Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Common Fractures of the Radius and Ulna | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2021/0315/p345.html

  Fractures of the radius and ulna are the most common fractures of the upper extremity, with distal fractures occurring more often than proximal fractures. A fall onto an outstretched hand is the most common mechanism of injury for fractures of the radius and ulna. […] The most common mechanism of injury for radius and ulna fractures is sudden axial loading onto the radius/ulna, often from a fall onto an outstretched hand with wrist extension. […] Radial head fractures may be difficult to visualize on initial imaging but should be suspected when there are limitations of elbow extension and supination following trauma. […] Diagnosis is confirmed with posteroanterior, lateral, and oblique radiographs. […] Patients with radial head fractures typically have reduced extension and supination. […] Combined fractures involving both the radius and ulna are usually the result of a high-energy injury (e.g., from athletic collisions or motor vehicle crashes).

• #1 FOOSH: What is It, FOOSH Injuries, Treatment and Prevention

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/what-is-foosh

  FOOSH is a term used to reference a number of orthopedic injuries. It’s a sort of acronym, and stands for a „fall onto an outstretched hand.” FOOSH accidents are the most common hand and wrist injuries. […] Some of the orthopedic injuries caused by FOOSH include: Colles fractures. A Colles’ fracture occurs in the forearm or wrist. During this fracture, the broken bone is bent outwards or backward. […] Smith fractures. Falling onto a flexed wrist can cause Smith fractures. Smith fractures are also known as Goyrand fractures. Though not a very common type of fracture, they mostly happen in young males and older women. […] Treatment of FOOSH injuries depends on the type of injury. If you suffered a mild injury, recovery may take a few weeks. However, if the injury is severe and requires treatment with surgery, you may have to do some physical therapy to fully recover. The whole recovery process may take up to two months.

• #1 Wrist Fracture – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499972/

  Wrist fractures are common in patients with osteoporosis. Almost any type of fall on the hand is associated with a risk of wrist fracture. […] The mechanism of injury in a distal radius fracture is an axial force across the wrist with the pattern of injury determined by bone density, the position of the wrist, and the magnitude and direction of the force. Most distal radius fractures result from falls with the wrist extended and pronated. […] High-energy injuries may result in significantly displaced or highly comminuted unstable fractures to the distal radius.

• #1 Distal Radius Fracture: Diagnosis, Treatment, Recovery | HSS

  https://www.hss.edu/conditions_distal-radius-fractures-of-the-wrist.asp

  While commonly referred to as a broken wrist, most wrist fractures are actually fractures of one or both of the two bones of the forearm, the radius and the ulna. A fracture of the distal radius is one of the most common types of injuries to the skeletal system. […] The end of the bone closest to the hand, the distal radius, is especially susceptible to breaking, because it composes approximately 80% of the wrist joint surface and is subjected to extreme load when people fall on their outstretched hands (FOOSH). […] The nature and location of this fracture, compounded by the multidirectional forces we exert on this joint in our daily lives, often requires surgery to achieve proper healing, restore anatomic alignment of this important bone, and function of the wrist joint. […] Either direction of fracture has a worse prognosis if it involves the joint surface (articular fracture), as this introduces the possibility of cartilage damage and ultimately, arthritis.

• #1 Distal Radius Fracture: Diagnosis, Treatment, Recovery | HSS

  https://www.hss.edu/conditions_distal-radius-fractures-of-the-wrist.asp

  Distal radius fractures are increasingly classified by specialists according to the mechanism of injury that caused the break. […] In falls from a height or other high energy injuries, the hand and wrist bones can be compressed against the flat surface of the distal radius, which yields under the tremendous, applied load. […] This compressive injury impacts the smaller wrist (carpal) bones into the joint surface of the radius, altering the lattice framework of the inside of the bone and smashing fragments of joint surface into the radius itself. […] In this high-energy injury, the carpal bones are dislocated from the end of the radius. Along with injury to the supporting ligaments of the wrist, this may result in fragmentation of a portion or all of the joint surface. […] This is a catastrophic injury, with extensive damage to the joint surface, fragmentation of the widened flare (metaphysis) of the distal radius, and damage to the shaft of the radius and/or the neighboring ulna.

• #1 Broken wrist – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/broken-wrist/symptoms-causes/syc-20353169

  A broken wrist is a break or crack in one or more of the bones of your wrist. The most common of these injuries occurs in the wrist when people try to catch themselves during a fall and land hard on an outstretched hand. […] The distal radius fracture is one of the most common fractures of the wrist. It usually occurs when people fall on an outstretched hand. […] A broken wrist can be caused by: Falls. Falling onto an outstretched hand is one of the most common causes of a broken wrist. […] Participating in certain sports activities and having the bone-thinning disease osteoporosis can increase your chances of breaking a wrist. […] Complications of a broken wrist are rare, but they might include: Ongoing stiffness, aching or disability. Stiffness, pain or aching in the affected area generally goes away eventually after your cast is removed or after surgery. However, some people have permanent stiffness or pain.

• #1 Smith Fracture (Distal Radius Fracture): Definition & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22329-smith-fracture

  A Smith fracture is a specific type of broken wrist. Its caused by falling or experiencing another trauma while your wrist is bent or flexed. […] The type of wrist fracture you have depends on how your bones broke and what the break itself looks like. Smith fractures usually come from falling with your wrist closed or flexed inward, or from a direct blow to the back of your hand. […] Falls are by far the most common cause. Most people diagnosed with a Smith fracture landed on the back of their wrist with their hand flexed or bent in toward their body. […] A Smith fracture is diagnosed with an X-ray. This tells your healthcare provider which of your bones are broken and which type of fracture you have. All broken wrists require an X-ray. […] How your Smith fracture is treated depends on the severity of the original break. Your broken bones need to heal back together, and there are several ways to make sure theyre repaired correctly.

• #1 Perilunate dislocation | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/perilunate-dislocation?lang=us

  Perilunate dislocations and perilunate fracture-dislocations are potentially devastating closed wrist injuries that are often missed on initial imaging. […] Perilunate dislocation involves traumatic rupture of the radioscaphocapitate, scapholunate interosseous and lunotriquetral interosseous ligaments. […] Mayfield et. al. have proposed a four-stage process to describe perilunar wrist instability where perilunate dislocation represents stage 2. […] Untreated there is a high risk of median nerve palsy, pressure necrosis, compartment syndrome, and long-term wrist dysfunction. […] As with other dislocations, perilunate dislocation should be reduced as soon as possible. […] Despite treatment, the long-term risk of degenerative arthritis is high (~60%). […] There is a higher rate of nonunion of scaphoid fractures when associated with perilunate dislocation than with isolated scaphoid fractures.

