Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Munchausen Syndrome – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK518999/

  Factitious disorder imposed on self, formerly known as Munchausen syndrome, is a psychiatric disorder in which a person assumes the role of a sick patient without the intention of external gain. Physical symptoms are intentionally produced with the purpose of appearing to be sick. […] The pathophysiology of Munchausen disorder is primarily unknown as no large-scale studies have been conducted on the condition. Psychosocial factors are largely agreed upon to have the most influence in developing Munchausen syndrome.

• #2 Factitious Disorder Imposed on Self (Munchausen Syndrome)

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9833-munchausen-syndrome-factitious-disorder-imposed-on-self

  Factitious disorder imposed on self, formerly known as Munchausen syndrome, is a mental health condition that occurs when you appear sick, pretend to feel symptoms or intentionally make yourself ill. […] Healthcare providers don’t know exactly what causes a factitious disorder. Studies suggest it could involve psychological factors (parts of your personality that influence your thoughts and actions) and biological factors (your brain chemistry and genetic makeup). […] Research suggests that you might have a motivation to deceive healthcare providers for the following reasons: wanting someone else to take care of your physical or emotional needs, looking for power and superiority over others, reducing anxiety around a fear of abandonment, creating a new personal identity. […] People with this condition typically know they’re pretending. However, they’re not actively seeking tangible benefits by making things up or embellishing (like avoiding obligations or obtaining disability benefits). The benefits are typically unconscious and emotional in nature.

• #3 Factitious disorder imposed on self – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factitious_disorder_imposed_on_self

  Factitious disorder imposed on self (FDIS), sometimes referred to as Munchausen syndrome, is a complex mental disorder where individuals play the role of a sick patient to receive some form of psychological validation, such as attention, sympathy, or physical care. Patients with FDIS intentionally falsify or induce signs and symptoms of illness, trauma, or abuse to assume this role. […] The exact cause of this illness is unknown due to limited research but is likely the result of multiple psychosocial factors. Specific risk factors have been associated with developing FDIS, specifically a history of childhood trauma, abandonment, having a serious childhood illness, and certain personality disorders. […] Common examples of commonly induced physical symptoms include intentionally infecting a wound with debris or unsanitary material, taking laxatives to induce diarrhea, and ingesting thyroid hormone replacement medication to simulate a hyperactive thyroid or hyperthyroidism.

• #4 Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy | EBSCO Research Starters

  https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/health-and-medicine/munchausen-syndrome-and-munchausen-syndrome-proxy

  Munchausen syndrome is a mental health disorder categorized under factitious disorders, where individuals intentionally fabricate or exaggerate symptoms of illness to gain attention and sympathy. […] Munchausen syndrome is one of the most severe forms of factitious disorder, in which people simulate or produce mental or physical symptoms to benefit from playing the role of the ill person. […] Munchausen syndrome represents one of the most severe form of factitious disorder, in which individuals complain of serious physical symptoms although they are aware that they are fabrications. […] The serious symptoms reported by those with Munchausen syndrome often result in multiple hospitalizations, and individuals may travel between hospitals or engage in doctor shopping to earn a desired diagnosis.

• #5 SciELO Brazil – Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy: a narrative review Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy: a narrative review

  https://www.scielo.br/j/eins/a/wPQGR7K6kRfx9vQwGkrw56B/

  The Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy are factitious disorders characterized by fabrication or induction of signs or symptoms of a disease, as well as alteration of laboratory tests. […] Although Munchausen syndrome was first described more than 60 years ago, most of studies in the literature about it are case reports and literature reviews. Literature lacks more consistent studies about this syndrome epidemiology, therapeutic management and prognosis. […] Munchausen syndrome was included in the tenth edition of the International Classification of Diseases and classified as intentional production or feigning of symptoms or disabilities either physical or psychological (factitious disorder). […] The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-5), defines factitious disorders as those imposed on self and on other (previously called factitious disorders by proxy).

• #6 Challenges presented by Munchausen syndrome | Tidsskrift for Den norske legeforening

  https://tidsskriftet.no/en/2017/05/commentary-and-debate/challenges-presented-munchausen-syndrome

  Munchausen syndrome does not fall into the category of an ordinary somatic, psychological or psychosomatic illness, and its identification, diagnosis and treatment present an unusually great challenge. […] Behaviour in Munchausen syndrome is assumed to reflect an underlying desire for attention, compassion, sympathy and in some cases addictive medicine (assuming that this last is not the primary motive). The urge can be so strong that the patient consents to and in some cases desires invasive examinations and operations, even at the risk of complications, pain and discomfort. […] As the patients do not as a rule cooperate with researchers, or in a psychiatric evaluation or treatment, their motivation is usually unknown, and it is very difficult to give a precise description of and to quantify underlying psychological disorders.

