Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Overview – Munchausen syndrome – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/munchausen-syndrome/overview/

  Munchausen syndrome is a psychological condition where someone pretends to be ill or deliberately produces symptoms of illness in themselves. […] People with Munchausen syndrome can behave in a number of different ways, including pretending to have psychological symptoms for example, claiming to hear voices or claiming to see things that are not really there, pretending to have physical symptoms for example, claiming to have chest pain or a stomach ache, actively trying to get ill such as deliberately infecting a wound by rubbing dirt into it. […] Some people with Munchausen syndrome may spend years travelling from hospital to hospital faking a wide range of illnesses. […] People with Munchausen syndrome can be very manipulative and, in the most serious cases, may undergo painful and sometimes life-threatening surgery, even though they know it’s unnecessary.

• #1 Munchausen syndrome | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/munchausen-syndrome

  Munchausen syndrome is a rare type of mental disorder where a patient fakes illness to gain attention and sympathy. […] Symptoms of Munchausen syndrome include a spectacular medical history that includes many tests, medical procedures and operations, an odd collection of seemingly unrelated symptoms, a lack of conclusive results despite intense medical investigations, new symptoms that appear after medical tests prove negative, extensive medical knowledge of many different illnesses, frequently visiting many different doctors, sometimes in other states or territories, frequent presentation at emergency departments, usually at different hospitals, requests for invasive medical procedures or surgeries, and failure to improve despite medical treatment, including relapsing for unknown reasons.

• #1 How to Deal With Someone With Munchausen Syndrome

  https://balancerehabclinic.com/factitious-disorder/

  Features of the factitious condition can range from moderate (some exaggeration of complaints) to severe, formerly called Munchausen syndrome (full exaggeration of symptomatology). […] Munchausen syndrome is an appropriate medical term for a factitious condition that includes the following: Symptoms that are mostly physical […] A series of feigned illnesses and injuries. […] Its difficult to diagnose and manage factitious disorders. However, medical and mental health assistance is essential for averting major injuries and even death from self-harm, which is a common adverse outcome of this disorder. […] The condition does not progress as expected. […] Despite proper treatment, there remains a lack of recovery for no obvious reason. […] Treatment may be refused or ineffective, particularly for those with severe factitious conditions.

• #1

  https://www2.hse.ie/conditions/munchausens-syndrome/

  Munchausen’s syndrome is a serious mental disorder where a person deceives others by appearing to be sick, getting sick on purpose, or causing self-harm. […] People with Munchausen’s syndrome know they are causing their symptoms. […] There are 4 main ways people with Munchausen’s syndrome fake or induce illnesses. […] These include: faking symptoms – for example, choosing symptoms that are difficult to disprove, such as having a severe headache or pretending to have a seizure or to pass out; tampering with test results – for example, heating a thermometer to suggest a fever or adding blood to a urine sample; causing self-harm – for example, cutting or burning themselves, poisoning themselves with drugs, or eating food contaminated with bacteria; making existing conditions worse – for example, rubbing poo into wounds to cause an infection, or reopening previously healed wounds.

• #1 Munchausen’s syndrome | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/mental-health/munchausens-syndrome/

  People with Munchausens syndrome typically display a set pattern of behaviour. This pattern includes: lying about their symptoms and typically also lying about other aspects of their life, such as their past or level of education […] manipulating test results to suggest the presence of symptoms, such as adding blood to urine samples […] actually inflicting symptoms on themselves, such as poisoning themselves with an overdose of medication […] travelling from hospital to hospital in different parts of the country, and seeing many different doctors. […] Warning signs that somebody may have Munchausens syndrome include: frequent visits to hospitals in different areas […] symptoms that do not correspond to the results of tests […] symptoms that get worse for no apparent reason […] a willingness to undergo often painful or dangerous tests and procedures.

• #1

  https://www2.hse.ie/conditions/munchausens-syndrome/

  Signs that a person may have Munchausen’s syndrome include: making frequent visits to hospitals in different areas; claiming to have a history of complex and serious medical conditions; having symptoms that do not match with test results; having symptoms that get worse for no clear reason; having very good medical knowledge; being willing to undergo often painful or dangerous tests and procedures; reporting symptoms that are vague and inconsistent; telling unbelievable and often very elaborate stories about their past.

• #1 Signs and symptoms – Munchausen syndrome – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/munchausen-syndrome/symptoms/

  Signs and symptoms of Munchausen syndrome may include pretending to be ill, or self-harming to aggravate or induce illness. […] Some clues that a person may have Munchausen syndrome include: […] having symptoms that do not match test results […] having symptoms that get worse for no apparent reason […] being willing to undergo often painful or dangerous tests and procedures […] reporting symptoms that are vague and inconsistent, or reporting a pattern of symptoms that are „textbook examples” of certain health conditions.

• #1 Factitious disorder – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/factitious-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20356028

  Factitious disorder symptoms can range from mild to severe. People may make up symptoms or even tamper with medical tests to convince others that they need treatment, such as high-risk surgery. […] Factitious disorder symptoms involve people trying to look ill, making themselves ill or hurting themselves. They also may fake symptoms, make symptoms seem worse than they are or pretend they can’t do certain things because of their symptoms so they can deceive others. People with the condition work hard to hide their lies. It may be hard to know that their symptoms are part of a serious mental health condition. People with this condition continue with the lies, even without any benefit or reward, or when faced with evidence that doesn’t support their claims. […] Factitious disorder symptoms may include: Clever and convincing medical or mental health problems. Deep knowledge of medical terms and diseases. Vague symptoms or symptoms that aren’t consistent. Conditions that get worse for no clear reason. Conditions that don’t respond as expected to standard treatments. Seeking treatment from many healthcare professionals or hospitals, which may include using a fake name. Not wanting healthcare professionals to talk to family or friends or other healthcare professionals. Staying in the hospital a lot. Desire for frequent testing or risky surgeries and procedures. Many surgical scars or evidence of many procedures. Having few visitors when in the hospital. Arguing with healthcare professionals and staff.

