Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Functional neurologic disorder/conversion disorder – Diagnosis & treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/conversion-disorder/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20355202

  There are no standard tests for functional neurologic disorder. Diagnosis usually involves assessment of existing symptoms and ruling out any neurological or other medical condition that could cause the symptoms. […] Functional neurologic disorder is diagnosed based on what is present, such as specific patterns of signs and symptoms, and not just by what is absent, such as a lack of structural changes on an MRI or abnormalities on an EEG. […] Testing and diagnosis usually involves a neurologist but may include a psychiatrist or other mental health professional. Your health care provider may use any of these terms: functional neurologic disorder (FND), functional neurological symptom disorder or an older term called conversion disorder. […] Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) lists these criteria for conversion disorder (functional neurological symptom disorder): One or more symptoms that affect body movement or your senses. Symptoms can’t be explained by a neurological or other medical condition or another mental health disorder. Symptoms cause significant distress or problems in social, work or other areas, or they’re significant enough that medical evaluation is recommended.

• #2 Functional neurologic disorder/conversion disorder – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/conversion-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20355197

  Functional neurologic disorder a newer and broader term that includes what some people call conversion disorder features nervous system (neurological) symptoms that can’t be explained by a neurological disease or other medical condition. […] Early diagnosis and treatment, especially education about the condition, can help with recovery. […] Seek medical attention for signs and symptoms that concern you or interfere with your ability to function. If the underlying cause is a neurological disease or another medical condition, quick diagnosis and treatment may be important. If the diagnosis is functional neurologic disorder, treatment may improve the symptoms and help prevent future problems. […] The exact cause of functional neurologic disorder is unknown. Theories regarding what happens in the brain to result in symptoms are complex and involve multiple mechanisms that may differ, depending on the type of functional neurological symptoms.

• #3 Diagnosis of functional neurological disorder | myneuronews.com

  https://myneuronews.com/2024/05/05/diagnosis-of-functional-neurological-disorder/

  The diagnosis of Functional Neurological Disorder (FND) is a complex process that involves a combination of clinical assessment, the exclusion of other neurological or medical conditions, and the identification of positive signs consistent with FND. It is not a diagnosis of exclusion, nor should symptoms be categorized as medically unexplained (MUS). A diagnosis should be made by a neurologist from positive signs/tests. […] The diagnosis of FND involves a thorough clinical assessment that looks for specific patterns of symptoms or signs that are typical of the disorder. This includes motor and sensory symptoms, such as weakness, seizures, abnormal movements, and sensory disturbances. Positive signs that are indicative of FND include Hoovers sign for functional weakness, distractibility, and non-physiological findings during the examination. The presence of these signs can help in making a positive diagnosis of FND.

• #4 What Is FND – FND Hope International

  https://fndhope.org/fnd-guide/

  Functional Neurological Disorder (FND) is a problem with the functioning of the nervous system and how the brain and body send and receive signals. […] The diagnosis of FND should be approached in the same transparent and straightforward way a physician would do for other patient and diagnosis seen in their clinic. An FND diagnosis should be made from a detailed patient history and positive signs. […] Evidence is now emerging for the utility of multidisciplinary treatment, especially specific physical therapy (for motor symptoms) and psychotherapy (for attacks or seizures). […] The resting-state fMRIs lend itself to support an organic abnormality of functional connectivity in the brains of FND patients. […] Patients do not have to be stressed, depressed or anxious to develop functional symptoms, nor had they had to have had an adverse childhood experience. […] The habitual change in terminology has resulted in a great deal of confusion, stigma, and frustration surrounding FND. […] FND HOPE INTERNATIONAL ENDORSES THE TERM FUNCTIONAL NEUROLOGICAL DISORDER (FND).

• #5 Conversion disorder | PM&R KnowledgeNow

  https://now.aapmr.org/conversion-disorder/

  Conversion disorder (CD) is a condition now also referred to as Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder (FNSD) classified in DSM-5 as related to Somatic Symptom Disorder (SSD). […] CD/FNSD presents with motor and/or sensory symptoms initially suggesting identifiable neurologic pathology as the potential cause. However, subsequent diagnostic evaluation fails to reveal neurological disease as the etiological explanation for the symptoms. […] Diagnostic criteria (all must be met) for CD/FNSD based on the DSM-5 include: One or more symptoms of altered voluntary motor or sensory function. Clinical findings providing evidence of incompatibility between the symptom(s) and recognized neurological or medical conditions. The symptom(s) or deficit(s) are not better explained by another medical or mental disorder. The symptom(s) or deficit(s) cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning, and/or warrant medical evaluation.

• #6 Functional neurologic disorder/conversion disorder | UM Health-Sparrow

  https://www.uofmhealthsparrow.org/departments-conditions/conditions/functional-neurologic-disorderconversion-disorder

  DSM-5 lists these criteria for conversion disorder (functional neurological symptom disorder): One or more symptoms that affect body movement or your senses; Symptoms can’t be explained by a neurological or other medical condition or another mental health disorder; Symptoms cause significant distress or problems in social, work or other areas, or they’re significant enough that medical evaluation is recommended.

• #7 Functional neurologic disorder/conversion disorder – Hancock Health

  https://www.hancockhealth.org/mayo-health-library/functional-neurologic-disorder-conversion-disorder/

  Functional neurologic disorder a newer and broader term that includes what some people call conversion disorder features nervous system (neurological) symptoms that cant be explained by a neurological disease or other medical condition. […] The exact cause of functional neurologic disorder is unknown. […] There are no standard tests for functional neurologic disorder. Diagnosis usually involves assessment of existing symptoms and ruling out any neurological or other medical condition that could cause the symptoms. […] Functional neurologic disorder is diagnosed based on what is present, such as specific patterns of signs and symptoms, and not just by what is absent, such as a lack of structural changes on an MRI or abnormalities on an EEG. […] DSM-5 lists these criteria for conversion disorder (functional neurological symptom disorder): One or more symptoms that affect body movement or your senses; Symptoms cant be explained by a neurological or other medical condition or another mental health disorder; Symptoms cause significant distress or problems in social, work or other areas, or theyre significant enough that medical evaluation is recommended. […] Treatment for functional neurologic disorder will depend on your particular signs and symptoms.

