respond differently to peanut allergen, supporting a tolerance-type response in place of an allergic response. Over time there is redirection of the peanut-specific immune response away from allergy towards tolerance. Protas clinical studies have shown that children who achieve sustained unresponsiveness / remission after treatment have significant reduction in blood levels of peanut sIgE as well as Ara h 2 sIgE, indicating redirection of the underlying peanut allergy. Importantly, these reductions in blood levels of peanut and Ara h 2 sIgE antibodies are long-lasting, with greater than 85% reduction in levels persisting to 12-months post-treatment.

• #65 Nanoparticle with mRNA appears to prevent, treat peanut allergies in mice | UCLA

  https://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/nanoparticle-mrna-possible-treatment-peanut-allergies

  UCLA scientists have developed a nanoparticle that delivers mRNA to liver cells in order to teach the immune system to tolerate peanut protein and alleviate allergies. […] The researchers focused on the liver for two reasons: First, the organ is trained not to respond to every challenge because it is regularly bombarded with foreign substances, including allergens. Second, the organ is home to cells called antigen-presenting cells, which collect foreign proteins and train the immune system to tolerate them rather than attacking when they’re detected. […] The scientists improved on the design of their previous nanoparticle by adding a sugar molecule on its surface that specifically binds to antigen-presenting cells. Using mRNA was another step forward. […] In both versions of the experiment, the scientists measured the levels of specific immune cells as well as certain antibodies, enzymes and cytokines, which confirmed that the upgraded nanoparticle had increased the animals tolerance for peanut protein. […] He added that substituting an mRNA payload coding for different epitopes opens up the potential to adapt the nanoparticle for other allergies and autoimmune disorders.

• #66

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40629-021-00164-8

  Peanut allergy is a potentially life-threatening disease because it leads to severe allergic reactions, especially in children but also in adults. […] These include sublingual, epicutaneous and oral peanut immunotherapy. Nonspecific treatment approaches with new-targeted antibodies such as anti-IgE (omalizumab) or anti-IL-4/IL-13 receptor antibodies (dupilumab) can also be used to treat peanut allergy with regard to the mode of action of these antibodies. […] The peanut allergens clinically relevant for severe reactions are heat-stable and belong to the family of storage proteins. They include the 7S globulins (Ara h 1), the 11S globulins (Ara h 3), and the 2S albumins (Ara h 2/6). Of these, Ara h 2 is reported to be a marker allergen for severe reactions in many patients. […] In contrast to inhalation allergies, specific immunotherapy is not yet established for the treatment of peanut allergies.

• #67

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40629-021-00164-8

  Another antibody of great interest with regard to the treatment of food allergies is dupilumab. […] Ultimately, the concept of omalizumab monotherapy is to achieve long-term treatment, while a combined use with oral immunotherapy aims to provide temporary anti-IgE treatment. […] These biologics modulate the IgE-dependent reactions that occur in food allergies and can be used alone or in combination with allergen-specific approaches.

• #68

  https://www.jci.org/articles/view/150634

  Peanut oral immunotherapy (OIT) was recently approved by the US FDA. However, not all patients respond to OIT, and there is a high likelihood of regaining sensitization to peanuts after cessation of treatment. […] In this issue of the JCI, Monian, Tu, and colleagues describe distinct subsets of peanut-reactive CD4+ Th cell phenotypes and gene signatures with relevance to OIT outcomes using single-cell RNA-Seq and paired T cell receptor (TCR) / sequencing. The insights obtained will inform the development of therapeutics that target these Th cell phenotypes or deplete peanut-specific Th2 cells to achieve sustained nonresponsiveness in food allergy. […] Food allergy is an immune hypersensitivity condition characterized by high-affinity allergen-specific IgE antibodies and allergen-specific T helper 2 (Th2) cells.

• #69

  https://www.jci.org/articles/view/150634

  Oral immunotherapy (OIT) is currently the only FDA-approved treatment for food allergy intended to prevent anaphylaxis. OIT involves the daily ingestion of escalating doses of allergen. Most patients (80%-85%) achieve desensitization (a loss in clinical reactivity with regular consumption of the allergen), but only about one-third of patients maintain unresponsiveness if treatment is discontinued for even just a few months. […] Studies of the impact of OIT on circulating T cells have consistently found evidence for suppression of Th2 responses, but most of these studies have not correlated T cell responses with heterogenous clinical outcomes. […] We observed expanded populations of cells expressing Th1, Th2, and Th17 signatures that further separated into 6 clonally distinct subsets. […] Positive outcomes were associated with stronger suppression of Th2 signatures in Th2A-like cells, while treatment failure was associated with the expression of baseline inflammatory gene signatures that were present in Th1 and Th17 cell populations and unmodulated by OIT. […] These results demonstrate that differential clinical responses to OIT are associated with both preexisting characteristics of peanut-reactive CD4+ T cells and suppression of a subset of Th2 cells.