• #1 Challenges presented by Munchausen syndrome | Tidsskrift for Den norske legeforening

  https://tidsskriftet.no/en/2017/05/commentary-and-debate/challenges-presented-munchausen-syndrome

  Symptom pictures and clinical presentations vary widely. The following are some of the symptoms, induced findings and previous misdiagnoses referred to in the literature or observed in our patients: injection of insulin to cause hypoglycaemia, complaints of retrosternal pain, self-inflicted skin lesions, simulated asthma attacks, self-inflicted corneal lesions, heated thermometer to simulate fever, introduction of blood to urine (either into the urine sample or through a catheter into the bladder), using a pupil-dilating substance to cause anisocoria, taking medicine to produce hypertension or alter blood samples, self-venesection to induce anaemia, induction of vaginal bleeding, false reporting of HIV/AIDS or cancer, the use of a tourniquet to cause swelling of an extremity, self-induced diarrhoea, simulation of epileptic attacks, coma or paralysis, complaints of chronic pain and simulation of deafness or blindness. […] Patients with Munchausen syndrome often start their behaviour in early adulthood, frequently after hospitalisation for a somatic or mental disorder.

• #1 Factitious Disorder Imposed on Self (Munchausen Syndrome)

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9833-munchausen-syndrome-factitious-disorder-imposed-on-self

  If you have factitious disorder imposed on self, you make up or exaggerate symptoms to appear ill. You may: Falsify feeling symptoms that you dont have. Show or pretend to have new or additional symptoms following test results or after treatment begins. Show symptoms only when alone. Alter diagnostic tests (like contaminating a urine sample). Pretend to take medications but hide them or spit them out. Intentionally harm yourself. […] Your prognosis varies based on your willingness to accept and follow a treatment plan. If you acknowledge the diagnosis and follow your healthcare providers instructions during treatment, youll likely have a positive outcome. If you deny or avoid treatment, your outcome may be poor, and your behavior could be very dangerous, even life-threatening. […] While some people might have only one episode of this condition, most experience recurring episodes throughout their lives. Ongoing treatment is necessary.

• #1 Munchausen syndrome | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/munchausen-syndrome

  A person with Munchausen syndrome gains intense satisfaction from the attention associated with playing the ill patient. […] A person with Munchausen syndrome is at risk of many complications including side effects from prescription medicines, including overdose, complications from poisoning or self-harm practices, complications from medical procedures or surgeries, and death from self-harm or complications of medical intervention. […] Treatment aims to manage rather than cure the condition, but is rarely successful. Recovery tends to be slow or non-existent.

• #1 Overview – Munchausen syndrome – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/munchausen-syndrome/overview/

  Munchausen syndrome can usually be diagnosed if there’s clear evidence of fabricating or inducing symptoms, the person’s prime motivation is to be seen as sick, there’s no other likely reason or explanation for their behaviour. […] It may be possible to help control the symptoms of Munchausen syndrome if the person admits they have a problem and co-operates with treatment. […] There’s no standard treatment for Munchausen syndrome, but a combination of psychoanalysis and cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) has shown some success controlling symptoms.

• #1 Factitious disorder | Altru Health System

  https://www.altru.org/health-library/conditions/factitious-disorder

  Diagnosing factitious disorder is often very hard. People with factitious disorder are experts at faking many diseases and conditions. And while these people often look like they have real and even life-threatening medical conditions, they may have brought those conditions on themselves. […] Treatment of factitious disorder is often hard, and there are no standard therapies. Because people with factitious disorder want to be in the sick role, they often aren’t willing to seek or accept treatment for the condition. But if approached in a way that doesn’t judge, people with factitious disorder may agree to have a mental health professional assess and treat them.

• #1 Munchausen Syndrome – MD Searchlight

  https://mdsearchlight.com/mental-health/munchausen-syndrome/

  Munchausen disorder is a mental health condition where a person fakes or intentionally creates physical or psychological symptoms. The symptom presentation can change and vary quite a bit, but there are several commonly seen symptoms. These may include chest or abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, low red blood cell count (anemia), lower than normal blood sugar (hypoglycemia), infections, seizure-like behavior, muscle weakness, headaches, loss of vision, skin injuries, and joint pains. […] Patients with Munchausen disorder often deliberately cause symptoms in themselves. For example, they might eat spoiled food on purpose, inject themselves with insulin when they don’t need it, intentionally hurt their skin to create wounds, take too much of a medication, or not take their medications as they are supposed to.

• #1

  https://slam.nhs.uk/munchausens-syndrome

  Munchausen’s syndrome is complex and poorly understood. […] Several factors have been identified as possible causes of Munchausen’s syndrome. These include: emotional trauma or illness during childhood this often resulted in extensive medical attention; a personality disorder a mental health condition that causes patterns of abnormal thinking and behaviour; a grudge against authority figures or healthcare professionals. […] Munchausen’s syndrome may be caused by parental neglect and abandonment, or other childhood trauma. […] There’s also some evidence to suggest people who have had extensive medical procedures, or received prolonged medical attention during childhood or their teenage years, are more likely to develop Munchausen’s syndrome when they’re older. […] Different personality disorders thought to be linked with Munchausen’s syndrome include: antisocial personality disorder where a person may take pleasure in manipulating and deceiving doctors; borderline personality disorder where a person struggles to control their feelings; narcissistic personality disorder where a person often swings between seeing themselves as special and fearing they’re worthless.

