Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Functional Neurologic Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551567/

  Functional neurologic disorder, formally conversion disorder, is a psychiatric disorder characterized by signs and symptoms affecting sensory or motor function inconsistent with patterns of known neurologic diseases or other medical conditions and significantly impacting the patients ability to function. […] Psychological, social, and biological factors can all contribute to, precipitate, or perpetuate functional neurologic disorder. Often, there is a trauma, adverse life event, or acute/chronic stressor preceding symptoms of functional neurologic disorder. Many patients with functional neurologic disorder are found to have a history of childhood abuse, both emotional and sexual. Other psychological factors contributing to functional neurologic disorder include poor coping skills and internal psychological conflicts. Patients with functional neurologic disorder are more likely to have certain psychiatric disorders (depression, anxiety, and personality disorders) than patients with known neurologic conditions.

• #2 Functional neurologic disorder/conversion disorder – Diagnosis & treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/conversion-disorder/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20355202

  There are no standard tests for functional neurologic disorder. Diagnosis usually involves assessment of existing symptoms and ruling out any neurological or other medical condition that could cause the symptoms. […] Functional neurologic disorder is diagnosed based on what is present, such as specific patterns of signs and symptoms, and not just by what is absent, such as a lack of structural changes on an MRI or abnormalities on an EEG. […] Your health care provider may use any of these terms: functional neurologic disorder (FND), functional neurological symptom disorder or an older term called conversion disorder. […] Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) lists these criteria for conversion disorder (functional neurological symptom disorder): One or more symptoms that affect body movement or your senses. Symptoms can’t be explained by a neurological or other medical condition or another mental health disorder. Symptoms cause significant distress or problems in social, work or other areas, or they’re significant enough that medical evaluation is recommended.

• #3 Understanding Functional Neurological Disorder: Recent Insights and Diagnostic Challenges

  https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/8/4470

  The etiology of Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder, formerly known as conversion disorder, is multifaceted, involving various biological, psychological, and social factors. These factors are more prevalent in patients with FND than in those with comparable symptoms due to recognized diseases. However, it is important to note that while these factors may contribute to the disorder, they are not individually causal. […] Several neurobiological factors contribute to functional neurological disorder (FND). In patients with FND, abnormalities have been reported in neurotransmitters such as dopamine, serotonin, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Moreover, the presence of inflammatory markers and microglial activation in FND patients suggests a possible immune-mediated mechanism of symptom generation. FND may also be caused by abnormalities in neuroplasticity, including synaptic plasticity and cortical reorganization, which affect the brain’s ability to adapt to environmental stressors and maintain normal neuronal function.

• #4 Kevin William Grant—Registered Psychotherapist – Beyond the Mind-Body Dichotomy: Unraveling Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder

  https://www.kevinwgrant.com/blog/item/unraveling-functional-neurological-symptom-disorder

  Conversion Disorder, now more commonly referred to as Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder (FNSD) in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), is a complex psychological condition where patients experience neurological symptoms that a medical condition or another psychiatric disorder cannot explain. […] The exact etiology remains elusive, with theories pointing to a combination of neurological, cognitive, and psychological factors (Brown et al., 2014). […] The etiology of Conversion Disorder, now termed Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder (FNSD), is multifaceted and not completely understood. […] The biopsychosocial model posits that biological, psychological, and social factors contribute to the onset and persistence of FNSD. […] The psychological dimension emphasizes the role of trauma, stressors, and emotional conflicts, wherein the physical symptoms of FNSD can be perceived as a manifestation or expression of unresolved psychological issues. […] Many patients with FNSD report a history of physical or psychological trauma. Stressful life events, such as accidents, surgeries, or significant losses, can precede the onset of symptoms. […] The origins and causes of FNSD are complex and likely result from an interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors. Individual presentations can vary significantly, necessitating personalized diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.