• #8 Is Conversion Disorder the same as Functional Neurological Disorder? – FND Hope International

  https://fndhope.org/faq/is-conversion-disorder-the-same-as-functional-neurological-disorder/

  Yes, both are listed as the same illness in the APA diagnostic manual known as the DSM-5 and both are typically used interchangeably with one another. […] Conversion Disorder [CD] and Functional Neurological Disorder [FND] are theoretically different concepts. CD is the theory that symptoms are the result of suppressed psychological trauma converting to physical symptoms. […] The change in criterion now makes it easier for physicians to use the CD/FND diagnosis, where in the past they couldnt when they found their patient did not meet the criterion standard and there was no converting of symptoms taking place. […] Because there is sometimes no identifiable mental health issues, the need to identify one was removed.

• #9

• #9 Conversion disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_disorder

  Conversion disorder is now partly contained under functional neurological symptom disorder (FNsD). In cases of conversion disorder, there is a psychological stressor. […] The diagnostic criteria for functional neurologic symptom disorder, as set out in DSM-5, are: The patient has at least one symptom of altered voluntary motor or sensory function. Clinical findings provide evidence of incompatibility between the symptom and recognised neurological or medical conditions. The symptom or deficit is not better explained by another medical or mental disorder. The symptom or deficit causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning or warrants medical evaluation. […] Conversion disorder presents with symptoms that typically resemble a neurological disorder such as stroke, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, hypokalemic periodic paralysis, or narcolepsy. The neurologist must carefully exclude neurological disease, through examination and appropriate investigations. However, it is not uncommon for patients with neurological disease to also have conversion disorder.

• #10 Functional Neurological Disorders: Giving ‘Invisible’ Conditions a Name | UNM Health Blog | Albuquerque, New Mexico

  https://unmhealth.org/stories/2024/05/functional-neuro-disorders.html

  The symptoms are real and significant. While the condition is invisible, it is no longer a diagnosis of exclusion. We can give it a name: Functional neurological disorders (FNDs). […] Doctors used to diagnose these conditions by exclusion, or ruling out other diseases. The thought process was that if every available test returned normal results, a diagnosis of an FND could be made. […] Now we know that’s not correct. FNDs should be diagnosed by inclusion—identifying a pattern that is inconsistent with how the mind and body are supposed to work. […] The importance of getting the diagnosis right can’t be overstated. In fact, we’ve seen patients at the UNM HSC Department of Neurology who recover when the diagnostic ambiguity is removed, simply because they are empowered to understand what’s happening to their mind and body. […] The sooner a functional neurological disorder is identified and treated, the more likely it is to resolve. After diagnosis, the clinician and patient can explore further to find the why behind the disorder and make a treatment plan.

• #11 Caring for Patients with Functional Neurological Disorders in the ED: Updates, Pearls, and Pitfalls – EMOttawa Blog

  https://emottawablog.com/2018/10/functional-neurological-disorders/

  Functional Neurological Disorder is not a diagnosis of exclusion. It is a diagnosis based on positive clinical features. […] Functional Neurological Disorder (FND) is previously conversion disorder. […] DSM 5 criteria: One or more symptoms of altered motor or sensory function. Clinical findings provide evidence of incompatibility between the symptom and recognized neurological or medical conditions. The symptom or deficit is not better explained by another medical or mental disorder. The symptom or deficit causes clinically significant distress or impairment. […] Malingering is not a criterion. […] No requirement to identify a psychosocial stressor. Key for us in the ED as in our brief encounters we might not identify a stressor. […] Summary for clinical signs used to raise suspicion of FND: Motor: Hoover sign, Give-way weakness, Motor inconsistencies, Drift without pronation, Tremor entrainment.

• #12 From conversion disorders to functional neurological disorders. Overcoming the rule-out diagnosis? | Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría (English Edition)

  https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-revista-colombiana-psiquiatria-english-edition–479-articulo-from-conversion-disorders-functional-neurological-S2530312019300281

  The proposal of the DSM-5 to reach the diagnosis of functional neurological disorders from the positive signs found in the neurological examination triggered the interest of clinicians and investigators. […] Therefore, to determine that a symptom is functional neurological, the following conditions should be met: (a) that it causes discomfort or difficulty in the patient’s functioning; (b) that it is not consistent with another recognised disease, and (c) that it is not explained as a simulated symptom. […] The diagnosis is not done by exclusion or only because the symptoms are peculiar. […] The importance of neurologists in the teams who evaluate these patients is increasingly insisted upon. […] Once the diagnosis has been performed, the process of educating the patient and their family should be started, highlighting the common, genuine, functional and potentially reversible nature of the symptoms. […] The diagnosis, before exclusion, should now be performed from the positive findings of the neurological examination, backed up with the clinical suspicion derived from the patient’s history.

• #13 Making an accurate diagnosis of FND – VJNeurology

  https://www.vjneurology.com/video/i_cxumxacwk-making-an-accurate-diagnosis-of-fnd/

  Its a diagnosis of inclusion now, whereas it used to be a diagnosis of exclusion. We changed the diagnostic criteria in the DSM-5 so that now clinicians can use signs on their exam that are inconsistent with known neuroanatomical neurophysiological pathways. Now we can actually make the diagnosis with a definitive position, rather than just guessing or hedging as it used to be done in the past. […] An accurate diagnosis is essential. To do that, we use the history, we use the examination, and we use the relevant diagnostic labs. So, when you know what youre treating, then that informs what direction youre going to be going with the appropriate treatments. […] Often well see co-occurring illnesses. In fact, comorbidities are the rule, not the exception. So, when you see somebody who has functional neurological disorder, conversion disorder, or some type of a manifestation, be on the lookout for co-occurring depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, characterological diagnoses such as personality disorders. Many times its going to be really important also to look for a history of prior life experiences, adverse life experiences. That doesnt mean everybody has had a history of trauma or abuse, but it means some people will, and its important for the diagnostic formulation to understand thats part of who that patient is, where theyre coming from.

• #14 Basics of Functional Neurological Disorder (FND)

  https://www.massgeneral.org/neurology/treatments-and-services/functional-neurological-disorder-basics

  Functional neurological disorder (FND) is a problem largely impacting the function of the brain. […] FND should typically be diagnosed by a neurologist or neuropsychiatrist, both of whom specialize in disorders of the brain. Your doctor will use neurological examination expertise to check for the presence of positive clinical signs, such as a Hoovers sign, that are consistent with FND in order to make the diagnosis. […] Diagnosis of FND is not based on the fact that you are stressed or that you have a history of depression, anxiety, or other mental health diagnosis. […] FND is a clinical diagnosis which means that we make the diagnosis based on a physical examination or, in the case of functional seizures, getting a detailed description of the events along with brain wave (EEG) data in some instances. […] There are no specific tests to confirm that you have FND. In fact, we expect testing we get done to be generally normal. This is because most testing we have available checks for structural problems of the nervous system, as opposed to problems of nervous system function.