• #7 The pathogenesis of Munchausen syndrome. A review and case report – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1505749/

  The authors present a case of Munchausen syndrome notable for an extended premorbid length and lack of early identifiable antisocial behavior. […] an integrated psychobiological evaluation of the patient is given including neuroanatomical, neurohormonal, and neuropsychological assessments. Frontotemporal cerebral atrophy and lack of thyroid-stimulating hormone response to thyroid-releasing hormone infusion were found. […] it appears that central nervous system deterioration might have been related to the development of the disorder.

• #8 Facts on Munchausen by Proxy Syndrome and How it Affects Kids

  https://www.newportacademy.com/resources/mental-health/munchausen-by-proxy-syndrome/

  Parents with Munchausen syndrome by proxy create symptoms of illness in their children in order to get attention. […] Munchausen syndrome by proxy is a variant of Munchausen syndrome, when someone fakes their own physical or mental issues in order to get attention. […] The immediate cause of Munchausen syndrome is the individuals desire for attention and sympathy from doctors, nurses, and other healthcare professionals. […] The underlying causes of Munchausens are less clear. Researchers believe it may involve one or more of the following: Biological or genetic factorsmagnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans have detected abnormalities in the brain structure of some patients. […] Furthermore, individuals with Munchausens often have symptoms of other personality disorders, such as borderline personality disorder or narcissistic personality disorder. […] The first step in Munchausen syndrome treatment is to stop the individuals dangerous actions toward themselves or others. […] Subsequently, psychotherapy is the most effective treatment for addressing the root causes of this disorder.

• #9 Overview – Munchausen syndrome – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/munchausen-syndrome/overview/

  Munchausen syndrome is complex and poorly understood. […] Several factors have been identified as possible causes of Munchausen syndrome. These include: emotional trauma or illness during childhood this often resulted in extensive medical attention, a personality disorder a mental health condition that causes patterns of abnormal thinking and behaviour, a grudge against authority figures or healthcare professionals. […] Munchausen syndrome may be caused by parental neglect and abandonment, or other childhood trauma. […] There’s also some evidence to suggest people who have had extensive medical procedures, or received prolonged medical attention during childhood or their teenage years, are more likely to develop Munchausen syndrome when they’re older. […] Different personality disorders thought to be linked with Munchausen syndrome include: antisocial personality disorder where a person may take pleasure in manipulating and deceiving doctors, giving them a sense of power and control, borderline personality disorder where a person struggles to control their feelings and often swings between positive and negative views of others, narcissistic personality disorder where a person often swings between seeing themselves as special and fearing they’re worthless. […] It could be that the person has an unstable sense of their own identity and also has difficulty forming meaningful relationships with others. […] Playing the „sick role” allows them to adopt an identity that brings support and acceptance from others with it.

• #10 Munchausen’s syndrome | nidirect

  https://www.nidirect.gov.uk/conditions/munchausens-syndrome

  Munchausen’s syndrome is complex and poorly understood. […] It’s unclear why people with the syndrome behave in the way they do. […] Possible causes of Munchausen’s syndrome include emotional trauma or illness during childhood this often resulted in extensive medical attention. […] Munchausen’s syndrome may be caused by parental neglect and abandonment, or other childhood trauma. […] As a result of this trauma, a person may have unresolved issues with their parents that cause them to fake illness. […] People who’ve had extensive medical procedures, or received lengthy medical attention during childhood or adolescence, are more likely to develop Munchausen’s syndrome when they’re older. […] Some examples of the different personality disorders thought to be linked with Munchausen’s syndrome include antisocial personality disorder a person may take pleasure in manipulating and deceiving doctors, giving them a sense of power and control.