• #1 Wrist Fracture | Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia

  https://www.chop.edu/conditions-diseases/wrist-fracture

  Wrist fractures are the most commonly broken bones in the arm. Fractures of the wrist may involve several different bones including the radius and ulna the two bones of the forearm as well as the scaphoid, lunate and triquetrum three smaller carpal bones in the hand. […] The most common wrist fracture is a distal radius fracture, when the radius (the larger bone in the forearm) is fractured on the distal end, near the wrist. […] Complex, displaced and intra-articular fractures near the wrist can be more challenging to treat and require specialized expertise from experienced physicians. […] The most common cause of a broken wrist is to fall onto an outstretched arm or to get hit on the wrist. […] Accurate diagnosis helps us determine the best course of treatment for your child. […] Treatment for your child’s wrist fracture will depend on the type of fracture, as well as the age and development of your child.

• #1 Ulnar Styloid Fractures: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, and Treatment

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/does-a-ulnar-styloid-fracture-require-treatment-2549466

  A fracture of the ulnar styloid is a common type of wrist injury. This is a break at the end of the ulna, or the bony part of your wrist next to your pinky finger. This part of your wrist is also called the ulnar styloid process. […] The most common cause of an ulnar styloid fracture, or any other wrist fracture, is falling onto an outstretched arm. This could happen while playing sports, when falling off a bike, during a car accident, or just falling hard when you trip over something. […] Ulnar styloid wrist fractures usually happen along with another break called a distal radius fracture, which is at the end of the radius. Distal radius fractures are the most common type of wrist fracture and account for up to 20% of all fractures treated in emergency departments. […] While distal radius fractures usually require realignment, a cast, or surgery, ulnar styloid fractures themselves usually dont require treatment.

• #1 Wrist Fracture > Fact Sheets > Yale Medicine

  https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/wrist-fracture

  A wrist fracture can mean that a person has broken one of the small (carpal) bones in this joint or, more commonly, the distal radius, which is the larger of the two bones that make up the forearm. This bone most often breaks at the lower end, near where it connects to the bones of the hand and thumb. […] The first group is elderly men and women who are vulnerable to wrist fracture because of low bone density. Because their bones are fragile, it doesn’t take much of a fall to break the wrist. […] Patients in the second group tend to be younger and more active, with fractured wrists resulting from what Dr. Swigart calls higher energy mechanisms, such as a skiing mishap or getting hit while playing contact sports. The breaks those patients sustain tend to involve the wrist joint and are often more severe.

• #1 Buckled, bent or broken? A guide to paediatric forearm fractures

  https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2020/november/guide-to-paediatric-forearm-fractures

  The radius and ulna are the most commonly fractured long bones in the school-aged population, accounting for 40% of all fractures. […] The mechanism of injury may suggest the likelihood of fracture as well as type of fracture sustained. […] Torus fractures are characterised by buckling of one or more cortices of the bone as a result of a compressive force, typically a fall from standing height onto the outstretched hand. […] Greenstick fractures are incomplete fractures involving disruption of 13 sides of the bone with bending of the others, akin to bending and splintering a tongue depressor without snapping it clean in two. […] Acceptable fracture angulation is that which does not require manipulation and is dependent on the capacity to remodel and restore normal alignment. […] Greenstick fractures are inherently unstable and will continue to angulate if not adequately splinted.

• #1 Buckled, bent or broken? A guide to paediatric forearm fractures

  https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2020/november/guide-to-paediatric-forearm-fractures

  A complete fracture disrupts the entire cortex, with resultant deformity and angulation. […] Salter-Harris fractures involve the growth plate. […] The risk of growth plate damage with fracture increases with increasing Salter-Harris grade. […] In cases of isolated radius or ulna fracture, particularly with significant angulation or displacement, it is important to check the elbow and wrist joints to rule out an associated dislocation. […] Galeazzi fracture-dislocations involve a fracture of the distal third of the radius and dislocation of the distal radioulnar joint at the wrist. […] Monteggia fracture-dislocations involve a fracture of the ulna associated with dislocation of the proximal radius (radial head). […] Fracture-dislocations should be splinted to include the elbow and wrist to prevent forearm rotation.

• #1

  https://www.orthobullets.com/trauma/1027/distal-radius-fractures

  Distal radius fractures are the most common orthopaedic injury and generally result from fall on an outstretched hand. […] Mechanism of injury fall on outstretched hand (FOOSH) from standing height is most common in older population. […] Higher energy mechanism more common in younger patients, particularly motor vehicle collisions. […] Distal radius fractures are a predictor of subsequent fractures. […] DEXA scan is recommended for older patients with distal radius fractures and/or lower energy mechanisms.

• #1 Wrist Fractures: Treatment and Prevention – Washington Orthopaedics & Sports Medicine

  https://www.wosm.com/blog/wrist-fractures-treatment-prevention/

  A fracture of the wrist is one of the most common types of fractures presenting to emergency rooms today, and the frequency of these fractures is increasing. In those over age 65, wrist fractures account for 18% of all fractures. […] The most common cause of distal radius fractures is a fall onto your outstretched wrist. In younger folks with healthy bone, a fair amount of force is required to break this bone, such as a fall from a bicycle or a ladder onto an outstretched wrist. As we get older, the strength of our bones often is diminished (osteopenia or osteoporosis). As a result, in an older person, a simple fall from standing or walking can result in a distal radius fracture. […] Distal radius fractures are common, and can often be treated with simple cast immobilization. In some circumstances, surgery is recommended to optimize function and recovery. A healthy diet and healthy lifestyle is critical to maintaining proper bone density and bone health.

• #1 Wrist Fractures: Types and Treatment | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/wrist-fractures

  If a Colles’ fracture, in particular, seems to have occurred with a force equivalent to a fall from a standing height or less then a fragility fracture due to osteoporosis should be suspected. […] Wrist fracture is the most common fragility fracture in perimenopausal and young postmenopausal women. […] Patients experiencing a first fragility fracture are at increased risk of a second fracture within 1-2 years, if their osteoporosis remains untreated.

• #1 Bone fracture – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone_fracture

  A bone fracture may be the result of high force impact or stress, or a minimal trauma injury as a result of certain medical conditions that weaken the bones, such as osteoporosis, osteopenia, bone cancer, or osteogenesis imperfecta, where the fracture is then properly termed a pathologic fracture. […] The natural process of healing a fracture starts when the injured bone and surrounding tissues bleed, forming a fracture hematoma. […] Several factors may help or hinder the bone healing process. For example, tobacco smoking hinders the process of bone healing, and adequate nutrition (including calcium intake) will help the bone healing process. […] Although there are theoretical concerns about NSAIDs slowing the rate of healing, there is not enough evidence to warrant withholding the use of this type analgesic in simple fractures.