• #5 Understanding Functional Neurological Disorder: Recent Insights and Diagnostic Challenges

  https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/8/4470

  The etiology of Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder, formerly known as conversion disorder, is multifaceted, involving various biological, psychological, and social factors. These factors are more prevalent in patients with FND than in those with comparable symptoms due to recognized diseases. However, it is important to note that while these factors may contribute to the disorder, they are not individually causal. […] Several neurobiological factors contribute to functional neurological disorder (FND). In patients with FND, abnormalities have been reported in neurotransmitters such as dopamine, serotonin, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Moreover, the presence of inflammatory markers and microglial activation in FND patients suggests a possible immune-mediated mechanism of symptom generation. FND may also be caused by abnormalities in neuroplasticity, including synaptic plasticity and cortical reorganization, which affect the brain’s ability to adapt to environmental stressors and maintain normal neuronal function.

• #6 Functional neurological symptom disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_neurologic_disorder

  Functional neurological symptom disorder (FNSD), also referred to as dissociative neurological symptom disorder (DNSD), is a condition in which patients experience neurological symptoms such as weakness, movement problems, sensory symptoms, and convulsions. As a functional disorder, there is, by definition, no known disease process affecting the structure of the body, yet the person experiences symptoms relating to their body function. Symptoms of functional neurological disorders are clinically recognisable, but are not categorically associated with a definable organic disease. […] A systematic review found that stressful life events and childhood neglect were significantly more common in patients with FNSD than the general population, although some patients report no stressors. […] Converging evidence from several studies using different techniques and paradigms has now demonstrated distinctive brain activation patterns associated with functional deficits, unlike those seen in actors simulating similar deficits. […] FNSD has been reported as a rare occurrence in the period following general anesthesia. […] There is a growing understanding that symptoms are real and distressing, and are caused by an incorrect functioning of the brain rather than being imagined or feigned.

• #7 Conversion Disorders Clinical Presentation: History, Physical, Causes

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/287464-clinical

  Conversion symptoms are those that suggest neurologic disease, but no explanation of these symptoms is found following physical examination and diagnostic testing. The presentation is acute in onset and may follow a psychologically conflictual situation. […] Neuroimaging studies of conversion disorders indicate hypofunction of the dominant hemisphere and a consequent overactivity in the non-dominant side. Other neuroanatomic findings have been seen with conversion disorder. Marshall et al reported changes in regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) in a female patient with a left leg paralysis and intact sensory modalities for which no anatomic cause of her weakness could be found. Attempting to move her paralyzed leg did not show activation of contra lateral motor cortex, but rather contra lateral orbit-frontal and anterior cingulated cortex were activated. This implied an anatomic inhibition of primary motor cortex in one case of hysterical paralysis.

• #8 Functional neurological symptom disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_neurologic_disorder

  Functional neurological symptom disorder (FNSD), also referred to as dissociative neurological symptom disorder (DNSD), is a condition in which patients experience neurological symptoms such as weakness, movement problems, sensory symptoms, and convulsions. As a functional disorder, there is, by definition, no known disease process affecting the structure of the body, yet the person experiences symptoms relating to their body function. Symptoms of functional neurological disorders are clinically recognisable, but are not categorically associated with a definable organic disease. […] A systematic review found that stressful life events and childhood neglect were significantly more common in patients with FNSD than the general population, although some patients report no stressors. […] Converging evidence from several studies using different techniques and paradigms has now demonstrated distinctive brain activation patterns associated with functional deficits, unlike those seen in actors simulating similar deficits. […] FNSD has been reported as a rare occurrence in the period following general anesthesia. […] There is a growing understanding that symptoms are real and distressing, and are caused by an incorrect functioning of the brain rather than being imagined or feigned.