• #11

  https://slam.nhs.uk/munchausens-syndrome

  Munchausen’s syndrome is complex and poorly understood. Many people refuse psychiatric treatment or psychological profiling, and it’s unclear why people with the syndrome behave the way they do. […] Several factors have been identified as possible causes of Munchausen’s syndrome. These include: Emotional trauma or illness during childhood this often resulted in extensive medical attention […] A personality disorder a mental health condition that causes patterns of abnormal thinking and behaviour […] A grudge against authority figures or healthcare professionals. […] Munchausen’s syndrome may be caused by parental neglect and abandonment, or other childhood trauma. […] There’s also some evidence to suggest people who have had extensive medical procedures, or received prolonged medical attention during childhood or their teenage years, are more likely to develop Munchausen’s syndrome when they’re older.

• #12

  https://slam.nhs.uk/munchausens-syndrome

  Different personality disorders thought to be linked with Munchausen’s syndrome include: Antisocial personality disorder where a person may take pleasure in manipulating and deceiving doctors, giving them a sense of power and control […] Borderline personality disorder where a person struggles to control their feelings and often swings between positive and negative views of others […] Narcissistic personality disorder where a person often swings between seeing themselves as special and fearing they’re worthless. […] It could be that the person has an unstable sense of their own identity and also has difficulty forming meaningful relationships with others. […] Munchausen’s syndrome can usually be diagnosed if: There’s clear evidence of fabricating or inducing symptoms […] The person’s prime motivation is to be seen as sick

• #13 Munchausen Syndrome & by Proxy: Cases, Meaning, Test & Treatment

  https://www.medicinenet.com/munchausen_syndrome/article.htm

  Munchausen syndrome, referred to as a factitious disorder, is a mental condition in which sufferers cause or pretend to have physical or psychological symptoms in themselves. […] Although there is no specific cause for Munchausen syndrome, like most other mental disorders, it is understood to be the result of a combination of biological vulnerabilities, ways of thinking, and social stressors. Little is known about the specific biological risk factors from which individuals with Munchausen syndrome are more likely to suffer. […] Psychologically, sufferers of this mental illness may have an increased need for control, an imbalance in the level of self-esteem (either low or excessively high), and a tendency to suffer from depression, anxiety, or substance-abuse disorders. […] Personality traits of individuals who have a history of feigning or inducing symptoms in themselves include some that are in common with borderline personality disorder

• #14 Munchausen Syndrome & by Proxy: Cases, Meaning, Test & Treatment

  https://www.medicinenet.com/munchausen_syndrome/article.htm

  or antisocial personality disorder. […] Risk factors for people with Munchausen syndrome include enduring a significant negative event (trauma) during their childhood […] having a grudge against the medical profession or having been themselves the victim of neglect, physical or sexual abuse, or other forms of childhood maltreatment. […] There is no specific definitive test, like an X-ray or a blood test, which can assess that a person has Munchausen syndrome. […] Therefore, practitioners perform a mental-health interview that looks for the presence of the symptoms previously described. […] People with this condition may exhibit signs like having extensive knowledge of medical terminology, and they may have multiple surgical scars despite having little objective evidence of a diagnosable physical condition.

• #15 Factitious Disorder (Munchausen Syndrome) | Psychology Today

  https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/conditions/factitious-disorder-munchausen-syndrome

  Factitious disorder, previously referred to as Munchausen syndrome, is a condition in which an individual deceives others by appearing ill, impaired, or injured. […] The cause of factitious disorder is not known. Risk factors for developing this include childhood trauma, depression, personality disorders, among others. […] Factitious disorder usually presents as recurrent episodes of deceptive behavior. The onset of factitious disorder is typically in early adulthood, often after a person has been hospitalized for a medical or psychiatric condition. […] Individuals with factitious disorder have the potential to cause great physical and mental harm to themselves and others as a result of their deception.

• #16

  https://www.koruhastanesi.com/what-is-munchausen-syndrome-what-causes-it-3912-5

  A poor self-image and low self-esteem can drive individuals to seek validation and sympathy through fabricated illnesses or injuries. […] Some individuals with Munchausen Syndrome may use their fabricated illnesses to regain a sense of control in their lives. […] Dysfunctional family dynamics, such as overprotective parents or a history of medical issues in the family, can play a role in the development of the disorder. Munchausen Syndrome typically develops gradually, often starting with a desire for attention or sympathy. Over time, individuals may engage in increasingly elaborate schemes to maintain their role as a patient. The process of development can be broken down into several stages: […] The individual may begin by fabricating minor symptoms or injuries, often seeking medical attention for validation.