• #15 Functional neurological symptom disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_neurological_symptom_disorder

  Functional neurological symptom disorder (FNSD), also referred to as dissociative neurological symptom disorder (DNSD), is a condition in which patients experience neurological symptoms such as weakness, movement problems, sensory symptoms, and convulsions. […] The diagnosis is made based on positive signs and symptoms in the history and examination during the consultation of a neurologist. […] A diagnosis of a functional neurological disorder is dependent on positive features from the history and examination. […] Positive features of functional weakness on examination include Hoover’s sign, when there is weakness of hip extension which normalizes with contralateral hip flexion. […] Signs of functional tremor include entrainment and distractibility. […] Positive features of dissociative or non-epileptic seizures include prolonged motionless unresponsiveness, long duration episodes (2 minutes) and symptoms of dissociation prior to the attack.

• #15 Functional neurological symptom disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_neurological_symptom_disorder

  FNSD does not show up on blood tests or structural brain imaging such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or CT scanning. […] The presence of symptoms defines an acute episode of functional neurological symptom disorder for less than six months, while a persistent episode includes the presence of symptoms for greater than six months.

• #16 Conversion Disorders Clinical Presentation: History, Physical, Causes

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/287464-clinical

  The physician should contrast formal examination from functional observations. […] Of concern, older data, most notably by Eliot Slater in 1965, published rates of 33% for patients with conversion disorder ultimately developing a physical illness that may account for their symptoms. […] Assessment of mental status during examination is paramount. […] The following mental status examination example focuses only on the possible presentation of a patient with conversion symptoms. […] Clinical symptoms or signs that may help distinguish psychogenic movements from organic ones include the following: Abrupt onset of symptoms, Character of movements atypical of recognized patterns and have inconsistent amplitude, frequency, and distribution, Characteristics of movements change over time, Entrainment of the tremor to the rate requested by the examiner, Spontaneous remissions, Movements disappear with distractions, Movements increase with attention, Response to placebo, psychotherapy, or suggestion, Paroxysmal symptoms, Nonobjective weakness or sensory changes also present, Obvious secondary gain (eg, litigation, health insurance claim, military service).

• #17 Understanding Functional Neurological Disorder: Recent Insights and Diagnostic Challenges

  https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/8/4470

  In the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), several criteria need to be met, including symptoms of altered motor or sensory function, inconsistency with recognized neurological or medical conditions, the absence of an alternative explanation, and significant distress or functional impairment in social or occupational domains. The diagnostic process hinges critically on the patient’s history and direct observation. […] Identifying positive signs is crucial for diagnosing FND. Positive signs are particularly valuable, aiding clinicians in confirming a diagnosis. These signs include internal inconsistency and incongruence with the known abnormal movement patterns observed in other neurological diseases. […] A defining characteristic of FND is the variability of its symptoms, which may fluctuate in frequency, amplitude, direction, or location. This variability might be observed over the natural course of the condition or during a single assessment, with its symptoms often changing with body position and environment.

• #17 Understanding Functional Neurological Disorder: Recent Insights and Diagnostic Challenges

  https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/8/4470

  Functional neurological disorder (FND), formerly called conversion disorder, is a condition characterized by neurological symptoms that lack an identifiable organic purpose. These signs, which can consist of motor, sensory, or cognitive disturbances, are not deliberately produced and often vary in severity. Its diagnosis is predicated on clinical evaluation and the exclusion of other medical or psychiatric situations. Its treatment typically involves a multidisciplinary technique addressing each of the neurological symptoms and underlying psychological factors via a mixture of medical management, psychotherapy, and supportive interventions. […] Recent advances in neuroimaging and a deeper exploration of its epidemiology, pathophysiology, and clinical presentation have shed new light on this disorder. This paper synthesizes the current knowledge on FND, focusing on its epidemiology and underlying mechanisms, neuroimaging insights, and the differentiation of FND from feigning or malingering. This review highlights the phenotypic heterogeneity of FND and the diagnostic challenges it presents.

• #18 Conversion Disorder (Functional Neurological Disorder) – PsychDB

  https://www.psychdb.com/somatic/dsm-5/conversion

  Conversion Disorder (also known as Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder or Functional Neurological Disorder [FND]) is a mental disorder characterized by neurologic symptoms (either motor or sensory) that is incompatible with any known neurologic disease. Common symptoms include weakness and/or paralysis, non-epileptic seizures, movement disorders, speech or visual impairment, swallowing difficulty, sensory disturbances, or cognitive symptoms. […] The diagnosis of functional neurological disorder is made through identification of positive symptoms (e.g. – symptoms resolve with distractibility) rather than as a diagnosis of exclusion. […] In conversion disorder, when an individual is distracted, there is usually a reduction or even disappearance of the movement disorder. […] The diagnosis of conversion disorder should be based on the overall clinical picture and not on a single clinical finding.

• #19 Functional neurological and somatic symptom disorders – Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment | BMJ Best Practice

  https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/989

  Key diagnostic factors include unconventional behaviour during history, emotional processing problems, recent psychological or physical stressors, remote life stressors, multiple illness behaviours, unusual neurological deficits, give-way weakness, inconsistent examination findings, paradoxical sensory findings, distractible symptoms, generalised seizure-like motor movements without loss of awareness, gait disorders, and functional movement disorders. […] Diagnostic investigations include laboratory testing and electroencephalogram (EEG).

• #20 Conversion Disorders Clinical Presentation: History, Physical, Causes

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/287464-clinical

  The DSM-5 lists strict criteria for diagnosing conversion disorder. It is important to remember that the diagnosis of conversion disorder is made based on the overall clinical picture and not a single clinical finding. This usually requires a multispecialty approach. […] Patients with conversion disorder may present with neurological symptoms such as: hemiparesis, paraparesis, monoparesis, alteration of consciousness, visual loss, seizure like activity, pseudocoma, abnormal gait disturbance, aphonia or dysphonia, lack of coordination, or a bizarre movement disorder. […] The presentation of conversion disorder may be associated with stress or trauma, either psychological or physical in nature. […] A full physical examination with attention to the mental status and neurologic examination should be performed.