• #1 Munchausen Syndrome: Mental Disorder, Symptoms, Test & Treatment

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/munchausen_syndrome/article_em.htm

  Initially, the medical care of people with Munchausen syndrome is aimed at relieving the claimed symptoms and any injury made by the person to induce the symptoms. Treating people who have Munchausen syndrome is difficult because they are often unwilling to admit they have it. The treating doctor must be very judicious with invasive diagnostic tests or surgeries, yet try not to miss serious medical conditions. Many people with Munchausen syndrome experience long-term medical complications from illnesses they have induced or from the mechanisms used to treat them. […] People with Munchausen syndrome are rarely treated successfully. They are reluctant to seek treatment for the psychological problem and are generally unwilling to undergo psychiatric treatment. The self-inflicted illnesses and injuries of people with Munchausen syndrome can cause serious consequences. These individuals often undergo several unnecessary surgeries throughout their lifetime.

• #1 Challenges presented by Munchausen syndrome | Tidsskrift for Den norske legeforening

  https://tidsskriftet.no/en/2017/05/commentary-and-debate/challenges-presented-munchausen-syndrome

  Munchausen syndrome does not fall into the category of an ordinary somatic, psychological or psychosomatic illness, and its identification, diagnosis and treatment present an unusually great challenge. […] The designation Munchausen syndrome was introduced by the English psychiatrist Sir Richard Asher in 1951. […] Behaviour in Munchausen syndrome is assumed to reflect an underlying desire for attention, compassion, sympathy and in some cases addictive medicine (assuming that this last is not the primary motive). The urge can be so strong that the patient consents to and in some cases desires invasive examinations and operations, even at the risk of complications, pain and discomfort. […] In addition to mental illness, there are numerous examples of major and in some cases life-threatening self-induced and/or iatrogenic organic disorders. It has also been postulated that there may be relatively high mortality attributable to self-inflicted physical harm, complications after invasive procedures and camouflaging of important health information. In other words, the patients suffering is considerable.

• #1 SciELO Brazil – Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy: a narrative review Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy: a narrative review

  https://www.scielo.br/j/eins/a/wPQGR7K6kRfx9vQwGkrw56B/

  The disorder normally occurs in the first year of adulthood, and in most of cases after hospitalization of a general medical condition or other mental disorder. […] Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy are associated with high morbidity, and some reports on mortality have been published. […] The adequate diagnosis, management and referral of patients with factitious disorder upon hospital admission is fundamental for good prognosis and reduction of injuries and/or severe adverse events during hospitalization of these individuals. […] Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy are often not identified and diagnosed by physicians and other health professionals. The lack of identification may lead to many unnecessary laboratory tests and procedures which may prolong hospitalizations and increase costs of health systems.

• #1 Factitious Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557547/

  Factitious disorder imposed on self – Munchausen syndrome – is a syndrome in which patients consciously induce, feign, or exaggerate physical or psychiatric symptoms for primary gain. […] Patients with factitious disorders can pose a significant danger to themselves by undergoing a plethora of unnecessary procedures or in the induction of symptoms. […] The prognosis for these patients is generally poor. […] Patients with factitious disorders are generally considered to have a poor prognosis. […] When confronted, a majority of patients deny their behavior and very few consent to treatment. […] However, there is evidence that patients who persist with long-term therapy have favorable outcomes. […] Factitious disorder is not a benign disease and is associated with morbidity and mortality. […] Patients are known to cause potentially lethal self-injury and undergo risky procedures.

• #1 Factitious disorder imposed on self – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factitious_disorder_imposed_on_self

  Due to the behaviors involved, diagnosing factitious disorder is very difficult. Because induced symptoms may mimic those of a real disease or disorder, physicians must first rule out genuine disease. […] For a person to be diagnosed with factitious disorder imposed on self, they must meet the following criteria: The patient presents as sick or injured motivated by a primary gain, or internal reward of validation/attention as opposed to a secondary gain, which usually involves external benefits. […] There are common methods for inducing certain symptoms and mimicking specific diseases. […] Munchausen by internet is a term describing the pattern of behavior in factitious disorder imposed on self, wherein those affected feign illnesses in online venues to gain sympathy from online supporters.

• #2 Munchausen Syndrome – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK518999/

  Factitious disorder imposed on self, formerly known as Munchausen syndrome, is a psychiatric disorder in which a person assumes the role of a sick patient without the intention of external gain. Physical symptoms are intentionally produced with the purpose of appearing to be sick. […] Munchausen syndrome, also called factitious disorder imposed on self, is a psychiatric disorder in which a person assumes the role of a sick patient without the intention of external gain (time off from work, medications). Physical symptoms are intentionally produced with the purpose of gaining the appearance of a „sick patient.” […] In the large majority of cases, patients will present with somatic complaints that they present as correlated to a medical illness. Though the presentation of Munchausen disorder can vary widely, some of the most common presentations include chest pain, abdominal pain, vomiting and/or diarrhea, anemia, hypoglycemia, infections, seizures, weakness, headaches, vision loss, skin wounds, and arthralgias. It is not uncommon for the patient to purposefully induce symptoms, such as intentionally eating spoiled food, injecting insulin, picking at skin causing wounds, overdosing on medications, and not taking medications as prescribed. […] The prognosis for Munchausen disorder is generally poor as few patients are willing to admit to their maladaptive behaviors. Those with co-morbid substance use disorders, anxiety, and depressive disorders seem to do better long-term versus those with diagnosed co-morbid personality disorders.

• #2 Munchausen Syndrome (Factitious disorder)

  https://www.webmd.com/mental-health/munchausen-syndrome

  People with Munchausen syndrome deliberately produce or exaggerate symptoms in several ways. […] Possible warning signs of Munchausen syndrome include: Dramatic but inconsistent medical history, unclear symptoms that are not controllable and become more severe or change once treatment has begun, predictable relapses following improvement in the condition, extensive knowledge of hospitals and/or medical terminology, as well as the textbook descriptions of illnesses, presence of multiple surgical scars, appearance of new or additional symptoms following negative test results, presence of symptoms only when the patient is with others or being observed, willingness or eagerness to have medical tests, operations, or other procedures, history of seeking treatment at numerous hospitals, clinics, and doctors’ offices, possibly even in different cities, reluctance by the patient to allow doctors to meet with or talk to family, friends, or prior doctors, problems with identity and self-esteem.