• #17

  https://www.koruhastanesi.com/what-is-munchausen-syndrome-what-causes-it-3912-5

  As the disorder progresses, the fabricated symptoms become more severe, leading to a higher level of medical intervention and care. […] To continue receiving attention, individuals with Munchausen Syndrome may go to great lengths, including undergoing unnecessary surgeries or treatments. […] In some cases, the deception is eventually uncovered, often through extensive medical investigations. Munchausen Syndrome can affect people of all ages, but certain factors may increase the susceptibility of individuals to develop this disorder: […] Those who have experienced trauma, abuse, or neglect in their past may be more prone to seeking refuge in Munchausen Syndrome as a way to cope. […] Individuals with a background in healthcare or access to medical information may be more successful in deceiving healthcare providers, making them more susceptible to developing the disorder.

• #18 Munchausen syndrome (factitious disorder imposed on self): definition, causes, symptoms, and treatments – The Diamond Rehab Thailand

  https://diamondrehabthailand.com/what-is-munchausen-syndrome/

  Munchausen syndrome (factitious disorder imposed on self) is a mental illness where individuals repeatedly falsify physical or psychological signs and symptoms to appear ill, injured, or impaired. Deceptive behaviors involve fabricating medical histories, tampering with diagnostic tests, or self-inflicting harm to convince healthcare providers of an illness. […] Motivation often stems from a deep-seated need for attention, sympathy, or validation rather than external rewards such as financial gain. Persistent engagement in such actions lead to unnecessary medical procedures, hospitalizations, and significant disruptions in daily life. […] The causes of Munchausen syndrome (factitious disorder imposed on self) include childhood trauma, personality disorders, desire for attention, frequent hospitalization and medical procedures, low self-esteem, and unmet emotional needs.

• #19 Munchausen syndrome (factitious disorder imposed on self): definition, causes, symptoms, and treatments – The Diamond Rehab Thailand

  https://diamondrehabthailand.com/what-is-munchausen-syndrome/

  According to a publication last updated in July 2023, titled Munchausen Syndrome by Weber et al., inducing symptoms on purpose is not unusual; examples include willfully eating bad food, injecting insulin, picking at the skin, causing wounds, taking too much medication, and not taking prescription drugs as directed. Furthermore, patients have been known to alter test results and falsify medical records. […] The term describes the psychological and social advantages of being seen as sick, such as getting sympathy, care, and attention from others. The role offers constant support and emotional validation, filling a void individuals with Munchausen syndrome (MS) feel exists in their life.

• #20 Munchausen Syndrome: Mental Disorder, Symptoms, Test & Treatment

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/munchausen_syndrome/article_em.htm

  Mental illness People with Munchausen syndrome intentionally cause signs and symptoms of an illness or injury by inflicting medical harm to their body, often to the point of having to be hospitalized. […] Munchausen syndrome most appropriately describes people who have a chronic variant of a factitious disorder with mostly physical signs and symptoms, although there are reports in the literature regarding psychological Munchausen syndrome, meaning that the simulated symptoms are psychiatric in nature. […] The causes of Munchausen syndrome are unknown. Some experts suggest that it is a defense mechanism against sexual and aggressive impulses. Others believe it may be a form of self-punishment. Determining an exact cause is difficult because people with Munchausen syndrome are not open and honest about their condition, making research on them nearly impossible. Risk factors for Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy include a background in daycare or health care in the involved parent, marital problems between parents, or personality disorders like a borderline personality disorder.

• #21 Munchausen Syndrome: Mental Disorder, Symptoms, Test & Treatment

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/munchausen_syndrome/article_em.htm

  Individuals with Munchausen syndrome intentionally produce or exaggerate symptoms. They may lie about or fake symptoms, self-induce injury to cause symptoms, or alter the results of tests by contaminating samples such as a urine samples. Signs and symptoms of Munchausen syndrome may include, […] Initially, the medical care of people with Munchausen syndrome is aimed at relieving the claimed symptoms and any injury made by the person to induce the symptoms. Treating people who have Munchausen syndrome is difficult because they are often unwilling to admit they have it. The treating doctor must be very judicious with invasive diagnostic tests or surgeries, yet try not to miss serious medical conditions. Many people with Munchausen syndrome experience long-term medical complications from illnesses they have induced or from the mechanisms used to treat them. Psychotherapy of various types (strategic, psychodynamic, cognitive) has been reported anecdotally to be of benefit in selected cases.