• #1 Fractures Without Significant Trauma | UW Radiology

  https://rad.washington.edu/about-us/academic-sections/musculoskeletal-radiology/teaching-materials/online-musculoskeletal-radiology-book/fractures-without-significant-trauma/

  The circumstance of fracture without any history of significant trauma is not uncommon. Whenever you get this history, a red flag should pop up in your visual cortex and a bell should go off in your auditory tracts. […] Generally, the differential diagnosis here is fairly logical. The thing to remember is that a bone needs a reason to break. Usually, that reason is that a substantial force has been applied to the bone. If there is no evidence of such a force, we must look for some other reason. […] Fractures through abnormal bone are called “pathological” fractures. Probably the most common cause of this is an underlying tumor, either benign or malignant. However, almost any underlying process of bone that weakens the bone can lead to a pathological fracture. Therefore, one should also consider infection, osteomalacia, and Paget’s disease, among other causes.

• #1 Fractures Without Significant Trauma | UW Radiology

  https://rad.washington.edu/about-us/academic-sections/musculoskeletal-radiology/teaching-materials/online-musculoskeletal-radiology-book/fractures-without-significant-trauma/

  With chronic repetitive stress, one can break any bone in the body. However, this is more likely in certain bones, such as the tibial shaft, the metatarsal shafts, the femur, and the bones of the pelvis. […] The main reason prompting the early diagnosis of stress fracture is so that the patient can be advised to rest the affected part. If the affected part continues to be loaded sufficiently, then a stress fracture may develop into a completed fracture through the bone.

• #1 Arm Wrestling Related Injuries: A Literature Review

  https://clinmedjournals.org/articles/iaos/international-archives-of-orthopaedic-surgery-iaos-3-022.php?jid=iaos

  Arm wrestling is a sport that begins with two people, usually by taking mutual positions around a table, placing their elbows on the table and joining their palms, and ending with the back of the opponent’s hand touching the table floor. […] Although this sport seems harmless, it can cause various injuries such as muscle, joint, connective tissue, nerve injury and extremity fracture when performed improperly. Most of the injuries from arm wrestling are soft tissue injuries as sprain of the shoulder’s muscular strain, wrist and elbow joints. However, different types of fractures can occur during arm wrestling such as the spiral fracture of the humeral shaft with or without butterfly fragment, fracture of the medial humeral epicondyle, radial head fracture with anterior dislocation, even a radial shaft fracture.

• #1 Arm Wrestling Related Injuries: A Literature Review

  https://clinmedjournals.org/articles/iaos/international-archives-of-orthopaedic-surgery-iaos-3-022.php?jid=iaos

  During the match, a significant torque occurs as a result of torsional and axial forces in the humerus shaft. When the humeral shaft cannot resist these forces, muscle, joint, connective tissue, nerve injury and fracture may occur. […] After arm wrestling, different types of fractures have been reported in the literature, but the most common fracture is humeral shaft fracture. A fracture of the humerus due to arm wrestling was first reported in 1975. It has been reported that 4-6% of the extremity fractures are humeral shaft fractures. Among the humeral shaft fractures, the most common region is 1/3 mid-region fractures, and spiral type fractures are the most common. […] In fractures caused by torsional forces, firstly a fracture line occurs on the bone surface. The spiral fracture line is formed as a result of high energy stress. Spiral fractures have two different fracture lines, one of which is an angled line rotating around the bone, and the other is longitudinal, extending to the proximal and distal of the spiral.

• #1 Arm Wrestling Related Injuries: A Literature Review

  https://clinmedjournals.org/articles/iaos/international-archives-of-orthopaedic-surgery-iaos-3-022.php?jid=iaos

  These fractures have been described as a strong internal rotation force created by the subscapularis, pectoralis, and latissimus dorsi muscles in the shoulder, which are resisted by an opponent’s external rotation force or another counter force. […] Also, forceful elbow flexion and shoulder internal rotation may lead to fracture of a spiral nature have been reported in the literature. […] According to some authors, pure rotator force without axial load on the humerus causes spiral fracture only, while axial load and rotator force can cause a butterfly fragment. […] Some authors mentioned that factors such as body and arm position during a competition, fatigue, muscle hypertrophy of muscle and body weight may determine the location and type of humeral fracture. […] It has been mentioned in the literature that patients with regular sport activity may be injured only muscle strain.

• #1 Arm Wrestling Related Injuries: A Literature Review

  https://clinmedjournals.org/articles/iaos/international-archives-of-orthopaedic-surgery-iaos-3-022.php?jid=iaos

  In a study of 93 patients with a closed humerus fracture, it was determined that only nine patients (8%) had a fracture due to arm wrestling. […] In another study conducted with 123 young soldiers who had humerus shaft fractures in 2020, it was reported that arm wrestling was the cause of the fracture in 65 (52.8%) of the cases. […] A sharp fragment of the humerus can damage related structures such as the brachial artery and the median or radial nerve. […] It has also been reported in the literature that there may be an injury to the radial nerve as a result of arm wrestling. […] Although the radial nerve injury rate due to humeral shaft fracture was reported to be 9.1% and 11.3% in the normal population, the rates of radial nerve damage as a result of humeral shaft fracture due to arm wrestling were reported to be 23% and 26.2%.

• #1 Broken Arm Facts: Types, Treatment, Healing Time & Pain Relief

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/broken_arm/article_em.htm

  A broken (fractured) arm means that one or more of the bones of the arm have cracked. This is a common injury occurring in both children and adults. […] Almost all injuries to the arm that result in a broken bone are caused in two ways: falls and direct trauma. […] The typical fall that produces a fracture occurs when a person falls on an outstretched hand. The location of the fracture can be from the wrist up to the shoulder depending on the direction of the fall, the age of the person, and other factors that modify the stresses applied to the bone. […] Direct trauma can be from a direct blow from an object such as a bat, the trauma during a car accident, or any accident that causes the direct application of force to a part of the arm. […] The initial evaluation by any physician, in the office or in the emergency department, begins with a thorough history and physical exam. By finding out the details of the accident, the doctor is able to determine what damage was done based on the mechanism of the trauma.