• #21 Functional Neurologic Disorder | National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke

  https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/functional-neurologic-disorder

  Functional neurologic disorder (FND) refers to a neurological condition caused by changes in how brain networks work, rather than changes in the structure of the brain itself, as seen in many other neurological disorders. […] Brain imaging (like MRI and CT scans) and other neurological tests are often normal in a person with FND. However, research studies that have used functional neuroimaging and neurophysiology (both of which focus on how the brain works rather than what it looks like) have demonstrated changes in that the connections between different regions of the brain in people with FND. […] There is no single test or biomarker (biological sign of disease) to confirm the diagnosis of FND. Diagnosis of FND is made based on the persons history, symptoms, and a physical exam. […] A doctor will assess the persons health, family history, and medical history to rule out any neurological or other conditions that may cause symptoms.

• #22 Functional Neurologic Disorder | National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke

  https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/functional-neurologic-disorder

  Doctors may order tests, which can include imaging scans like EEG (electroencephalography, which monitors the brains electrical activity), or EMG (electromyography, which records the electrical activity in muscles). These can help rule out other disorders and examine symptoms such as tremor, weakness, walking trouble, and vision problems. […] Strong, two-way communication between the healthcare provider and the patient is important for effective treatment of FND. […] Currently, the two main treatment approaches include physical therapy and psychotherapy. […] Psychotherapy involves talking with a licensed and trained mental health professional about negative or troublesome emotions, behaviors, and thoughts. […] Some studies of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), which uses magnetic fields generated outside the skull to stimulate nerve cells in the brain, have shown promise, although results have been mixed.

• #23 Functional Neurological Disorders: Exploring Unmet Needs – UT Southwestern Medical Center

  https://physicianresources.utswmed.org/news/functional-neurological-disorders-exploring-unmet-needs

  Despite accounting for the second-most common reason someone visits a neurology clinic, behind only headaches, functional neurological disorders (FNDs) have been largely neglected by the medical community until recently. […] In years past, an FND was regarded as a diagnosis of exclusion. A patient seeking care would receive a neurological workup, and when nothing returned consistent with a structural neurological condition, the patient would receive a diagnosis of FND. In the past decade, important progress has been made in making FND a diagnosis of inclusion, based on positive exam and history findings as well as incongruity with other neurological disorders. […] The gold standard in the diagnosis of functional seizures is the use of video EEG (vEEG). This procedure records brain wave activity while the patient is observed in the hospital. If a typical seizure is captured on video, presents with functional characteristics, and epileptic activity is present on the EEG, a reliable diagnosis can be made.

• #24 Conversion disorder | PM&R KnowledgeNow

  https://now.aapmr.org/conversion-disorder/

  It should be noted that the diagnosis of CD/FNSD does not definitively exclude the possibility of coexistent and potentially overlapping organic disease. […] A comprehensive psychosocial history is critically important. […] Physical examination with attention to mental status and neurologic signs should be completed. […] Laboratory studies should be judiciously utilized to exclude organic causes. […] Normal imaging of the brain and spinal cord can help eliminate organic conditions or developing pathology, such as multiple sclerosis/neoplasm. […] The first step of management is appropriately addressing this new diagnosis and educating the patient and the family on the findings of the work up. […] When patients do not believe that their illness is psychological/functional in nature and when they do not believe they are going to be able to recover, patients are twice more likely to have poor outcomes at a year after diagnosis.

• #25 Diagnosis of functional neurological disorder | myneuronews.com

  https://myneuronews.com/2024/05/05/diagnosis-of-functional-neurological-disorder/

  While FND is not a diagnosis of exclusion, it is important to rule out neurological or other medical conditions that could cause similar symptoms. This may involve a range of tests and investigations, such as blood tests, CT scans, MRI scans, and EEGs, to exclude conditions like stroke, multiple sclerosis, or epilepsy. However, it is expected that these tests will generally be normal in cases of FND, as the disorder involves functional rather than structural problems in the nervous system. […] How a diagnosis of FND is delivered can significantly impact the patients understanding and acceptance of the disorder, which in turn can affect their engagement with treatment and overall prognosis. It is crucial for the diagnosing clinician to communicate the diagnosis in a way that makes sense to the patient, explaining that the symptoms are real and potentially reversible, but stem from a functional disruption in the nervous system rather than structural damage.

• #26 Diagnosis – FND Action

  https://www.fndaction.org.uk/diagnosis/

  Diagnosis […] A diagnosis of Functional Neurological Disorder (FND) should always be made by a Neurologist, based on positive clinical signs not by ruling out other conditions. […] FND is not a diagnosis of exclusion or a medically unexplained condition. It has its own recognisable features on neurological examination and should be diagnosed with confidence and clarity. […] However, due to the lack of national NICE guidelines, the complexity of symptoms, and limited access to specialist services, diagnostic approaches can vary across the UK. While some people are diagnosed based on clinical signs alone, others may undergo further tests to help support or clarify the diagnosis. […] FND is not an umbrella or catch-all diagnosis its essential that a thorough medical assessment is completed as part of the diagnostic process. […] FND is identified through positive features seen during the neurological exam not simply because scans or tests are normal. […] These signs are not normal findings they are reliable indicators of FND and form the foundation for diagnosis. […] FND symptoms can resemble those of conditions like MS, Parkinsons disease, epilepsy, and other movement disorders. Additionally, FND may overlap with conditions causing chronic fatigue, weakness, or pain, complicating diagnosis. […] A confident diagnosis of FND should only be made when positive clinical signs specific to FND are clearly observed and explained to the patient. Careful consideration of comorbidities and other potential conditions ensures an accurate diagnosis and helps avoid misdiagnosis.

• #27

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00415-021-10436-6

  Multiple sclerosis (MS) and functional neurological disorder (FND) are both diagnostically challenging conditions which can present with similar symptoms. […] Our review suggests that MS is one of the most common causes of misdiagnosis of FND and vice versa. […] Misdiagnosis of FND in patients who have MS may result in irreversible disability as a consequence of delays in the initiation of disease modifying therapy (DMT). […] Misdiagnosis can also cause psychological harm in patients if they partially shape their identity around a diagnosis of MS or FND that they are later informed is incorrect. […] Failure to detect comorbidity between FND and MS may result in unnecessary treatment of misdiagnosed relapses, and unwarranted escalation to higher risk DMTs in patients with MS, and could also present an important confounder for MS research efforts that include assessment of clinical disability status.