• #9 Conversion Disorders Clinical Presentation: History, Physical, Causes

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/287464-clinical

  Conversion symptoms are those that suggest neurologic disease, but no explanation of these symptoms is found following physical examination and diagnostic testing. The presentation is acute in onset and may follow a psychologically conflictual situation. […] Neuroimaging studies of conversion disorders indicate hypofunction of the dominant hemisphere and a consequent overactivity in the non-dominant side. Other neuroanatomic findings have been seen with conversion disorder. Marshall et al reported changes in regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) in a female patient with a left leg paralysis and intact sensory modalities for which no anatomic cause of her weakness could be found. Attempting to move her paralyzed leg did not show activation of contra lateral motor cortex, but rather contra lateral orbit-frontal and anterior cingulated cortex were activated. This implied an anatomic inhibition of primary motor cortex in one case of hysterical paralysis.

• #10 Conversion disorder/functional neurological disorder – a narrative review on current research into its pathological mechanism | European Journal of Psychiatry

  https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-european-journal-psychiatry-431-articulo-conversion-disorder-functional-neurological-disorder–S0213616320300367

  There has been an increasing amount of research on the effects of chronic low-grade inflammation and functional neurological symptoms in an attempt to investigate the ill-defined mechanism of these symptoms. […] The possibility of inflammation playing a role in the pathophysiology of this disease could be an answer to how trauma and adverse events have such a detrimental effect on the health of an adult. […] The aim of this narrative review is to collate the current research to ascertain the present level of understanding of CD/FND with a primary focus on inflammation, including other topics if they appear relevant with relation to inflammation. […] There are numerous ways to investigate inflammation in patients. When it comes to evaluating chronic low-grade inflammation, high-sensitivity C reactive protein (hsCRP) is often measured to give a direct reading of inflammation and immune system activation.

• #11 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/news/20210316/Researchers-identify-a-possible-cause-of-functional-neurological-disorder.aspx

  Researchers believe they may have discovered a possible cause of a mystery condition that can leave sufferers suddenly unable to walk, talk or see. […] The condition, also known as functional neurological disorder (FND), causes physical symptoms that would appear neurological but doctors can’t find an injury or physical condition to explain them. […] The first findings suggest that conversion disorder could be caused by a low grade inflammation process that influences gene expression, which is the process by which the instructions in our DNA are converted into a functional product, such as a protein. […] We made the discovery by examining levels of inflammation in blood samples from patients with FND that mimicked stroke-like symptoms. They were found to be higher than normal. Also, microRNA levels in the blood seemed to play a role and this influences the expression of genes in the cell. […] The CANDO researchers hope the new study will help in the development of new treatments, as treatments previously given to people with conversion disorder have often not helped ease the symptoms.

• #12 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/news/20210316/Researchers-identify-a-possible-cause-of-functional-neurological-disorder.aspx

  Researchers believe they may have discovered a possible cause of a mystery condition that can leave sufferers suddenly unable to walk, talk or see. […] The condition, also known as functional neurological disorder (FND), causes physical symptoms that would appear neurological but doctors can’t find an injury or physical condition to explain them. […] The first findings suggest that conversion disorder could be caused by a low grade inflammation process that influences gene expression, which is the process by which the instructions in our DNA are converted into a functional product, such as a protein. […] We made the discovery by examining levels of inflammation in blood samples from patients with FND that mimicked stroke-like symptoms. They were found to be higher than normal. Also, microRNA levels in the blood seemed to play a role and this influences the expression of genes in the cell. […] The CANDO researchers hope the new study will help in the development of new treatments, as treatments previously given to people with conversion disorder have often not helped ease the symptoms.

• #13 The Road to Functional Neurological Disorder – Proto Magazine

  https://protomag.com/neurology/the-road-to-functional-neurological-disorder/

  An important implication of this and other recent work has been to support the idea that FND is a brain-based condition that bridges neurology and psychiatry, Perez says. […] The researchers discovered elevated levels of inflammation in patients with FND that could possibly mimic stroke-like symptoms, and microRNA levels in the blood also seemed to play a role, influencing the expression of genes.