• #1 Forearm Fractures: Practice Essentials, Anatomy, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1239187-overview

  Fractures of both bones of the forearm are usually classified according to the level of fracture, the pattern of the fracture, the degree of displacement, the presence or absence of comminution or segment bone loss, and whether they are open or closed. Each of these factors may have some bearing on the type of treatment to be selected and the ultimate prognosis. The Orthopaedic Trauma Association (OTA)/Arbeitsgemeinschaft fr Osteosynthese (AO) schema is commonly used for classification. […] Disruption of the PRUJ or DRUJ is of great significance to treatment and prognosis. Determining whether the fracture is associated with joint injury is imperative because effective treatment demands that both the fracture and the joint injury be treated in an integrated fashion. […] The mechanism of injury is variable. The most common cause is a direct blow to the forearm, producing a single (nightstick) fracture of the ulna, the radius, or both. The next most likely mechanism is a fall on an outstretched hand with the forearm pronated. Other mechanisms of injury include road traffic accidents and athletic injuries. The force generated is usually much greater than that required to cause a Colles fracture. Most forearm shaft fractures resulting from falls occur in athletes or in persons who fall from heights.

• #1 Distal Radius Fractures – Colles – Smiths – Barton – TeachMeSurgery

  https://teachmesurgery.com/orthopaedic/wrist-and-hand/distal-radius-fracture/

  Distal radius fractures are most commonly caused by a fall on an outstretched hand (FOOSH). Due to osteoporosis, the risk of these fractures increases with age (termed fragility fractures). However, children between 5-15yrs are also prone to these fractures. […] The distal radius takes 80% of the axial load underneath the scaphoid and lunate fossae. A FOOSH causes a forced supination or pronation of the carpus; this in turn increases the impaction load of the distal radius. […] Distal radius fractures are commonly caused by a fall on an outstretched hand, most commonly in those with osteoporosis.

• #1 Distal radius fracture – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distal_radius_fracture

  A distal radius fracture, also known as wrist fracture, is a break of the part of the radius bone which is close to the wrist. Symptoms include pain, bruising, and rapid-onset swelling. The ulna bone may also be broken. […] The most common cause of this type of fracture is a fall on an outstretched hand from standing height, although some fractures will be due to high-energy injury. People who fall on the outstretched hand are usually fitter and have better reflexes when compared to those with elbow or humerus fractures. The characteristics of distal radius fractures are influenced by the position of the hand at the time of impact, the type of surface at point of contact, the speed of the impact, and the strength of the bone. Distal radius fractures typically occur with the wrist bent back from 60 to 90 degrees.

• #1 Distal Radius Fractures – Synergy Orthopedics

  https://synergysmg.com/distal-radius-fractures/

  Distal radius fractures are one of the most common broken bones in the arm. […] The radius makes a connection, or joint, with the other bone of the forearm called the ulna. […] If the radius does not have the proper alignment, then the biomechanics of the wrist can be altered, which could result in limited range of motion, pain, stiffness, and development of osteoarthritis. […] The most common cause of these fractures is a fall on an outstretched hand as most people will put their arms out to help break their fall. […] The force that is transmitted through the hand goes into the wrist causing the distal radius to break. […] The nature and severity of these fractures varies. […] There is often a significant amount of pain, swelling, and bruising around the wrist. […] Surgery allows for the bones to be held in a better position more securely.

• #1 Triquetrum fractures – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/triquetrum-fractures

  Triquetrum fractures typically occur from a fall onto an outstretched arm with the wrist in extension and ulnar deviation, or in extreme flexion. Shearing forces exerted by the proximal hamate, distal ulna, or both may play a role. In addition, either the dorsal or volar radiotriquetral ligaments may avulse triquetral fragments at their attachments.

• #1

  https://www.orthobullets.com/trauma/1025/radius-and-ulnar-shaft-fractures

  Radius and ulnar shaft fractures, also known as adult both bone forearm fractures, are common fractures of the forearm caused by either direct trauma or indirect trauma (fall). […] Mechanism of injury includes high energy transfer required to fracture the diaphyseal section of both bones of the forearm, which can occur from direct trauma, such as a direct blow to the forearm, or indirect trauma, such as motor vehicle accidents and falls from height. […] Low-energy diaphyseal radius and ulna fractures should raise suspicion for injuries to the wrist and elbow. […] The goal of treatment is for cortical opposition, compression, and restoration of forearm anatomy. […] Most important variable in functional outcome is to restore the radial bow. […] Malunion of the radius and ulna with angulation 20 degrees is likely to limit forearm rotation.

• #1 Distal radius fracture – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distal_radius_fracture

  Diagnosis may be evident clinically when the distal radius is deformed, but should be confirmed by X-ray. The differential diagnosis includes scaphoid fractures and wrist dislocations, which can also co-exist with a distal radius fracture. […] Surgery is generally indicated for displaced or unstable fractures. The techniques of surgical management include open reduction internal fixation (ORIF), external fixation, percutaneous pinning, or some combination of the above. The choice of operative treatment is often determined by the type of fracture, which can be categorized broadly into three groups: partial articular fractures, displaced articular fractures, and metaphyseal unstable extra- or minimal articular fractures. […] Prognosis varies depending on dozens of variables. If the anatomy (bony alignment) is not properly restored, function may remain poor even after healing. Restoration of bony alignment is not a guarantee of success, as soft tissue contributes significantly to the healing process.

• #1 Bone fracture – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone_fracture

  Smokers generally have lower bone density than non-smokers, so they have a much higher risk of fractures. There is also evidence that smoking delays bone healing. […] A fracture through a bone that has been made weak by some underlying disease is called pathological fracture. Osteoporosis is the most common cause of pathological fracture.

• #1 Broken Arm Facts: Types, Treatment, Healing Time & Pain Relief

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/broken_arm/article_em.htm

  In most instances, the broken arm will be able to be treated in the emergency department. […] Most fractures will need to have a splint or partial cast applied to stabilize the broken bones. Some breaks especially in the upper arm and shoulder may only need to be immobilized in a sling. […] The majority of fractures heal and normal arm movement is restored. Recovery can take six to eight weeks, while it can take a full year for the broken bone to fully heal. […] Many of these factors based on the individual injury and medical history may determine the outcome of a broken bone: Earlier treatment usually improves results. Fractures in younger children and adolescents tend to heal better. Fractures that have multiple breaks, involve a joint, have open wounds, or become infected could have healing complications. Older adults have an increased chance of losing some ability or movement in the broken arm. Chronic diseases such as osteoporosis and diabetes may slow the healing process.

• #1 Forearm Injuries and Fractures | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/forearm-injuries-and-fractures-pro

  Isolated proximal ulnar fractures are rare. Always examine for a Monteggia’s fracture/dislocation. […] Complications of forearm fractures include non-union and malunion (uncommon), compromise of the brachial/radial artery blood supply, median, ulnar or radial nerve injury, infection (more likely if the fracture is secondary to a crush injury), compartment syndrome (more common in both-bone forearm fractures), radioulnar fusion (synostosis), and re-fracture.