• #70 PRT100 Mechanism of Action | Prota Therapeutics

  https://protatherapeutics.com/index.php/aa/

  Principle: The acquisition of tolerance is achieved through immunomodulation of the bodys response to the allergen. Protas proprietary oral immunotherapy has been shown to have immunomodulatory effects that are expected to support acquisition of oral tolerance. […] Mechanism: In allergic individuals, an inappropriate T helper 2 (Th2) response has developed to the food allergen(s) leading to production of peanut-specific IgE antibodies (sIgE) and differentiation of mast cells. Upon re-exposure to peanut, peanut allergens bind to peanut sIgE antibodies on the surface of the mast cells, and crosslinking of adjacent peanut sIgE antibodies results in activation of mast cells, triggering the release of mast cell mediators which in turn lead to the symptoms of an allergic reaction. […] The immune modulating actions of PRT120 direct the immune system to respond differently to peanut allergen, supporting a tolerance-type response in place of an allergic response. Over time there is redirection of the peanut-specific immune response away from allergy towards tolerance. Protas clinical studies have shown that children who achieve sustained unresponsiveness / remission after treatment have significant reduction in blood levels of peanut sIgE as well as Ara h 2 sIgE, indicating redirection of the underlying peanut allergy. Importantly, these reductions in blood levels of peanut and Ara h 2 sIgE antibodies are long-lasting, with greater than 85% reduction in levels persisting to 12-months post-treatment.

• #71 Do Genes Play a Role in Peanut Allergies? New Study Suggests Yes | Johns Hopkins | Bloomberg School of Public Health

  https://publichealth.jhu.edu/2015/do-genes-play-a-role-in-peanut-allergies-new-study-suggests-yes

  Researchers have pinpointed a region in the human genome associated with peanut allergy in U.S. children, offering strong evidence that genes can play a role in the development of food allergies. […] But in an additional finding that suggests genes are not the only players in food allergies, the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health-led research team found there may be other molecular mechanisms that may contribute to whether those who are genetically predisposed to peanut allergies actually develop them. […] They found that a genomic region harboring genes such as HLA-DQ and HLA-DR and located on chromosome six is linked to peanut allergy. This study suggests that the HLA-DR and -DQ gene region probably poses significant genetic risk for peanut allergy as it accounted for about 20 percent of peanut allergy in the study population.

• #72 Do Genes Play a Role in Peanut Allergies? New Study Suggests Yes | Johns Hopkins | Bloomberg School of Public Health

  https://publichealth.jhu.edu/2015/do-genes-play-a-role-in-peanut-allergies-new-study-suggests-yes

  One possible reason, they determined, was that epigenetic changes may also play a role. Epigenetic changes, in which a methyl group attaches itself to the DNA, alter the expression of a gene without altering its underlying code. The levels of DNA methylation regulate whether people with genetic susceptibility to the peanut allergy actually developed it. […] Unlike genes themselves, DNA methylation levels can change in response to environmental exposures, (in particular, in-utero and during the first few years of life) and the changes are potentially reversible. By identifying what environmental factors can alter DNA methylation levels in people with genes that make them susceptible to peanut allergy, researchers could potentially open a new avenue for prevention and treatment of peanut allergy.

• #73 Do Genes Play a Role in Peanut Allergies? New Study Suggests Yes | Johns Hopkins | Bloomberg School of Public Health

  https://publichealth.jhu.edu/2015/do-genes-play-a-role-in-peanut-allergies-new-study-suggests-yes

  One possible reason, they determined, was that epigenetic changes may also play a role. Epigenetic changes, in which a methyl group attaches itself to the DNA, alter the expression of a gene without altering its underlying code. The levels of DNA methylation regulate whether people with genetic susceptibility to the peanut allergy actually developed it. […] Unlike genes themselves, DNA methylation levels can change in response to environmental exposures, (in particular, in-utero and during the first few years of life) and the changes are potentially reversible. By identifying what environmental factors can alter DNA methylation levels in people with genes that make them susceptible to peanut allergy, researchers could potentially open a new avenue for prevention and treatment of peanut allergy.