• #2 Signs and symptoms – Munchausen syndrome – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/munchausen-syndrome/symptoms/

  Signs and symptoms of Munchausen syndrome may include pretending to be ill, or self-harming to aggravate or induce illness. […] Some clues that a person may have Munchausen syndrome include: […] having symptoms that do not match test results […] having symptoms that get worse for no apparent reason […] being willing to undergo often painful or dangerous tests and procedures […] reporting symptoms that are vague and inconsistent, or reporting a pattern of symptoms that are „textbook examples” of certain health conditions.

• #2 Factitious Disorder Imposed on Self (Munchausen Syndrome)

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9833-munchausen-syndrome-factitious-disorder-imposed-on-self

  Factitious disorder imposed on self, formerly known as Munchausen syndrome, happens when you falsify, create and/or exaggerate having symptoms of an illness that you dont really have. […] Most reported symptoms relate to physical illness, such as chest pain, upset stomach or fever, rather than those of a mental health condition. But if you have this factitious disorder, you may pretend to experience mental health symptoms, too, like hallucinations or hearing voices. […] Behaviors of factitious disorder imposed on self include: Pretending to have physical symptoms (like a headache, stomachache or chest pain). Pretending to have psychological symptoms (like hallucinating or hearing voices). Making yourself ill or producing physical symptoms (like damaging a wound to prevent healing or eating contaminated food to make yourself vomit).

• #2 Munchausen’s syndrome | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/mental-health/munchausens-syndrome/

  There are four main ways in which people with Munchausens syndrome can feign or induce illnesses, which are outlined below: lying about symptoms often they choose symptoms that are hard to disprove […] tampering with test results such as heating thermometers to suggest fever or adding blood to urine samples […] self-infliction they may cut or burn themselves, poison themselves with drugs or an overdose of medication […] aggravate pre-existing conditions such as rubbing dirt or dog faeces into wounds to cause an infection. […] A diagnosis of Munchausens syndrome can usually be confidently made if there is: clear evidence of fabricating or inducing symptoms […] the person prime motivation is to be seen as sick […] there is no other likely reason or explanation for their behaviour.

• #2 Factitious disorder – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/factitious-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20356028

  Factitious disorder symptoms can range from mild to severe. People may make up symptoms or even tamper with medical tests to convince others that they need treatment, such as high-risk surgery. […] Factitious disorder symptoms involve people trying to look ill, making themselves ill or hurting themselves. They also may fake symptoms, make symptoms seem worse than they are or pretend they can’t do certain things because of their symptoms so they can deceive others. People with the condition work hard to hide their lies. It may be hard to know that their symptoms are part of a serious mental health condition. People with this condition continue with the lies, even without any benefit or reward, or when faced with evidence that doesn’t support their claims. […] Factitious disorder symptoms may include: Clever and convincing medical or mental health problems. Deep knowledge of medical terms and diseases. Vague symptoms or symptoms that aren’t consistent. Conditions that get worse for no clear reason. Conditions that don’t respond as expected to standard treatments. Seeking treatment from many healthcare professionals or hospitals, which may include using a fake name. Not wanting healthcare professionals to talk to family or friends or other healthcare professionals. Staying in the hospital a lot. Desire for frequent testing or risky surgeries and procedures. Many surgical scars or evidence of many procedures. Having few visitors when in the hospital. Arguing with healthcare professionals and staff.

• #2

  https://www2.hse.ie/conditions/munchausens-syndrome/

  Signs that a person may have Munchausen’s syndrome include: making frequent visits to hospitals in different areas; claiming to have a history of complex and serious medical conditions; having symptoms that do not match with test results; having symptoms that get worse for no clear reason; having very good medical knowledge; being willing to undergo often painful or dangerous tests and procedures; reporting symptoms that are vague and inconsistent; telling unbelievable and often very elaborate stories about their past.

• #2 Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy | EBSCO Research Starters

  https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/health-and-medicine/munchausen-syndrome-and-munchausen-syndrome-proxy

  Munchausen syndrome is a mental health disorder categorized under factitious disorders, where individuals intentionally fabricate or exaggerate symptoms of illness to gain attention and sympathy. […] Munchausen syndrome is one of the most severe forms of factitious disorder, in which people simulate or produce mental or physical symptoms to benefit from playing the role of the ill person. […] The serious symptoms reported by those with Munchausen syndrome often result in multiple hospitalizations, and individuals may travel between hospitals or engage in doctor shopping to earn a desired diagnosis. […] Patients usually describe their symptoms in dramatic detail; they can be highly knowledgeable about symptoms, terminology, and procedures. […] However, they may become vague when questioned.

• #2 SciELO Brazil – Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy: a narrative review Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy: a narrative review

  https://www.scielo.br/j/eins/a/wPQGR7K6kRfx9vQwGkrw56B/

  The disorder normally occurs in the first year of adulthood, and in most of cases after hospitalization of a general medical condition or other mental disorder. […] Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy are associated with high morbidity, and some reports on mortality have been published. […] The adequate diagnosis, management and referral of patients with factitious disorder upon hospital admission is fundamental for good prognosis and reduction of injuries and/or severe adverse events during hospitalization of these individuals. […] Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy are often not identified and diagnosed by physicians and other health professionals. The lack of identification may lead to many unnecessary laboratory tests and procedures which may prolong hospitalizations and increase costs of health systems.

• #2 Munchausen Syndrome (Factitious disorder)

  https://www.webmd.com/mental-health/munchausen-syndrome

  People with Munchausen syndrome are at risk for health problems (or even death) resulting from self-harm or intentionally causing symptoms. […] Some people with Munchausen syndrome suffer one or two brief episodes of symptoms. In most cases, however, the disorder is a chronic, or long-term, condition that can be very difficult to treat.