• #28 Diagnosing Functional Neurological Disorder through History and Physical Examination: A Case Report | Published in Journal of Brown Hospital Medicine

  https://bhm.scholasticahq.com/article/72763-diagnosing-functional-neurological-disorder-through-history-and-physical-examination-a-case-report

  Differentiating between stroke and stroke mimics (i.e., non-vascular conditions) is a major challenge, as they often involve similar presenting symptoms. A common type of stroke mimic is functional neurological disorder (FND), a somatic disorder caused by severe stress, emotional conflict, or a psychiatric disorder usually presenting with one or more neurologic symptoms. This condition is associated with voluntary motor and sensory symptoms that are internally inconsistent with identifiable neurological diseases and lack structural lesions. […] Given the negative stroke work-up, atypical physical exam findings, prior history of blindness, and in the setting of recent psychological stressors, her acute motor and sensory deficits were diagnosed as FND after evaluation by the Neurology service. The current case demonstrates the following important features of making a FND diagnosis: 1) careful history taking in eliciting potential psychological stressors; 2) a comprehensive neurological examination assessing the presence of findings specific for FND (e.g., greater weakness with active rather than passive movements, fluctuating weakness); 3) multidisciplinary collaboration with neurology and psychiatry providers to aid in performing a comprehensive assessment.

• #29 Functional Neurologic Symptom Disorder Versus Guillain-Barre Syndrome

  https://www.psychiatrist.com/pcc/functional-neurologic-symptom-disorder-versus-guillain-barre-syndrome/

  Functional neurologic symptom disorder (FNSD), also known as conversion disorder, is characterized by at least 1 neurologic symptom of alteration in voluntary motor (eg, paralysis and speech symptoms) or sensory function (eg, hearing, visual, or olfactory disturbances) that is not better explained by any identified medical disorder. […] FNSD is typically described as a diagnosis of exclusion, and it is considered after organic causes have been ruled out. […] He was seen by the neurology team and then was referred to the psychiatry department with a possible diagnosis of FNSD. […] He was soon discharged home with a diagnosis of FNSD, and a referral was made for psychotherapy in the community. […] While early diagnosis of this condition can significantly improve the prognosis and reduce the cost of management, a fear of misdiagnosis especially in the pediatric population can result in over-investigation and a delay in treatment.

• #30 Functional Movement Disorders: Updates and Clinical Overview

  https://www.e-jmd.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.14802/jmd.24126

  Functional movement disorder (FMD) is a type of functional neurological disorder that is common but often difficult to diagnose or manage. […] Conducting a clinical examination appropriate for assessing a patient with suspected FMD is important, and various diagnostic testing maneuvers may also be helpful. […] Establishing a positive diagnosis, rather than diagnosing FMD on the basis of a diagnosis of exclusion, has been emphasized in the past decade. […] Therefore, it is important to look for characteristics that are commonly found in patients with FMD, which are examples of inconsistency or incongruity, the two diagnostic pillars of the disorder. […] While the initial scale developed for assessing FMD captures a variety of symptom types, there is lack of ease of use as a result. […] For this reason, clinicians may prefer to use the Simplified Version of the Psychogenic Movement Disorders Rating Scale (S-FMDRS).

• #31 Functional Movement Disorders: Updates and Clinical Overview

  https://www.e-jmd.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.14802/jmd.24126

  While testing is not mandatory for the diagnosis of FMD, the decision regarding whether to pursue standard neurological investigations such as imaging or electrophysiology depends on various factors, such as the physician’s familiarity level affected by the length of fellowship training, healthcare costs, and medical liability claims. […] Since the diagnosis of FMD should ideally be made on a positive basis rather than via a rule-out approach, the examination is of utmost importance, focusing on relevant features mentioned above. […] However, caution must be exercised, and appropriate testing methods should be utilized when necessary, as it is not uncommon for patients to have concurrent organic neurological disorders with superimposed functional symptoms. […] The diagnosis of FMD can often be reached clinically, emphasis should be placed on identifying positive diagnostic signs.

• #32 Psychiatric Comorbidities in Functional Neurologic Symptom Disorder

  https://practicalneurology.com/diseases-diagnoses/movement-disorders/psychiatric-comorbidities-in-functional-neurologic-symptom-disorder/31889/

  Functional neurologic symptom disorder (FND) is among the most frequently encountered conditions in the outpatient neurology setting and is difficult to treat, with poor prognoses and significant disability and morbidity. […] FND represents a diagnostic challenge. For example, the diagnosis of PNES has been reported to have an average of 7 years between symptom manifestation and definitive diagnosis. […] Proper delivery of information related to FND diagnosis and psychologic care are essential for successful treatment of FND. […] The DSM-5 provides diagnostic specifiers describing presentations (eg, with attack or seizures, or with abnormal movements). […] An estimated 55% to 95% of people with FND have at least 1 comorbid psychiatric disorder. […] Accurate determination of the prevalence of psychiatric disorders in FND is challenging for multiple reasons.

• #33 Psychiatric Comorbidities in Functional Neurologic Symptom Disorder

  https://practicalneurology.com/diseases-diagnoses/movement-disorders/psychiatric-comorbidities-in-functional-neurologic-symptom-disorder/31889/

  Studies of adults with FND have reported a prevalence of psychiatric disorder in 51% to 95%. […] The most common comorbid psychiatric disorder in adults with PNES is depression, with large studies reporting a prevalence of 30% to 48%. […] In the case of FMD, anxiety disorders including GAD, panic disorder, and specific phobias are together the most commonly reported group of psychiatric comorbidities with a prevalence of 38% to 75%. […] Veterans with PNES have a 94% prevalence of comorbid psychiatric conditions, with depression being the most prevalent at 77%. […] Comorbidity of psychiatric disorders and FND can be conceptualized as the consequence of insecure attachment, a state of general vulnerability to mental illness driven by maladaptive coping.