• #1 Smith Fracture (Distal Radius Fracture): Definition & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22329-smith-fracture

  The most intense fractures require surgery. Your surgeon will repair your broken bones and insert a metal plate and screws into your wrist to hold it together. […] Healing time depends on the severity of your fracture and which treatments you needed. It can take anywhere from a few months to more than a year to recover. […] Smith fracture complications can include: Acute compartment syndrome (ACS): A build-up of pressure in your muscles may stop blood from getting to tissue, which can cause permanent muscle and nerve damage. Malunion: This happens when your broken bones dont line up correctly while they heal. Carpal tunnel syndrome: A broken wrist that doesnt heal properly may lead to carpal tunnel syndrome, which causes pain, numbness and weakness in the affected hand. Bone infection (osteomyelitis): If you have an open wrist fracture (the bone breaks through your skin), you have an increased risk of bacterial infection. Other internal damage: Fractures can damage the area around your injury, including your muscles, nerves, blood vessels, tendons and ligaments.

• #1 Broken wrist – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/broken-wrist/symptoms-causes/syc-20353169

  Fractures that extend into a joint can cause arthritis years later. If your wrist starts to hurt or swell long after a break, see your doctor for an evaluation. […] Trauma to the wrist can injure adjacent nerves and blood vessels. Seek immediate attention if you have numbness or circulation problems.

• #1 Don’t let a broken wrist get you down | Santa Rosa Orthopaedics

  https://srortho.com/news/dont-let-a-broken-wrist-get-you-down/

  Fracture is generally take around 68 weeks to heal, but stiffness associated with them sometimes takes longer to work out. […] But almost all patients experience some stiffness in the hand and wrist which lessens over the first several weeks, and continues to improve for up to 12 years after the break.

• #1 Slip and Fall Wrist & Arm Fracture Lawsuits | Get Legal Help in Michigan

  https://theclarklawoffice.com/slip-and-fall-attorneys/wrist-and-arm-fractures/

  A fractured wrist or arm is usually noticeable right after a fall but not always. Some injuries may feel like a sprain or bruise at first, especially if swelling masks the severity of the break. […] Treatment for wrist and arm fractures depends on the type and severity of the injury. Some breaks can be managed with immobilization and rest, while others require surgery and extensive physical therapy. […] Recovery can be slow and frustrating, especially if you rely on your dominant hand for work or daily tasks. […] Wrist and arm fractures can disrupt nearly every part of your life from daily tasks like getting dressed or driving, to more serious impacts like missing work or undergoing surgery. […] Most people recover in 6 to 12 weeks, but severe fractures may take longer and require physical therapy to regain full strength and mobility.

• #1 Wrist Fractures: Types and Treatment | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/wrist-fractures

  Three quarters of wrist injuries are fractures of the distal radius and ulna. Accurate diagnosis and correct treatment help to prevent long-term loss of function. […] Wrist fractures in the elderly are associated with deformity and significant and prolonged/permanent loss of dependence, especially in frail patients. […] High-energy injuries to the wrist may involve complex fractures of the distal radius, radiocarpal dislocations, perilunate dislocations, and other intracarpal dislocations, depending on the energy of the injury and the position of the wrist at the time of impact. The trauma is often bilateral, with proximal lesions (elbow) very often associated with contusion or compression of the median nerve. […] Due to the vulnerability of the blood supply to the scaphoid, scaphoid fractures have a high risk of non-union and avascular necrosis with subsequent osteoarthritis; early diagnosis and treatment minimise these risks.

• #1 Broken Arms in Children | Boston Children’s Hospital

  https://www.childrenshospital.org/conditions/broken-arm

  A broken arm is a crack or break in one or more of the bones in arm. Broken arms, also known as arm fractures, are often caused by an impact injury, such as from a fall or collision. […] Childhood broken arms can be caused by: Falls: Falling onto an outstretched hand is the most common cause of a broken arm. Sports injuries: Collisions with other players or falling during sports can cause a broken arm. Trauma: Direct trauma to the arm (for example, from a car or bike accident) can cause broken bones. […] Treatment for a broken arm depends on the specific location and severity of the break, your child’s age, overall health, and medical history. […] Surgery may be needed to put broken bones back into place. A surgeon may insert metal rods or pins located inside the bone (internal fixation) or outside the body (external fixation) to hold bone fragments in place to allow alignment and healing. This is done under general anesthesia.

• #1 Broken Arm: Causes, Signs, and Treatment | The Hand Society

  https://www.assh.org/handcare/condition/broken-arm

  Many times, especially in children, broken arms heal well in a cast. The cast is usually on for 4-6 weeks, after which activities may be restricted for 2-3 months. […] With certain types of breaks, or if a cast won’t be effective, the doctor may recommend surgery to straighten the bones and put in pins, screws, plates or other devices to hold the bones in place while they heal. […] In severe cases, arthritis with pain and stiffness may result, even despite the best attempts to straighten the bones. […] Hand surgeons are specially trained to diagnose and treat fractures in the upper extremity.

• #1 Distal Radius Fracture: Diagnosis, Treatment, Recovery | HSS

  https://www.hss.edu/conditions_distal-radius-fractures-of-the-wrist.asp

  A proper diagnosis begins with proper imaging, including initial X-rays and possible advanced 3D imaging. […] If the fracture cannot be reduced within an acceptable degree of alignment, or it is deemed grossly unstable and likely to re-displace in plaster immobilization, the physician may recommend surgery to reduce and stabilize the fractured fragments under anesthesia. […] Unstable and/or displaced fractures in young and active individuals are often managed with surgery to align the fracture fragments and joint surfaces in order to optimize outcomes and a patients return to function. […] After determining the mechanism and type of distal radius fracture, its stability can be predicted to some extent based on five important factors. […] If a patients medical condition permits, the goals of treatment are relatively straightforward: restoration of bony alignment, attainment of smooth joint surfaces, and provision of stability until healing.

• #2 Distal Radius Fracture: Diagnosis, Treatment, Recovery | HSS

  https://www.hss.edu/conditions_distal-radius-fractures-of-the-wrist.asp

  While commonly referred to as a broken wrist, most wrist fractures are actually fractures of one or both of the two bones of the forearm, the radius and the ulna. A fracture of the distal radius is one of the most common types of injuries to the skeletal system. […] The end of the bone closest to the hand, the distal radius, is especially susceptible to breaking, because it composes approximately 80% of the wrist joint surface and is subjected to extreme load when people fall on their outstretched hands (FOOSH). […] The nature and location of this fracture, compounded by the multidirectional forces we exert on this joint in our daily lives, often requires surgery to achieve proper healing, restore anatomic alignment of this important bone, and function of the wrist joint. […] Either direction of fracture has a worse prognosis if it involves the joint surface (articular fracture), as this introduces the possibility of cartilage damage and ultimately, arthritis.