• #2 Factitious Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557547/

  Factitious disorder imposed on self – Munchausen syndrome – is a syndrome in which patients consciously induce, feign, or exaggerate physical or psychiatric symptoms for primary gain. […] Patients with factitious disorders can pose a significant danger to themselves by undergoing a plethora of unnecessary procedures or in the induction of symptoms. […] The prognosis for these patients is generally poor. […] Patients with factitious disorders are generally considered to have a poor prognosis. […] When confronted, a majority of patients deny their behavior and very few consent to treatment. […] However, there is evidence that patients who persist with long-term therapy have favorable outcomes. […] Factitious disorder is not a benign disease and is associated with morbidity and mortality. […] Patients are known to cause potentially lethal self-injury and undergo risky procedures.

• #2 Factitious Disorder Imposed on Self (Munchausen Syndrome)

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9833-munchausen-syndrome-factitious-disorder-imposed-on-self

  If you have factitious disorder imposed on self, you make up or exaggerate symptoms to appear ill. You may: Falsify feeling symptoms that you dont have. Show or pretend to have new or additional symptoms following test results or after treatment begins. Show symptoms only when alone. Alter diagnostic tests (like contaminating a urine sample). Pretend to take medications but hide them or spit them out. Intentionally harm yourself. […] Your prognosis varies based on your willingness to accept and follow a treatment plan. If you acknowledge the diagnosis and follow your healthcare providers instructions during treatment, youll likely have a positive outcome. If you deny or avoid treatment, your outcome may be poor, and your behavior could be very dangerous, even life-threatening. […] While some people might have only one episode of this condition, most experience recurring episodes throughout their lives. Ongoing treatment is necessary.

• #2 Munchausen’s syndrome | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/mental-health/munchausens-syndrome/

  People with Munchausens syndrome typically display a set pattern of behaviour. This pattern includes: lying about their symptoms and typically also lying about other aspects of their life, such as their past or level of education […] manipulating test results to suggest the presence of symptoms, such as adding blood to urine samples […] actually inflicting symptoms on themselves, such as poisoning themselves with an overdose of medication […] travelling from hospital to hospital in different parts of the country, and seeing many different doctors. […] Warning signs that somebody may have Munchausens syndrome include: frequent visits to hospitals in different areas […] symptoms that do not correspond to the results of tests […] symptoms that get worse for no apparent reason […] a willingness to undergo often painful or dangerous tests and procedures.

• #2

  https://slam.nhs.uk/munchausens-syndrome

  Diagnosing Munchausen’s syndrome can be challenging for medical professionals. […] Munchausen’s syndrome can usually be diagnosed if: there’s clear evidence of fabricating or inducing symptoms; the person’s prime motivation is to be seen as sick; there’s no other likely reason or explanation for their behaviour. […] Treating Munchausen’s syndrome can be difficult because most people with it refuse to admit they have a problem and refuse to co-operate with treatment plans. […] It may be possible to help control the symptoms of Munchausen’s syndrome if the person admits they have a problem and co-operates with treatment. […] People with Munchausen’s syndrome still in close contact with their family may also benefit from having family therapy. […] There appear to be 2 separate groups of people affected by Munchausen’s syndrome. They are: women who are 20 to 40 years of age, often with a background in healthcare; unmarried white men who are 30 to 50 years of age. […] Fabricated or induced illness, also known as Munchausen’s by proxy, is a type of Munchausen’s syndrome.

• #2 Challenges presented by Munchausen syndrome | Tidsskrift for Den norske legeforening

  https://tidsskriftet.no/en/2017/05/commentary-and-debate/challenges-presented-munchausen-syndrome

  Symptom pictures and clinical presentations vary widely. The following are some of the symptoms, induced findings and previous misdiagnoses referred to in the literature or observed in our patients: injection of insulin to cause hypoglycaemia, complaints of retrosternal pain, self-inflicted skin lesions, simulated asthma attacks, self-inflicted corneal lesions, heated thermometer to simulate fever, introduction of blood to urine (either into the urine sample or through a catheter into the bladder), using a pupil-dilating substance to cause anisocoria, taking medicine to produce hypertension or alter blood samples, self-venesection to induce anaemia, induction of vaginal bleeding, false reporting of HIV/AIDS or cancer, the use of a tourniquet to cause swelling of an extremity, self-induced diarrhoea, simulation of epileptic attacks, coma or paralysis, complaints of chronic pain and simulation of deafness or blindness. […] Patients with Munchausen syndrome often start their behaviour in early adulthood, frequently after hospitalisation for a somatic or mental disorder.

• #2 Münchhausen’s Syndrome: Symptoms and Treatment | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/munchhausens-syndrome

  Symptoms of Mnchhausen’s syndrome can be simulated – eg, contamination of specimens to look like haematuria, haemoptysis, haematemesis. […] A pre-existing illness can be aggravated. […] Disease may even be self-induced – eg, eating contaminated food to cause food poisoning. […] The patient can present in a multitude of different ways. […] Common symptoms include feigning surgical illness and hoping for a laparotomy (historically known as laparotimophilia migrans). […] Bleeding alarmingly (historically known as haemorrhagica histrionica). […] Presenting with curious fits (historically known as neurologica diabolica). […] Presenting with false heart attacks (historically known as cardiopathia fantastica). […] Taking drugs to induce side-effects – eg, beta-blockers to produce bradycardia, desmopressin to induce hyponatraemia, or insulin to induce hypoglycaemia.