• #34 Functional neurological symptom disorder: Symptoms and treatment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/318534

  Functional neurological disorder (FND), or conversion disorder, is a complex condition that causes neurological symptoms, like fainting and tremors, without an apparent structural problem in the nervous system. […] Diagnosing FND may take a long time, as the symptoms do not result from an underlying physical condition and can mimic the symptoms of many other conditions. Doctors should not diagnose FND on the basis that tests for other conditions have proved negative. […] In many cases, both a neurologist and a psychiatrist will be involved in a diagnosis. A neurologist will help rule out underlying neurological conditions, while a psychiatrist can rule out other psychological causes and confirm a diagnosis of FND. […] Although there is no standard test to check for FND, tests commonly used for diagnosis include:

• #35 Functional Neurological Disorders: Exploring Unmet Needs – UT Southwestern Medical Center

  https://physicianresources.utswmed.org/news/functional-neurological-disorders-exploring-unmet-needs

  vEEG results require experienced interpretation by epileptologists, Dr. Lane says. Many patients lack access to specialized monitoring units or have an indeterminate diagnosis due to equivocal or uneventful monitoring. […] The International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) published methods of diagnosing functional seizures based on levels of certainty. While vEEG is the highest level of certainty, this system allows for patients to receive a workup when they may not have access to an epilepsy monitoring unit for vEEG evaluation. […] While research on biomarkers to differentiate epileptic from functional seizures is ongoing, at present, clinical history, individual risk factors, and vEEG are the standard of care. […] For an FMD, establishing a proper diagnosis rests on key elements of clinical history and characteristic signs on examination (e.g., specific movement patterns). In addition, clinical tests such as imaging and labs can play an important role.

• #36 Understanding Functional Neurological Disorder: Recent Insights and Diagnostic Challenges

  https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/8/4470

  Psychiatrists, neurologists, psychologists, neuroscientists, and other allied health expert collaboration plays a pivotal function in FND research and improving clinical care. […] The long-term persistence of symptoms in FND and their improvement with specific treatments, such as cognitive behavioral therapy, contradict the pattern expected from feigned conditions. […] Neuroimaging studies have significantly advanced our understanding of FND, revealing it as a multi-network brain disorder. Various imaging modalities, including functional and structural neuroimaging, have been instrumental in identifying alterations in the limbic/salience, self-agency/multimodal integration, and attentional and sensorimotor circuits. […] The potential of neuroimaging to predict the treatment response is particularly promising, suggesting a future where personalized treatment strategies could significantly improve patient outcomes.

• #37 Diagnosis of functional neurological disorder | myneuronews.com

  https://myneuronews.com/2024/05/05/diagnosis-of-functional-neurological-disorder/

  Understanding the diagnosis of FND is also important for guiding treatment. Treatment options may include physical therapy, especially for movement or motor symptoms, psychotherapy for addressing underlying psychological factors, and sometimes medication to manage associated symptoms like pain or depression. An integrated, multidisciplinary approach is often required, emphasizing the importance of a correct and clear diagnosis. […] In summary, the diagnosis of Functional Neurological Disorder involves a combination of clinical assessment for positive signs, exclusion of other medical conditions, and careful communication of the diagnosis to the patient. It is a nuanced process that requires expertise in both neurology and psychiatry, with a focus on the patients individual symptoms and experiences.

• #38 Day # 120: Functional Neurologic Disorder (Conversion Disorder)

  https://www.bulletpsych.com/post/day-120-functional-neurologic-disorder-conversion-disorder

  Patients often spontaneously recover, however, the prognosis is poor, as symptoms may persist, recur, or worsen in ~40-70% of patients. […] A full psychiatric evaluation should also be performed given the high frequency of comorbid psychiatric disease. […] The diagnoses of FND and a concurrent medical/neurologic illness are not mutually exclusive, and these frequently occur together. […] Treatment of FNDs is a process that starts with explaining the diagnosis in a way that helps the patient understand and gain confidence in it. […] The primary treatment is education about the illness. […] Team-based approach with primary care, neurology, behavioral health, and physical therapy. […] Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is first-line psychological treatment. […] Recently, a greater role for physical therapy has been recognized when motor symptoms predominate. […] Comorbid anxiety and depressive disorders should be treated with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) or other appropriate psychotropic medications.

• #39 Diagnosing functional neurological disorder: seeing the whole picture | CNS Spectrums | Cambridge Core

  https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/cns-spectrums/article/diagnosing-functional-neurological-disorder-seeing-the-whole-picture/1498748A14310923FD9F597FB89AE2A6

  Functional neurological disorder (FND) is a complex neuropsychiatric syndrome with many phenotypes that are commonly encountered in clinical practice. Despite the heterogeneity of FND, the rate of misidentification is consistently low. For the more common motor subtypes, there are clear positive clinical, electrophysiological, and rarely imaging criteria that can establish the diagnosis in the traditional sense. For nonmotor subtypes, the characterization may be less clear. Here, we argue that the current diagnostic criteria are not reflective of the current shared neuropsychiatric understanding of FND, and, as a result, provide an incomplete picture of the diagnosis. We propose a three-step diagnostic triad for FND, in which the traditional neurological diagnosis is only the first element. Other steps include psychiatric/psychological formulation, integration, and follow-up. We advocate that this diagnostic approach should be the shared responsibility of neurology and mental health professionals. […] Finally, a research agenda is proposed to address the missing factors in the field.

• #40 Functional neurological symptom disorder (conversion disorder) in adults: Terminology, diagnosis, and differential diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/functional-neurological-symptom-disorder-conversion-disorder-in-adults-terminology-diagnosis-and-differential-diagnosis

  Functional neurological symptom disorder (conversion disorder) is characterized by neurologic symptoms such as weakness, abnormal movements, or nonepileptic seizures, which involve abnormal nervous system functioning rather than structural disease. In addition, clinical findings on examination provide evidence of incompatibility between the symptoms and recognized neurologic disease. Nevertheless, the symptoms are genuine, cause distress and disability, and are associated with high health care expenditures. Although the disorder is common in clinical settings, the diagnosis is frequently missed or delayed, which in part explains the generally poor prognosis. […] This topic reviews the terminology, diagnosis, and differential diagnosis of functional neurological symptom disorder.

• #41 Conversion Disorder – Functional Neurologic Disorder

  https://harbormentalhealth.com/2023/12/17/conversion-disorder-functional-neurologic-disorder/

  According to the National Library of Medicine, conversion disorder is a psychiatric disorder characterized by signs and symptoms affecting sensory or motor function inconsistent with patterns of known neurologic diseases or other medical conditions and significantly impact the patients ability to function. […] The Cleveland Clinic states that functional neurological symptom disorder better known as conversion disorder is a mental health condition that causes physical symptoms. […] The cause of functional neurologic disorder is unknown. […] Early diagnosis and treatment, especially education about the condition, can help with recovery. […] Diagnosis usually involves assessment of existing symptoms and ruling out any neurological or other medical condition that could cause the symptoms.