• #2 Is My Wrist Broken or Sprained?

  https://www.sports-health.com/sports-injuries/hand-and-wrist-injuries/my-wrist-broken-or-sprained

  It is a natural instinct to put out a hand and to try to catch oneself during a fall. This impulse is the cause for nearly all wrist sprains and fractures. Medical professionals even have an acronym for this mechanism of injury: FOOSH stands for fall on outstretched hand. […] A fracture affects the bone, and a sprain occurs when a ligament is overstretched or torn. […] A fracture is the medical term for a broken bone. The most common type of wrist fracture is a distal radius fracture, which is a fracture at the end of the long radius bone of the forearm. […] Sprains occur when ligaments—the fibrous bands of tissue that connect bones to each other—are stretched or torn. Wrist sprains are frequently caused by injury of the scapholunate ligament, which is a very important ligament that connects the scaphoid and the lunate carpal bones.

• #2

  https://www.orthobullets.com/trauma/1027/distal-radius-fractures

  Distal radius fractures are the most common orthopaedic injury and generally result from fall on an outstretched hand. […] Mechanism of injury fall on outstretched hand (FOOSH) from standing height is most common in older population. […] Higher energy mechanism more common in younger patients, particularly motor vehicle collisions. […] Distal radius fractures are a predictor of subsequent fractures. […] DEXA scan is recommended for older patients with distal radius fractures and/or lower energy mechanisms.

• #2 Forearm Fractures: Practice Essentials, Anatomy, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1239187-overview

  Fractures of both bones of the forearm are usually classified according to the level of fracture, the pattern of the fracture, the degree of displacement, the presence or absence of comminution or segment bone loss, and whether they are open or closed. Each of these factors may have some bearing on the type of treatment to be selected and the ultimate prognosis. The Orthopaedic Trauma Association (OTA)/Arbeitsgemeinschaft fr Osteosynthese (AO) schema is commonly used for classification. […] Disruption of the PRUJ or DRUJ is of great significance to treatment and prognosis. Determining whether the fracture is associated with joint injury is imperative because effective treatment demands that both the fracture and the joint injury be treated in an integrated fashion. […] The mechanism of injury is variable. The most common cause is a direct blow to the forearm, producing a single (nightstick) fracture of the ulna, the radius, or both. The next most likely mechanism is a fall on an outstretched hand with the forearm pronated. Other mechanisms of injury include road traffic accidents and athletic injuries. The force generated is usually much greater than that required to cause a Colles fracture. Most forearm shaft fractures resulting from falls occur in athletes or in persons who fall from heights.

• #2 Wrist Fractures: Treatment and Prevention – Washington Orthopaedics & Sports Medicine

  https://www.wosm.com/blog/wrist-fractures-treatment-prevention/

  A fracture of the wrist is one of the most common types of fractures presenting to emergency rooms today, and the frequency of these fractures is increasing. In those over age 65, wrist fractures account for 18% of all fractures. […] The most common cause of distal radius fractures is a fall onto your outstretched wrist. In younger folks with healthy bone, a fair amount of force is required to break this bone, such as a fall from a bicycle or a ladder onto an outstretched wrist. As we get older, the strength of our bones often is diminished (osteopenia or osteoporosis). As a result, in an older person, a simple fall from standing or walking can result in a distal radius fracture. […] Distal radius fractures are common, and can often be treated with simple cast immobilization. In some circumstances, surgery is recommended to optimize function and recovery. A healthy diet and healthy lifestyle is critical to maintaining proper bone density and bone health.

• #2 Distal Radius Fracture: Diagnosis, Treatment, Recovery | HSS

  https://www.hss.edu/conditions_distal-radius-fractures-of-the-wrist.asp

  Distal radius fractures are increasingly classified by specialists according to the mechanism of injury that caused the break. […] In falls from a height or other high energy injuries, the hand and wrist bones can be compressed against the flat surface of the distal radius, which yields under the tremendous, applied load. […] This compressive injury impacts the smaller wrist (carpal) bones into the joint surface of the radius, altering the lattice framework of the inside of the bone and smashing fragments of joint surface into the radius itself. […] In this high-energy injury, the carpal bones are dislocated from the end of the radius. Along with injury to the supporting ligaments of the wrist, this may result in fragmentation of a portion or all of the joint surface. […] This is a catastrophic injury, with extensive damage to the joint surface, fragmentation of the widened flare (metaphysis) of the distal radius, and damage to the shaft of the radius and/or the neighboring ulna.

• #2 5 Most Common Broken Bones | Orthopedic & Spine Center

  https://www.osc-ortho.com/blog/the-five-most-commonly-broken-bones-in-the-human-body/

  Colles’ fracture refers specifically to a fracture of the distal radius, typically occurring within an inch of the wrist joint. This type of fracture is frequently encountered, especially among older individuals with osteoporosis and typically occurs due to a fall on an outstretched hand, where the force is transmitted through the wrist joint. In severe cases, the radius fractures with dorsal displacement, resulting in a characteristic “dinner fork” deformity. […] Surgical Intervention will be necessary with dorsal displacement and requiring internal fixation, casting or splinting and a prolonged period of recovery and physical therapy for healing.

• #2 FOOSH: What is It, FOOSH Injuries, Treatment and Prevention

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/what-is-foosh

  FOOSH is a term used to reference a number of orthopedic injuries. It’s a sort of acronym, and stands for a „fall onto an outstretched hand.” FOOSH accidents are the most common hand and wrist injuries. […] Some of the orthopedic injuries caused by FOOSH include: Colles fractures. A Colles’ fracture occurs in the forearm or wrist. During this fracture, the broken bone is bent outwards or backward. […] Smith fractures. Falling onto a flexed wrist can cause Smith fractures. Smith fractures are also known as Goyrand fractures. Though not a very common type of fracture, they mostly happen in young males and older women. […] Treatment of FOOSH injuries depends on the type of injury. If you suffered a mild injury, recovery may take a few weeks. However, if the injury is severe and requires treatment with surgery, you may have to do some physical therapy to fully recover. The whole recovery process may take up to two months.

• #2 Distal radius fracture – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distal_radius_fracture

  A distal radius fracture, also known as wrist fracture, is a break of the part of the radius bone which is close to the wrist. Symptoms include pain, bruising, and rapid-onset swelling. The ulna bone may also be broken. […] The most common cause of this type of fracture is a fall on an outstretched hand from standing height, although some fractures will be due to high-energy injury. People who fall on the outstretched hand are usually fitter and have better reflexes when compared to those with elbow or humerus fractures. The characteristics of distal radius fractures are influenced by the position of the hand at the time of impact, the type of surface at point of contact, the speed of the impact, and the strength of the bone. Distal radius fractures typically occur with the wrist bent back from 60 to 90 degrees.