• #2 Munchausen Syndrome | Charlie Health

  https://www.charliehealth.com/post/what-is-munchausen-syndrome

  Munchausen Syndrome, also known as Factitious Disorder, is a rare mental health condition in which a person deliberately produces or feigns physical or psychological symptoms in order to receive attention, sympathy, or medical treatment. […] Munchausen syndrome is a rare and complex psychiatric disorder in which a person feigns or exaggerates physical or psychological symptoms to gain attention and sympathy. […] Several signs and symptoms may indicate that someone has Munchausen syndrome. These can include: A history of multiple unexplained illnesses or medical procedures, Unusually detailed knowledge of medical terminology or procedures, A lack of concern for their health or well-being, A tendency to become defensive or confrontational when questioned about symptoms, A reluctance to leave the hospital or doctor’s office, A tendency to sabotage their recovery or exacerbate their symptoms, A history of substance use or other addictive behaviors.

• #2 Munchausen’s syndrome | nidirect

  https://www.nidirect.gov.uk/conditions/munchausens-syndrome

  People who’ve had extensive medical procedures, or received lengthy medical attention during childhood or adolescence, are more likely to develop Munchausen’s syndrome when they’re older. […] This may be because they associate their childhood memories with a sense of being cared for. As they get older, they try to get the same feelings of reassurance by pretending to be ill. […] Munchausen’s syndrome can usually be confidently diagnosed if: there’s clear evidence of fabricating or inducing symptoms […] the person’s prime motivation is to be seen as sick […] there’s no other likely reason or explanation for their behaviour. […] It may be possible to help control the symptoms of Munchausen’s syndrome if the person admits they have a problem and co-operates with treatment. […] There’s no standard treatment for Munchausen’s syndrome, but a combination of psychoanalysis and cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) can help people control their symptoms.

• #2 Munchausen Syndrome | Charlie Health

  https://www.charliehealth.com/post/what-is-munchausen-syndrome

  Treating Munchausen syndrome can be challenging, as individuals with this mental disorder may resist acknowledging their behavior or seeking help. However, psychotherapy and other forms of mental health treatment can be effective in helping individuals with Munchausen syndrome. In particular, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) may help address the underlying emotional and psychological issues that drive the individual’s behavior. This can include exploring the reasons behind their need for attention or control and developing healthier coping mechanisms for dealing with stress or emotional pain. […] Medication may also address underlying mental health conditions such as depression or anxiety. However, medication alone is not typically effective in treating Munchausen syndrome, as the root of the problem is often psychological.

• #2 Factitious Disorder Imposed on Self – Psychiatric Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric-disorders/somatic-symptom-and-related-disorders/factitious-disorder-imposed-on-self

  Treatment of factitious disorder imposed on self is usually challenging, and there are no clearly effective treatments. […] Patients may obtain initial relief by having their treatment demands met, but their symptoms typically escalate, ultimately surpassing what clinicians are willing or able to do.

• #2 Factitious disorders – Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment | BMJ Best Practice

  https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/695

  Factitious disorders are uncommon disorders in which the patient intentionally fabricates physical or psychological symptoms primarily for the purpose of deceiving healthcare providers and/or others. […] Munchausen syndrome is an extreme form. […] Symptoms produced without conscious intent are considered to be a somatic symptom disorder. […] Symptoms intentionally feigned or created for some external reward, such as getting out of jail or obtaining unneeded pain medication, are considered to be malingering. […] Dramatic history of travel and acute illness (Munchausen subtype) […] Multiple abdominal scars (Munchausen subtype) […] Male sex (Munchausen subtype) […] Single marital status (Munchausen subtype) […] Age 40 to 50 years (Munchausen subtype) […] Antisocial personality traits (Munchausen subtype).

• #2 Challenges presented by Munchausen syndrome | Tidsskrift for Den norske legeforening

  https://tidsskriftet.no/en/2017/05/commentary-and-debate/challenges-presented-munchausen-syndrome

  Munchausen syndrome does not fall into the category of an ordinary somatic, psychological or psychosomatic illness, and its identification, diagnosis and treatment present an unusually great challenge. […] The designation Munchausen syndrome was introduced by the English psychiatrist Sir Richard Asher in 1951. […] Behaviour in Munchausen syndrome is assumed to reflect an underlying desire for attention, compassion, sympathy and in some cases addictive medicine (assuming that this last is not the primary motive). The urge can be so strong that the patient consents to and in some cases desires invasive examinations and operations, even at the risk of complications, pain and discomfort. […] In addition to mental illness, there are numerous examples of major and in some cases life-threatening self-induced and/or iatrogenic organic disorders. It has also been postulated that there may be relatively high mortality attributable to self-inflicted physical harm, complications after invasive procedures and camouflaging of important health information. In other words, the patients suffering is considerable.

• #3 Factitious disorder imposed on self – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factitious_disorder_imposed_on_self

  Factitious disorder imposed on self (FDIS), sometimes referred to as Munchausen syndrome, is a complex mental disorder where individuals play the role of a sick patient to receive some form of psychological validation, such as attention, sympathy, or physical care. Patients with FDIS intentionally falsify or induce signs and symptoms of illness, trauma, or abuse to assume this role. […] In factitious disorder imposed on self, the affected person exaggerates or creates physical or psychological symptoms of illnesses in themselves to gain examination, treatment, attention, sympathy or comfort from medical personnel. […] Common examples of commonly induced physical symptoms include intentionally infecting a wound with debris or unsanitary material, taking laxatives to induce diarrhea, and ingesting thyroid hormone replacement medication to simulate a hyperactive thyroid or hyperthyroidism.

• #3

  https://www2.hse.ie/conditions/munchausens-syndrome/

  Munchausen’s syndrome is a serious mental disorder where a person deceives others by appearing to be sick, getting sick on purpose, or causing self-harm. […] People with Munchausen’s syndrome know they are causing their symptoms. […] There are 4 main ways people with Munchausen’s syndrome fake or induce illnesses. […] These include: faking symptoms – for example, choosing symptoms that are difficult to disprove, such as having a severe headache or pretending to have a seizure or to pass out; tampering with test results – for example, heating a thermometer to suggest a fever or adding blood to a urine sample; causing self-harm – for example, cutting or burning themselves, poisoning themselves with drugs, or eating food contaminated with bacteria; making existing conditions worse – for example, rubbing poo into wounds to cause an infection, or reopening previously healed wounds.