• #22

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01695037

  We describe five patients with hematologic Munchausen syndrome who were discovered within 5 years. The patients presented for hematologic evaluation of coagulopathy, iron-deficiency anemia, or macrohematuria with severe anemia. The final diagnoses were phenprocoumon intake (2x), self-inflicted phlebotomy (2x), and urogenital manipulation (1x). […] We think that hematologic Munchausen syndrome has a rather uniform pattern and may be divided into three subtypes: (a) anticoagulation type, (b) anemia type, and (c) pretended hematologic form. Hematologic Munchausen syndrome should especially be considered if there is an unexplained coagulation disorder or therapy-resistant iron-deficiency anemia, and if the patient is a young female nurse who has had many hospitalizations.

• #23 Challenges presented by Munchausen syndrome | Tidsskrift for Den norske legeforening

  https://tidsskriftet.no/en/2017/05/commentary-and-debate/challenges-presented-munchausen-syndrome

  In addition to mental illness, there are numerous examples of major and in some cases life-threatening self-induced and/or iatrogenic organic disorders. […] It has also been postulated that there may be relatively high mortality attributable to self-inflicted physical harm, complications after invasive procedures and camouflaging of important health information. […] Patients with Munchausen syndrome often start their behaviour in early adulthood, frequently after hospitalisation for a somatic or mental disorder. […] The syndrome must also be distinguished from somatisation disorder, where patients over a long period of time exhibit physical symptoms that are not voluntary and that are experienced as real, without findings of any underlying organic disorder. […] Treating patients with Munchausen syndrome is difficult, as most of them avoid a psychiatric evaluation. In the few cases where there is communication with the patient, the treatment must target the underlying mental problems.

• #24 Munchausen Syndrome: Mental Disorder, Symptoms, Test & Treatment

  https://www.emedicinehealth.com/munchausen_syndrome/article_em.htm

  People with Munchausen syndrome can induce or develop authentic illnesses requiring surgery, but further surgical procedures should be treated with great caution. […] People with Munchausen syndrome are rarely treated successfully. They are reluctant to seek treatment for the psychological problem and are generally unwilling to undergo psychiatric treatment. The self-inflicted illnesses and injuries of people with Munchausen syndrome can cause serious consequences. These individuals often undergo several unnecessary surgeries throughout their lifetime.

• #25 Munchausen Syndrome & by Proxy: Cases, Meaning, Test & Treatment

  https://www.medicinenet.com/munchausen_syndrome/article.htm

  The chronic nature and tendency for people with this illness to be at odds with the medical community puts sufferers at risk for multiple recurrences of symptoms. […] The associated high completed suicides at a rate of 30%-70% is another potential complication of this condition, and males tend to have worse outcomes than females. […] Prevention or early treatment of the factors that place people at risk for developing Munchausen syndrome are important ways to decrease the likelihood that the illness will develop in a specific individual.

• #26 Factitious disorder imposed on self – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factitious_disorder_imposed_on_self

  Diagnosing factitious disorder is very difficult. Because induced symptoms may mimic those of a real disease or disorder, physicians must first rule out genuine disease. Therefore, FDIS is usually a diagnosis of exclusion. […] For a person to be diagnosed with factitious disorder imposed on self, they must meet the following criteria: The patient presents as sick or injured motivated by a primary gain, or internal reward of validation/attention as opposed to a secondary gain, which usually involves external benefits. […] There are common methods for inducing certain symptoms and mimicking specific diseases. As mentioned earlier, it is important to first rule out true disease. Oftentimes this requires multiple lab tests as a form of differential diagnosis, especially when the disease is mimicked closely in patients with existing medical knowledge. […] Specific forms of therapy may be tailored to underlying personality disorders contributing to their behaviors.

• #27

  https://slam.nhs.uk/munchausens-syndrome

  There’s no other likely reason or explanation for their behaviour. […] There’s no standard treatment for Munchausen’s syndrome, but a combination of psychoanalysis and Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) has shown some success controlling symptoms. […] People with Munchausen’s syndrome still in close contact with their family may also benefit from having family therapy.

• #28 Factitious Disorder Imposed on Self (Munchausen Syndrome)

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9833-munchausen-syndrome-factitious-disorder-imposed-on-self

  The first goal of treatment for factitious disorder imposed on self is to modify harmful behaviors and reduce the misuse or overuse of medical resources. […] A form of psychotherapy that addresses your thinking and behavioral patterns (cognitive behavioral therapy) helps treat factitious disorder imposed on self. […] Factitious disorder imposed on self is a form of self-harm. It’s a serious mental health condition that’s difficult to diagnose and treat. But treatment is available to help you when you’re ready.