• #42 Conversion Disorder: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17975-conversion-disorder

  Conversion disorder can last different lengths of time, depending on several factors. Those factors include when it happens in your life, how severe it is and whether or not you receive care for the condition. An acute case is one where youve had symptoms for under six months. A persistent case is one where symptoms last for more than six months. […] Conversion disorder isnt a life-threatening or outright dangerous condition. However, it can greatly affect your overall mental health and well-being. People with conversion disorder often have severe problems that keep them from working or participating in enjoyable activities.

• #42 Conversion Disorder: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17975-conversion-disorder

  Functional neurological symptom disorder better known as conversion disorder is a mental health condition that causes physical symptoms. The symptoms happen because your brain converts the effects of a mental health issue into disruptions of your brain or nervous system. The symptoms are real but dont match up with recognized brain-related conditions. […] Its important to know that conversion disorder is a real mental health condition. Its not faking or attention-seeking. It isn’t just something in a persons head or that theyve imagined. While its a mental health condition, the physical symptoms are still real. A person with conversion disorder cant control the symptoms just by trying or thinking about it. […] Diagnosing conversion disorder requires all four of the following: You have one or more symptoms related to your brains control over your movement or senses. Your symptoms arent consistent with recognized medical conditions. Theres no other explanation for your symptoms, such as another medical condition or mental health issue. The symptoms or issues disrupt your life, especially your ability to work, have relationships, etc.

• #43 Pediatric Functional Neurological Disorder and Conversion Disorder Clinic | Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences | Stanford Medicine

  https://med.stanford.edu/psychiatry/patient_care/pedfnd.html

  FND is diagnosed when altered voluntary motor or sensory function do not match up with known neurological or medical conditions, and is commonly thought to be due to an involuntary displacement of negative emotions onto physical symptoms. […] FND, also known as conversion disorder, has high morbidity with numerous visits to doctors and emergency room, use of anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs), and disruption of and absence from school left untreated, affected children suffer significant symptom burden and often develop additional physical symptoms and comorbid psychiatric disorders such as anxiety and depression. […] In addition, we assess for comorbid psychiatric diagnoses as well as functioning in different areas of the life of the adolescent using a variety of tools. […] Evaluation of co-occurring psychiatric diagnoses such as anxiety and depression. […] Time limited specialized psychotherapy to target symptoms of FND/CD.

• #44

  https://www.clinicalcorrelations.org/2021/01/05/bedside-rounds-diagnosing-functional-neurological-disorders/

  Therefore, the key to diagnosing an FND lies in the history and bedside exam. […] Experts agree that these examine maneuvers can highly suggestive of FND, and it is preferable to rule-in the diagnosis using the above criteria rather than make it a diagnosis of exclusion. […] The presence of a psychological trigger is not required for the diagnosis: while some patients can identify a recent stressor and are open to a psychological interpretation of their symptoms delivered by an empathetic medical provider, many patients consciously or unconsciously adamantly deny psychiatric complaints. […] An honest discussion about FND and the rationale for diagnosis, including the positive exam signs identified in the patient, is considered to be a primary tool of treatment.

• #45 Conversion Disorder: Symptoms, Causes, & Treatments | BetterHelp

  https://www.betterhelp.com/mental-health/disorders-conditions/conversion-disorder-functional-neurological-symptom-disorder/

  The involvement of a multidisciplinary team, including mental health professionals, physical and occupational therapists, and primary care physicians, is often beneficial in ensuring comprehensive care. […] The symptoms of conversion disorders are not intentionally produced and are not linked to any recognized medical or neurological condition. […] According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, an episode of conversion disorder is acute if symptoms last for fewer than six months and persistent if they last six months or more. […] The relationship between these risk factors and symptoms is complex and often requires a multifaceted approach to treatment.

• #46 Conversion Disorder | DID-Research.org

  https://did-research.org/comorbid/somatic/conversion/

  The DSM-5 gives the following criteria for a diagnosis of conversion disorder (functional neurological symptom disorder): A. One or more symptoms of altered voluntary motor or sensory function. B. Clinical findings provide evidence of incompatibility between the symptom and recognized neurological or medical conditions. C. The symptom or deficit is not better explained by another medical or mental disorder. D. The symptom or deficit causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning or warrants medical evaluation. […] Criterion A gives a basic descriptor of what category the possible symptoms fall under; that of altered voluntary motor or sensory function. What this includes is clarified under the specified symptom type. Examples of altered voluntary motor function include muscle weakness or paralysis, abnormal movements, abnormal walking style, and abnormal limb posturing. Examples of altered sensory function include „altered, absent, or reduced skin sensation, vision, or hearing.” Conversion disorder can mimic seizures through psychogenic non-epileptic seizures (PNES) or can mimic a coma. It can cause „reduced or absent speech volume… altered articulation… a sensation of a lump in the throat…and [double vision].”

• #47 2025 ICD-10-CM Diagnosis Code F44.4: Conversion disorder with motor symptom or deficit

  https://www.icd10data.com/ICD10CM/Codes/F01-F99/F40-F48/F44-/F44.4

  F44.4 is a billable/specific ICD-10-CM code that can be used to indicate a diagnosis for reimbursement purposes. […] The 2025 edition of ICD-10-CM F44.4 became effective on October 1, 2024. […] Conversion disorder with abnormal movement […] Conversion disorder with speech symptoms […] Conversion disorder with swallowing symptoms […] Conversion disorder with weakness/paralysis […] ICD-10-CM F44.4 is grouped within Diagnostic Related Group(s) (MS-DRG v42.0): 880 Acute adjustment reaction and psychosocial dysfunction. […] Diagnosis Index entries containing back-references to F44.4: Abasia F44.4 (-astasia) (hysterical) […] Aphonia (organic) R49.1 ICD-10-CM Diagnosis Code R49.1 Applicable To: Loss of voice […] hysterical F44.4 […] psychogenic F44.4. […] Disorder (of) – see also Disease conversion (functional neurological symptom disorder) with abnormal movement F44.4 […] speech symptoms F44.4 […] swallowing symptoms F44.4 […] weakness or paralysis F44.4. […] affecting motor function F44.4. […] hysterical F44.4 […] psychogenic F44.4.