• #2 Wrist Fracture > Fact Sheets > Yale Medicine

  https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/wrist-fracture

  A wrist fracture can mean that a person has broken one of the small (carpal) bones in this joint or, more commonly, the distal radius, which is the larger of the two bones that make up the forearm. This bone most often breaks at the lower end, near where it connects to the bones of the hand and thumb. […] The first group is elderly men and women who are vulnerable to wrist fracture because of low bone density. Because their bones are fragile, it doesn’t take much of a fall to break the wrist. […] Patients in the second group tend to be younger and more active, with fractured wrists resulting from what Dr. Swigart calls higher energy mechanisms, such as a skiing mishap or getting hit while playing contact sports. The breaks those patients sustain tend to involve the wrist joint and are often more severe.

• #2 Buckled, bent or broken? A guide to paediatric forearm fractures

  https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2020/november/guide-to-paediatric-forearm-fractures

  A complete fracture disrupts the entire cortex, with resultant deformity and angulation. […] Salter-Harris fractures involve the growth plate. […] The risk of growth plate damage with fracture increases with increasing Salter-Harris grade. […] In cases of isolated radius or ulna fracture, particularly with significant angulation or displacement, it is important to check the elbow and wrist joints to rule out an associated dislocation. […] Galeazzi fracture-dislocations involve a fracture of the distal third of the radius and dislocation of the distal radioulnar joint at the wrist. […] Monteggia fracture-dislocations involve a fracture of the ulna associated with dislocation of the proximal radius (radial head). […] Fracture-dislocations should be splinted to include the elbow and wrist to prevent forearm rotation.

• #2 Wrist Fractures: Types and Treatment | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/wrist-fractures

  If a Colles’ fracture, in particular, seems to have occurred with a force equivalent to a fall from a standing height or less then a fragility fracture due to osteoporosis should be suspected. […] Wrist fracture is the most common fragility fracture in perimenopausal and young postmenopausal women. […] Patients experiencing a first fragility fracture are at increased risk of a second fracture within 1-2 years, if their osteoporosis remains untreated.

• #2 Fractures Without Significant Trauma | UW Radiology

  https://rad.washington.edu/about-us/academic-sections/musculoskeletal-radiology/teaching-materials/online-musculoskeletal-radiology-book/fractures-without-significant-trauma/

  The circumstance of fracture without any history of significant trauma is not uncommon. Whenever you get this history, a red flag should pop up in your visual cortex and a bell should go off in your auditory tracts. […] Generally, the differential diagnosis here is fairly logical. The thing to remember is that a bone needs a reason to break. Usually, that reason is that a substantial force has been applied to the bone. If there is no evidence of such a force, we must look for some other reason. […] Fractures through abnormal bone are called “pathological” fractures. Probably the most common cause of this is an underlying tumor, either benign or malignant. However, almost any underlying process of bone that weakens the bone can lead to a pathological fracture. Therefore, one should also consider infection, osteomalacia, and Paget’s disease, among other causes.

• #2 Broken arm – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/broken-arm/symptoms-causes/syc-20353260

  A broken arm involves one or more of the three bones in your arm the ulna, radius and humerus. One of the most common causes of a broken arm is falling onto an outstretched hand. […] Treatment depends on the site and severity of the injury. A simple break might be treated with a sling, ice and rest. However, the bone may require realignment (reduction) in the emergency room. […] A more complicated break might require surgery to realign the broken bone and to implant wires, plates, nails or screws to keep the bone in place during healing. […] Conditions that weaken bones, such as osteoporosis and bone tumors, increase your risk of a broken arm. This type of break is known as a pathological fracture. […] The prognosis for most arm fractures is very good if treated early. But complications can include:

• #2 Arm Wrestling Related Injuries: A Literature Review

  https://clinmedjournals.org/articles/iaos/international-archives-of-orthopaedic-surgery-iaos-3-022.php?jid=iaos

  During the match, a significant torque occurs as a result of torsional and axial forces in the humerus shaft. When the humeral shaft cannot resist these forces, muscle, joint, connective tissue, nerve injury and fracture may occur. […] After arm wrestling, different types of fractures have been reported in the literature, but the most common fracture is humeral shaft fracture. A fracture of the humerus due to arm wrestling was first reported in 1975. It has been reported that 4-6% of the extremity fractures are humeral shaft fractures. Among the humeral shaft fractures, the most common region is 1/3 mid-region fractures, and spiral type fractures are the most common. […] In fractures caused by torsional forces, firstly a fracture line occurs on the bone surface. The spiral fracture line is formed as a result of high energy stress. Spiral fractures have two different fracture lines, one of which is an angled line rotating around the bone, and the other is longitudinal, extending to the proximal and distal of the spiral.

• #2 Forearm Injuries and Fractures | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/forearm-injuries-and-fractures-pro

  Injury to the forearm usually results from trauma secondary to, for example, a fall, a road traffic accident or a sporting injury. It can also result from overuse. […] Wrist fractures are the most common forearm fracture. Fracture risk factors include osteoporosis (more common in women than in men) and malignancy (pathological fractures). […] Fractures of the radius and ulna may occur in isolation – usually due to a direct blow – but these are usually associated with fracture or displacement of the other bone in that forearm. […] Mechanism of injury: usually a significant force injury. These most commonly occur in motor vehicle accidents, and also occur from a direct blow, a fall from a height or during sport. […] Mechanism of injury: usually caused by a fall on to an outstretched, extended and pronated elbow, or by a direct blow.

• #2 Forearm Fractures: Practice Essentials, Anatomy, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1239187-overview

  Gunshot wounds can result in fracture of both bones of the forearm. These injuries are commonly associated with nerve or soft-tissue deficits and frequently have significant bone loss. Severely debilitating and mutilating injuries are caused by accidents involving farmyard machines and industrial machinery. These severely mangled extremities pose a challenge from the time the decision is made to salvage the limb until the final result.

• #2

  https://www.orthobullets.com/trauma/1025/radius-and-ulnar-shaft-fractures

  Radius and ulnar shaft fractures, also known as adult both bone forearm fractures, are common fractures of the forearm caused by either direct trauma or indirect trauma (fall). […] Mechanism of injury includes high energy transfer required to fracture the diaphyseal section of both bones of the forearm, which can occur from direct trauma, such as a direct blow to the forearm, or indirect trauma, such as motor vehicle accidents and falls from height. […] Low-energy diaphyseal radius and ulna fractures should raise suspicion for injuries to the wrist and elbow. […] The goal of treatment is for cortical opposition, compression, and restoration of forearm anatomy. […] Most important variable in functional outcome is to restore the radial bow. […] Malunion of the radius and ulna with angulation 20 degrees is likely to limit forearm rotation.