• #74 Peanut – FoodAllergy.org

  https://www.foodallergy.org/living-food-allergy/food-allergy-essentials/common-allergens/peanut

  When a person with a peanut allergy is exposed to peanut, proteins in the peanut bind to specific IgE antibodies made by the persons immune system. Subsequent exposure to peanut protein, typically by oral ingestion, triggers the persons immune defenses, leading to reaction symptoms that can be mild or very severe. […] Peanut allergies affect up to 2% of pediatric population, and many will carry this allergy into adulthood. […] Peanut allergies tend to be lifelong, although studies show that about 20 percent of children with peanut allergy do eventually outgrow their allergy.

• #75 Natural course of IgE-mediated food allergy in children

  https://www.e-cep.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.3345/cep.2022.01004

  Immunosuppressive regulatory B cells regulate the immune responses by suppressing effector T cells via the production of suppressor cytokines such as IL-10 and TGF-. […] Numerous studies have shown that IgE-mediated allergies to cows milk, hens eggs, wheat, and soy are more likely to resolve in childhood, while allergies to peanuts, tree nuts, and seafood tend to persist. […] Peanut allergy is a very active research field, especially in the West, and according to the latest Australian population-based prospective study, peanut allergy had resolved in 29% by 6 years of age. […] Studies showed that the persistence of food allergy was considerably associated with the baseline, peak (highest at all ages), and/or time point food-specific IgE levels. […] The current leading treatment for modifying the natural course of food allergy is oral immunotherapy, an allergen-specific approach based on progressive incremental ingestion of the food allergen doses until a daily maintenance dosage is reached to achieve desensitization. […] To provide the optimal treatment to patients with food allergy and help improve their quality of life, it is essential that clinicians understand the natural course of individual food allergies.

• #76 Natural course of IgE-mediated food allergy in children

  https://www.e-cep.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.3345/cep.2022.01004

  Immunosuppressive regulatory B cells regulate the immune responses by suppressing effector T cells via the production of suppressor cytokines such as IL-10 and TGF-. […] Numerous studies have shown that IgE-mediated allergies to cows milk, hens eggs, wheat, and soy are more likely to resolve in childhood, while allergies to peanuts, tree nuts, and seafood tend to persist. […] Peanut allergy is a very active research field, especially in the West, and according to the latest Australian population-based prospective study, peanut allergy had resolved in 29% by 6 years of age. […] Studies showed that the persistence of food allergy was considerably associated with the baseline, peak (highest at all ages), and/or time point food-specific IgE levels. […] The current leading treatment for modifying the natural course of food allergy is oral immunotherapy, an allergen-specific approach based on progressive incremental ingestion of the food allergen doses until a daily maintenance dosage is reached to achieve desensitization. […] To provide the optimal treatment to patients with food allergy and help improve their quality of life, it is essential that clinicians understand the natural course of individual food allergies.

• #77 Natural course of IgE-mediated food allergy in children

  https://www.e-cep.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.3345/cep.2022.01004

  The prevalence of food allergy and food-induced anaphylaxis in children is increasing worldwide. […] Although our understanding of the mechanism underlying the resolution of food allergy is incomplete, the roles of dendritic cells, regulatory T cells, and regulatory B cells are important. […] Dendritic, regulatory T, and regulatory B cells significantly contribute to the natural course of food allergy. […] Our understanding remains poor about why some food allergies outgrow earlier versus persist longer. Tolerance to food allergens is driven mainly by antigen-presenting cells within the gut lamina propria by the promotion of T-cell differentiation. […] Regulatory T cells, especially Foxp3+ regulatory T cells characterized by CD25 expression, play an essential role in oral tolerance.

• #78 Natural course of IgE-mediated food allergy in children

  https://www.e-cep.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.3345/cep.2022.01004

  Immunosuppressive regulatory B cells regulate the immune responses by suppressing effector T cells via the production of suppressor cytokines such as IL-10 and TGF-. […] Numerous studies have shown that IgE-mediated allergies to cows milk, hens eggs, wheat, and soy are more likely to resolve in childhood, while allergies to peanuts, tree nuts, and seafood tend to persist. […] Peanut allergy is a very active research field, especially in the West, and according to the latest Australian population-based prospective study, peanut allergy had resolved in 29% by 6 years of age. […] Studies showed that the persistence of food allergy was considerably associated with the baseline, peak (highest at all ages), and/or time point food-specific IgE levels. […] The current leading treatment for modifying the natural course of food allergy is oral immunotherapy, an allergen-specific approach based on progressive incremental ingestion of the food allergen doses until a daily maintenance dosage is reached to achieve desensitization. […] To provide the optimal treatment to patients with food allergy and help improve their quality of life, it is essential that clinicians understand the natural course of individual food allergies.

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