• #3 Munchausen syndrome | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/munchausen-syndrome

  Munchausen syndrome is a rare type of mental disorder where a patient fakes illness to gain attention and sympathy. […] Symptoms of Munchausen syndrome include a spectacular medical history that includes many tests, medical procedures and operations, an odd collection of seemingly unrelated symptoms, a lack of conclusive results despite intense medical investigations, new symptoms that appear after medical tests prove negative, extensive medical knowledge of many different illnesses, frequently visiting many different doctors, sometimes in other states or territories, frequent presentation at emergency departments, usually at different hospitals, requests for invasive medical procedures or surgeries, and failure to improve despite medical treatment, including relapsing for unknown reasons.

• #3 Factitious disorder – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/factitious-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20356028

  Factitious disorder symptoms can range from mild to severe. People may make up symptoms or even tamper with medical tests to convince others that they need treatment, such as high-risk surgery. […] Factitious disorder symptoms involve people trying to look ill, making themselves ill or hurting themselves. They also may fake symptoms, make symptoms seem worse than they are or pretend they can’t do certain things because of their symptoms so they can deceive others. People with the condition work hard to hide their lies. It may be hard to know that their symptoms are part of a serious mental health condition. People with this condition continue with the lies, even without any benefit or reward, or when faced with evidence that doesn’t support their claims. […] Factitious disorder symptoms may include: Clever and convincing medical or mental health problems. Deep knowledge of medical terms and diseases. Vague symptoms or symptoms that aren’t consistent. Conditions that get worse for no clear reason. Conditions that don’t respond as expected to standard treatments. Seeking treatment from many healthcare professionals or hospitals, which may include using a fake name. Not wanting healthcare professionals to talk to family or friends or other healthcare professionals. Staying in the hospital a lot. Desire for frequent testing or risky surgeries and procedures. Many surgical scars or evidence of many procedures. Having few visitors when in the hospital. Arguing with healthcare professionals and staff.

• #3 Munchausen Syndrome | Dr. Marc Feldman

  https://www.munchausen.com/munchausen-syndrome/

  The individual refuses to allow their treatment team to speak to any other professionals about their care, including previous doctors. […] The individual has a long and ultimately inexplicable history of health problems such that it strains credulity to the breaking point. […] Previous health professionals have noted the possibility of deception. […] The individual does not follow treatment recommendations and is disruptive. […] The individual focuses on his or her self-perceived victimization by medical personnel and others. […] There is consistent evidence from laboratory or other tests that disproves information supplied by the individual. […] The individual has had exposure to a model of the ailment they are falsifying (e.g., a relative with a similar ailment). […] Even while pursuing medical or surgical assessments, the individual vigorously opposes psychiatric assessment and treatment. […] During interviews, the individual makes statements to strengthen his or her case that nevertheless contradict the records.

• #3 SciELO Brazil – Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy: a narrative review Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy: a narrative review

  https://www.scielo.br/j/eins/a/wPQGR7K6kRfx9vQwGkrw56B/

  The Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy are factitious disorders characterized by fabrication or induction of signs or symptoms of a disease, as well as alteration of laboratory tests. […] Main characteristics of factitious disorder imposed on self are feigning of physical and/or psychological signs and symptoms and induction of injury or disease associated with identified fraud. […] In general, individuals with factitious disorder report their story dramatically, but they are quite vague and inconsistent when asked to provide further details. […] Reports of nonspecific pain and other nonspecific symptoms and request for analgesics are also quite common. […] The course of factitious disorders can be limited to one or more brief episodes, but generally, it is chronic.

• #3 What paramedics need to know about Munchausen syndrome

  https://www.ems1.com/patient-safety/articles/what-to-do-if-you-suspect-munchausen-syndrome-PGt97BmILDdUOzre/

  People with Munchausen syndrome are willing to risk their lives to be seen as sick. They frequently have other mental illnesses as well. As a result, they face many possible complications, including: Injury or death from self-inflicted medical conditions, Severe health problems with infections or unnecessary surgery or other procedures, Loss of organs or limbs from unnecessary surgery, Alcohol or other substance abuse, Significant problems in daily life, relationships and work, Abuse when the behavior is inflicted on another. […] Patients dishonesty and the multiple care providers involved also complicates diagnosing Munchausen syndrome.

• #3 Munchausen Syndrome – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK518999/

  Factitious disorder imposed on self, formerly known as Munchausen syndrome, is a psychiatric disorder in which a person assumes the role of a sick patient without the intention of external gain. Physical symptoms are intentionally produced with the purpose of appearing to be sick. […] Munchausen syndrome, also called factitious disorder imposed on self, is a psychiatric disorder in which a person assumes the role of a sick patient without the intention of external gain (time off from work, medications). Physical symptoms are intentionally produced with the purpose of gaining the appearance of a „sick patient.” […] In the large majority of cases, patients will present with somatic complaints that they present as correlated to a medical illness. Though the presentation of Munchausen disorder can vary widely, some of the most common presentations include chest pain, abdominal pain, vomiting and/or diarrhea, anemia, hypoglycemia, infections, seizures, weakness, headaches, vision loss, skin wounds, and arthralgias. It is not uncommon for the patient to purposefully induce symptoms, such as intentionally eating spoiled food, injecting insulin, picking at skin causing wounds, overdosing on medications, and not taking medications as prescribed. […] The prognosis for Munchausen disorder is generally poor as few patients are willing to admit to their maladaptive behaviors. Those with co-morbid substance use disorders, anxiety, and depressive disorders seem to do better long-term versus those with diagnosed co-morbid personality disorders.