• #2 Smith Fracture (Distal Radius Fracture): Definition & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22329-smith-fracture

  The most intense fractures require surgery. Your surgeon will repair your broken bones and insert a metal plate and screws into your wrist to hold it together. […] Healing time depends on the severity of your fracture and which treatments you needed. It can take anywhere from a few months to more than a year to recover. […] Smith fracture complications can include: Acute compartment syndrome (ACS): A build-up of pressure in your muscles may stop blood from getting to tissue, which can cause permanent muscle and nerve damage. Malunion: This happens when your broken bones dont line up correctly while they heal. Carpal tunnel syndrome: A broken wrist that doesnt heal properly may lead to carpal tunnel syndrome, which causes pain, numbness and weakness in the affected hand. Bone infection (osteomyelitis): If you have an open wrist fracture (the bone breaks through your skin), you have an increased risk of bacterial infection. Other internal damage: Fractures can damage the area around your injury, including your muscles, nerves, blood vessels, tendons and ligaments.

• #2 Bone fracture – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone_fracture

  A bone fracture may be the result of high force impact or stress, or a minimal trauma injury as a result of certain medical conditions that weaken the bones, such as osteoporosis, osteopenia, bone cancer, or osteogenesis imperfecta, where the fracture is then properly termed a pathologic fracture. […] The natural process of healing a fracture starts when the injured bone and surrounding tissues bleed, forming a fracture hematoma. […] Several factors may help or hinder the bone healing process. For example, tobacco smoking hinders the process of bone healing, and adequate nutrition (including calcium intake) will help the bone healing process. […] Although there are theoretical concerns about NSAIDs slowing the rate of healing, there is not enough evidence to warrant withholding the use of this type analgesic in simple fractures.

• #2 Broken Arm Facts: Types, Treatment, Healing Time & Pain Relief

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/broken_arm/article_em.htm

  In most instances, the broken arm will be able to be treated in the emergency department. […] Most fractures will need to have a splint or partial cast applied to stabilize the broken bones. Some breaks especially in the upper arm and shoulder may only need to be immobilized in a sling. […] The majority of fractures heal and normal arm movement is restored. Recovery can take six to eight weeks, while it can take a full year for the broken bone to fully heal. […] Many of these factors based on the individual injury and medical history may determine the outcome of a broken bone: Earlier treatment usually improves results. Fractures in younger children and adolescents tend to heal better. Fractures that have multiple breaks, involve a joint, have open wounds, or become infected could have healing complications. Older adults have an increased chance of losing some ability or movement in the broken arm. Chronic diseases such as osteoporosis and diabetes may slow the healing process.

• #2 Broken arm – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/broken-arm/symptoms-causes/syc-20353260

  If the upper arm bone (humerus) fractures into two or more pieces, the jagged ends can injure nearby nerves and blood vessels. Seek immediate medical attention if you notice numbness or circulation problems. […] Excessive swelling of the injured arm can cut off the blood supply to part of the arm, causing pain and numbness. Typically occurring 24 to 48 hours after the injury, compartment syndrome is a medical emergency that requires surgery.

• #2 Arm Wrestling Related Injuries: A Literature Review

  https://clinmedjournals.org/articles/iaos/international-archives-of-orthopaedic-surgery-iaos-3-022.php?jid=iaos

  It has been reported that the radial nerve is mostly injured in the spiral fracture of the shaft of the humerus, but also in oblique fractures frequently. […] Also, it has been stated that the recovery of radial nerve palsy in the upper arm reaches a noticeable level in an average of 5-7 months after the injury and this period can be extended up to 16 months. […] As a result of radial nerve damage, weakness and atrophy may occur in the wrist muscles, especially in the wrist extensor muscles. […] Various factors have been identified that may facilitate possible arm injuries during arm wrestling. These include biomechanical factors such as the position of the body and arm during arm wrestling, anatomical peculiarity of bone, bone quality (osteoporosis), trained versus untrained wrestlers, newer versus experienced wrestlers etc. can be listed as factors.

• #2 Slip and Fall Wrist & Arm Fracture Lawsuits | Get Legal Help in Michigan

  https://theclarklawoffice.com/slip-and-fall-attorneys/wrist-and-arm-fractures/

  A fractured wrist or arm is usually noticeable right after a fall but not always. Some injuries may feel like a sprain or bruise at first, especially if swelling masks the severity of the break. […] Treatment for wrist and arm fractures depends on the type and severity of the injury. Some breaks can be managed with immobilization and rest, while others require surgery and extensive physical therapy. […] Recovery can be slow and frustrating, especially if you rely on your dominant hand for work or daily tasks. […] Wrist and arm fractures can disrupt nearly every part of your life from daily tasks like getting dressed or driving, to more serious impacts like missing work or undergoing surgery. […] Most people recover in 6 to 12 weeks, but severe fractures may take longer and require physical therapy to regain full strength and mobility.

• #2 Buckled, bent or broken? A guide to paediatric forearm fractures

  https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2020/november/guide-to-paediatric-forearm-fractures

  The radius and ulna are the most commonly fractured long bones in the school-aged population, accounting for 40% of all fractures. […] The mechanism of injury may suggest the likelihood of fracture as well as type of fracture sustained. […] Torus fractures are characterised by buckling of one or more cortices of the bone as a result of a compressive force, typically a fall from standing height onto the outstretched hand. […] Greenstick fractures are incomplete fractures involving disruption of 13 sides of the bone with bending of the others, akin to bending and splintering a tongue depressor without snapping it clean in two. […] Acceptable fracture angulation is that which does not require manipulation and is dependent on the capacity to remodel and restore normal alignment. […] Greenstick fractures are inherently unstable and will continue to angulate if not adequately splinted.

• #2 Fractures Without Significant Trauma | UW Radiology

  https://rad.washington.edu/about-us/academic-sections/musculoskeletal-radiology/teaching-materials/online-musculoskeletal-radiology-book/fractures-without-significant-trauma/

  When there is normal bone but just not enough of it, we call it osteoporosis. This is by far the most common reason for a fracture without significant trauma. […] Osteoporosis lies in wait for every living human, if only they live long enough to develop it. This is especially true of postmenopausal women, who may lose up to 20 % of their bone mass in a year in extreme cases. Other risk factors for osteoporosis include Caucasian heritage, smoking, lack of antigravity exercise, low dietary calcium intake, and various amenorrheic states. […] Now, how do you go about diagnosing osteoporosis? Well, if it is early osteoporosis, looking at radiographs won’t help you much, because plain films are hideously insensitive to osteopenia. […] To definitively diagnose osteoporosis, one must perform some type of quantitative imaging study on the bone in question. The current state of the art in quantitative bone assessment is dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA).

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