• #29 Munchausen’s syndrome | nidirect

  https://www.nidirect.gov.uk/conditions/munchausens-syndrome

  It could be the person has an unstable sense of their own identity and also has difficulties establishing meaningful relationships with others. […] Munchausen’s syndrome can usually be confidently diagnosed if there’s clear evidence of fabricating or inducing symptoms. […] There’s no standard treatment for Munchausen’s syndrome, but a combination of psychoanalysis and cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) can help people control their symptoms.

• #30 SciELO Brazil – Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy: a narrative review Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy: a narrative review

  https://www.scielo.br/j/eins/a/wPQGR7K6kRfx9vQwGkrw56B/

  Main characteristics of factitious disorder imposed on self are feigning of physical and/or psychological signs and symptoms and induction of injury or disease associated with identified fraud. […] Possible predisposing factors for factitious disorder can include presence of other mental disorders or medical conditions in childhood or adolescence that lead to long-term treatments and hospitalizations, resentment against medical professionals, experience in a position related to health area, presence of personality disorders, and important relationship with a physician in the past. […] Although Munchausen syndrome has been described for more than 60 years, it is clear the scarcity of consistent studies about its epidemiology, therapeutic management and prognosis. […] The fact that patients frequently do not adhere to and do not cooperate with the treatment or even deny that they have a psychiatric disorder rather than a clinical pathology constitutes a factor that undoubtedly makes it difficult to conduct epidemiological studies or clinical trials to establish therapeutic modalities such as psychotherapy or pharmacotherapy. […] The adequate diagnosis, management and referral of patients with factitious disorder upon hospital admission is fundamental for good prognosis and reduction of injuries and/or severe adverse events during hospitalization of these individuals.

• #31 Factitious disorder – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/factitious-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20356028

  Factitious disorder, previously called Munchausen syndrome, is a serious mental health condition in which people deceive others by pretending to be sick. […] The cause of factitious disorder isn’t known. But a mix of mental health issues and stressful life experiences may cause the condition. […] People with factitious disorder make up symptoms or cause illnesses in several ways. […] Because people with factitious disorder become experts at faking symptoms and diseases or hurting themselves, it may be hard for healthcare professionals and loved ones to know whether symptoms and illnesses are real. […] Factitious disorder is thought to be rare, but it isn’t known how many people have the condition. Some people use fake names. Some visit many hospitals and healthcare professionals. And some are never identified. This makes it hard to get a reliable estimate.

• #32 Munchausen Syndrome (Factitious disorder)

  https://www.webmd.com/mental-health/munchausen-syndrome

  Munchausen syndrome is a factitious disorder, a mental health disorder in which a person repeatedly and deliberately acts as if they have a physical or mental illness when they are not really sick. […] The exact cause of Munchausen syndrome is not known, but researchers are looking at the role of biological and psychological factors in its development. Some theories suggest that a history of abuse or neglect as a child or a history of frequent illnesses that required hospitalization might be factors in the development of the syndrome. Researchers are also studying a possible link to personality disorders, which are common in people with Munchausen syndrome. […] Munchausen syndrome is characterized as a mental health disorder, and its exact cause is unknown. However, researchers believe that it may be triggered by psychological trauma such as abuse, neglect, or the loss of a loved one at an early age.

• #33 Munchausen Syndrome: Signs, Causes, Treatment | RoRoRo

  https://ro.co/health-guide/munchausen-syndrome/

  Munchausen syndrome is a serious mental disorder where people purposely act like they have a physical or mental illness when they don’t have one. They will invent or exaggerate symptoms of a disease they don’t have or even harm themselves so they can get medical care (Carnahan, 2021). […] There may be multiple factors leading to the development of FDIS, including childhood experiences and psychological factors. More research is needed to understand this complex mental health condition (Sousa Filho, 2017). […] Having a serious illness or frequent hospitalizations as a child can cause FDIS in some cases. Some people with FDIS may have felt cared for while under treatment and seek to get the same feelings of support and comfort in adulthood by faking illness (Carnahan, 2021). […] Emotional or psychological causes include personality disorders and depression. In particular, histrionic personality disorder and borderline personality disorder often happen alongside FDIS. Some people with factitious disorder may feel shame, guilt, or in need of punishment. They may feel they deserve to be disabled or ill. These people are more likely to self-injure and self-harm (Carnahan, 2021).

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