• #3 Munchausen’s syndrome | nidirect

  https://www.nidirect.gov.uk/conditions/munchausens-syndrome

  People who’ve had extensive medical procedures, or received lengthy medical attention during childhood or adolescence, are more likely to develop Munchausen’s syndrome when they’re older. […] This may be because they associate their childhood memories with a sense of being cared for. As they get older, they try to get the same feelings of reassurance by pretending to be ill. […] Munchausen’s syndrome can usually be confidently diagnosed if: there’s clear evidence of fabricating or inducing symptoms […] the person’s prime motivation is to be seen as sick […] there’s no other likely reason or explanation for their behaviour. […] It may be possible to help control the symptoms of Munchausen’s syndrome if the person admits they have a problem and co-operates with treatment. […] There’s no standard treatment for Munchausen’s syndrome, but a combination of psychoanalysis and cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) can help people control their symptoms.

• #3 Munchausen Syndrome (Factitious disorder)

  https://www.webmd.com/mental-health/munchausen-syndrome

  People with Munchausen syndrome deliberately produce or exaggerate symptoms in several ways. […] Possible warning signs of Munchausen syndrome include: Dramatic but inconsistent medical history, unclear symptoms that are not controllable and become more severe or change once treatment has begun, predictable relapses following improvement in the condition, extensive knowledge of hospitals and/or medical terminology, as well as the textbook descriptions of illnesses, presence of multiple surgical scars, appearance of new or additional symptoms following negative test results, presence of symptoms only when the patient is with others or being observed, willingness or eagerness to have medical tests, operations, or other procedures, history of seeking treatment at numerous hospitals, clinics, and doctors’ offices, possibly even in different cities, reluctance by the patient to allow doctors to meet with or talk to family, friends, or prior doctors, problems with identity and self-esteem.

• #3 Münchhausen’s Syndrome: Symptoms and Treatment | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/munchhausens-syndrome

  Symptoms of Mnchhausen’s syndrome can be simulated – eg, contamination of specimens to look like haematuria, haemoptysis, haematemesis. […] A pre-existing illness can be aggravated. […] Disease may even be self-induced – eg, eating contaminated food to cause food poisoning. […] The patient can present in a multitude of different ways. […] Common symptoms include feigning surgical illness and hoping for a laparotomy (historically known as laparotimophilia migrans). […] Bleeding alarmingly (historically known as haemorrhagica histrionica). […] Presenting with curious fits (historically known as neurologica diabolica). […] Presenting with false heart attacks (historically known as cardiopathia fantastica). […] Taking drugs to induce side-effects – eg, beta-blockers to produce bradycardia, desmopressin to induce hyponatraemia, or insulin to induce hypoglycaemia.

• #3 Münchhausen’s Syndrome: Symptoms and Treatment | Doctor

  https://patient.info/doctor/munchhausens-syndrome

  Wounds may not heal properly due to contamination or interference. […] Gastrointestinal disorders such as vomiting and diarrhoea. […] Respiratory problems often with breathlessness and hyperventilation. […] Self-mutilation causing extensive scarring or loss of body parts, such as fingers. […] Malnutrition and anaemia. […] Skin discolouration produced by coloured dye (rash, Raynaud’s syndrome). […] A long history of unexplained illness, often with many changes of doctor, practice and hospital, which should alert the doctor. […] They may be rather vague about the details of their illness or they may show an unexpectedly profound knowledge of the disease as if having read a medical textbook. […] There may be inconsistencies in the history. […] They are happy to accept invasive and unpleasant investigations and even surgery.

• #3 Factitious Disorder (Munchausen Syndrome) | Psychology Today

  https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/conditions/factitious-disorder-munchausen-syndrome

  Factitious disorder is considered a mental illness because it is associated with severe psychological distress. People with factitious disorder may: […] While the person may have a medical condition, they may exaggerate or intentionally worsen symptoms to cause others to view them as more ill or impaired than they really are. […] Individuals with factitious disorder have the potential to cause great physical and mental harm to themselves and others as a result of their deception. […] Factitious disorder usually presents as recurrent episodes of deceptive behavior. The onset of factitious disorder is typically in early adulthood, often after a person has been hospitalized for a medical or psychiatric condition.

• #3 How to Deal With Someone With Munchausen Syndrome

  https://balancerehabclinic.com/factitious-disorder/

  The goal in these circumstances might be to prevent more invasive or dangerous therapies. […] The prognosis for recovery is bleak. […] Psychotherapy is the most common treatment for Munchausen syndrome (a type of counseling). The focus of treatment will be on improving your mindset and behavior (cognitive-behavioral therapy).

• #3 Factitious Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557547/

  Factitious disorder imposed on self – Munchausen syndrome – is a syndrome in which patients consciously induce, feign, or exaggerate physical or psychiatric symptoms for primary gain. […] Patients with factitious disorders can pose a significant danger to themselves by undergoing a plethora of unnecessary procedures or in the induction of symptoms. […] The prognosis for these patients is generally poor. […] Patients with factitious disorders are generally considered to have a poor prognosis. […] When confronted, a majority of patients deny their behavior and very few consent to treatment. […] However, there is evidence that patients who persist with long-term therapy have favorable outcomes. […] Factitious disorder is not a benign disease and is associated with morbidity and mortality. […] Patients are known to cause potentially lethal self-injury and undergo risky procedures.

• #3 Munchausen Syndrome: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment | Qwark

  https://qwarkhealth.com/conditions/munchausen-syndrome

  The prognosis for individuals with Munchausen syndrome is generally poor, as it is a difficult disorder to treat and often involves complex psychological issues. […] Treatment can improve the long-term outcome of Munchausen syndrome, but it requires a comprehensive and individualized approach. […] Early detection of Munchausen syndrome may lead to better outcomes, as it allows for prompt intervention and treatment. […] Individuals with untreated Munchausen syndrome may experience a worsened prognosis, as the disorder can lead to severe medical complications, psychological distress, and social isolation. […] There may be a correlation between the severity of Munchausen symptoms and the prognosis for the individual.

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