• #48 Diagnosis – FND Action

  https://www.fndaction.org.uk/diagnosis/

  While Functional Neurological Disorder is a positive, rule-in diagnosis, errors can still occur particularly when clinicians rely on outdated approaches or incomplete assessments. […] Understanding these helps ensure that people receive a diagnosis that is both accurate and respectfully delivered.

• #49 Trial By Error: Shaky Evidence for Signs of Functional Neurological Disorders | Virology Blog

  https://virology.ws/2019/12/30/trial-by-error-shaky-evidence-for-signs-of-functional-neurological-disorders/

  The review concludes that eleven studies have provided “some degree of validation” for 14 “positive” signs, such as involuntary reflexes, for FND in the categories of “weakness, sensory and gait disorders.” […] The review reports that, in contrast, these signs generally have high specificity—meaning those identified are likely to have the disorder in question. […] The authors write: “As no gold standard exists for functional weakness, sensory and gait disturbances, precise diagnostic criteria on how a diagnosis of functional disorder has been made are not always provided [in the studies reviewed] and wrong attribution of subjects could have occurred.” […] This situation is not limited to ME nor to neurology of course. FND is just one long arm of MUS. […] This deception, justified by some health professionals as being of benefit to the patient, is wholly unethical. The relationship between medical practitioner and patient should be an equal one, working together towards the same aim with honesty and openness. […] When a diagnosis of FND is made, which presumes that there is no organic cause for symptoms, patients are left in limbo with no further investigations that might, eventually, explain what they’re experiencing.

• #50

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00415-021-10436-6

  Our aim in this review is to summarize what is known about how often FND is misdiagnosed in patients with MS, how often MS is misdiagnosed in patients with FND, as well as comorbidity between these two disorders. […] The literature reviewed above supports that the misdiagnosis of FND as MS, and vice versa, is not infrequent. […] The implications of misdiagnosis of MS in patients who have FNDs include unnecessary treatment of MS and its accompanying side-effects and risks, delay to diagnosis and treatment of FND, and psychological harm as a result of misdiagnosis. […] The diagnosis of a neurodegenerative disease such as MS can have a life-altering psychological effect on patients. […] Identifying comorbid FND and MS can lead to fundamental differences in treatment. […] In conclusion, the topic of FND and MS comorbidity is poorly researched, but the studies we have do suggest it occurs, and following a renaissance in FND diagnosis and evidence-based treatment, is now worthy of more careful study.

• #51 Long Covid is not functional neurological disorder | STAT

  https://www.statnews.com/2024/07/15/long-covid-not-functional-neurological-disorder/

  In any event, like conversion disorder before it, FND as currently framed and as applied to those with long Covid is essentially impossible to prove or disprove. […] The positive clinical signs represent an apparent mismatch between an individuals symptoms whether or not they arise from long Covid and how the body normally behaves. […] The situation hasnt changed much in the years since. […] However, if a patient is subsequently found to have Parkinsons or multiple sclerosis or another disease, their earlier FND diagnosis is not necessarily rendered obsolete; rather, the patient is often said to have an FND overlay or co-morbidity. […] Ultimately, if clinicians rely on inflated claims about FND prevalence and about the accuracy and specificity of the required signs, they risk overlooking or ignoring other potential diagnoses or abnormal biological mechanisms. […] To address this urgent medical issue, it is unnecessary and unhelpful to resort to categorical diagnostic assertions largely based as was conversion disorder on questionable arguments and unconvincing research claims.

• #52 Conversion Disorder: Symptoms and Management

  https://www.healthline.com/health/conversion-disorder-management

  Physical symptoms that develop from psychological stress or emotional trauma have been called hysteria in the past but are now known as conversion disorder or functional neurological disorder (FND). […] Conversion disorder is a psychiatric disorder first described by Sigmund Freud more than a century ago. Also known as FND, conversion disorder develops when your nervous system can function typically but does not function correctly. […] The disorder involves psychological stress or emotional trauma converting into physical symptoms. It has become more accepted and understood in recent years because of functional imaging studies and other new testing tools. […] A doctor may perform imaging studies to rule out other underlying causes or issues occurring alongside your conversion disorder and to make an accurate diagnosis.

• #53 Day # 120: Functional Neurologic Disorder (Conversion Disorder)

  https://www.bulletpsych.com/post/day-120-functional-neurologic-disorder-conversion-disorder

  Patients with functional neurologic disorder (FND) have at least one real (not feigned) neurological symptom (sensory or motor) that cannot be fully explained by a neurological condition. […] FND is also known as „conversion disorder”. This is based on the psychoanalytic hypothesis that unconscious psychological distress or conflict is „converted” into neurologic symptoms. […] The term „functional” implies that symptoms arise from abnormal functioning of the nervous system rather than structural pathology. […] One or more symptoms of altered voluntary motor or sensory function. […] Clinical evidence of incompatibility between the symptom and recognized neurological or medical conditions. […] Not better explained by another medical or mental disorder. […] Causes significant distress or impairment in social or occupational functioning or warrants medical evaluation.

• #54 Conversion Disorder: Symptoms and Management

  https://www.healthline.com/health/conversion-disorder-management

  Symptoms of conversion disorder can vary from person to person, appearing and resolving suddenly or lasting for years. The appearance of unexplained neurological symptoms usually leads to a diagnosis of conversion disorder. […] Conversion disorder is, in a way, a treatment on its own for psychological or emotional stresses. […] Dialectical behavior therapy, mindfulness, and other therapies that focus on recognizing and accepting the disorder are used most often and most effectively for treating conversion disorder. […] There are no specific medications to treat the disorder, but several therapies may help: occupational therapy, speech therapy, physical therapy, psychotherapy, transcranial magnetic stimulation, transcutaneous electrical stimulation. […] Conversion disorder was described more than a century ago as a hysterical disorder in which psychological or emotional stress translated into physical symptoms ranging from fatigue to paralysis. Newer functional brain imaging tests helped identify conversion disorder as a true disorder, not just something that a person imagines.

• #55 Conversion disorder | PM&R KnowledgeNow

  https://now.aapmr.org/conversion-disorder/

  Currently, the diagnosis of FNSD is not specifically an indication for any pharmacotherapy. […] Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has been shown to be effective in the treatment in functional neurological disorders to include psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. […] Effective treatment of CD/FNSD is best undertaken with a multidisciplinary team in the context of an integrative relational model implementing a collaborative program, recognizing that comprehensive treatment requires interdisciplinary collaboration providing holistic patient-centered care.

Zobacz więcej