• #14 Understanding Functional Neurological Disorder: Recent Insights and Diagnostic Challenges

  https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/8/4470

  The etiology of Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder, formerly known as conversion disorder, is multifaceted, involving various biological, psychological, and social factors. These factors are more prevalent in patients with FND than in those with comparable symptoms due to recognized diseases. However, it is important to note that while these factors may contribute to the disorder, they are not individually causal. […] Several neurobiological factors contribute to functional neurological disorder (FND). In patients with FND, abnormalities have been reported in neurotransmitters such as dopamine, serotonin, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Moreover, the presence of inflammatory markers and microglial activation in FND patients suggests a possible immune-mediated mechanism of symptom generation. FND may also be caused by abnormalities in neuroplasticity, including synaptic plasticity and cortical reorganization, which affect the brain’s ability to adapt to environmental stressors and maintain normal neuronal function.

• #15 Understanding Functional Neurological Disorder: Recent Insights and Diagnostic Challenges

  https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/8/4470

  The etiology of Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder, formerly known as conversion disorder, is multifaceted, involving various biological, psychological, and social factors. These factors are more prevalent in patients with FND than in those with comparable symptoms due to recognized diseases. However, it is important to note that while these factors may contribute to the disorder, they are not individually causal. […] Several neurobiological factors contribute to functional neurological disorder (FND). In patients with FND, abnormalities have been reported in neurotransmitters such as dopamine, serotonin, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Moreover, the presence of inflammatory markers and microglial activation in FND patients suggests a possible immune-mediated mechanism of symptom generation. FND may also be caused by abnormalities in neuroplasticity, including synaptic plasticity and cortical reorganization, which affect the brain’s ability to adapt to environmental stressors and maintain normal neuronal function.

• #16 Functional neurological disorder (FND) | NHS inform

  https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/brain-nerves-and-spinal-cord/functional-neurological-disorder/

  We know that the symptoms of FND happen because theres a problem with how the brain is sending and receiving messages to itself and other parts of the body. Using research tools, scientists can see that certain circuits in the brain are not working properly in people with FND. […] FND can happen for a wide range of reasons. Theres often more than one reason, and the reasons can vary hugely from person to person. […] Some of the reasons why the brain stops working properly in FND include: the brain trying to get rid of a painful sensation, a migraine or other neurological symptom, the brain shutting down a part or all of the body in response to a situation it thinks is threatening. […] In some people, stressful events in the past or present can be relevant to FND. In others, stress is not relevant. […] The risk of developing FND increases if you have another neurological condition.

• #17 Conversion disorder Information | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/diseases-conditions/conversion-disorder

  Functional neurological disorder (FND) is a condition in which there is a problem with how the brain receives and sends information to one or more parts of the body. FND is not caused by a disease or injury. For reasons not understood, the nervous (neurological) system does not work properly. […] FND has no known cause. However, stress or a mental or physical trauma can trigger FND. It can also occur with no known trigger. […] While the cause of FND is unclear, this condition and its symptoms are real. It causes serious distress and cannot be turned on and off at will.

• #18 Functional Neurologic Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551567/

  Functional neurologic disorder, formally conversion disorder, is a psychiatric disorder characterized by signs and symptoms affecting sensory or motor function inconsistent with patterns of known neurologic diseases or other medical conditions and significantly impacting the patients ability to function. […] Psychological, social, and biological factors can all contribute to, precipitate, or perpetuate functional neurologic disorder. Often, there is a trauma, adverse life event, or acute/chronic stressor preceding symptoms of functional neurologic disorder. Many patients with functional neurologic disorder are found to have a history of childhood abuse, both emotional and sexual. Other psychological factors contributing to functional neurologic disorder include poor coping skills and internal psychological conflicts. Patients with functional neurologic disorder are more likely to have certain psychiatric disorders (depression, anxiety, and personality disorders) than patients with known neurologic conditions.

• #19 Understanding Functional Neurological Disorder: Recent Insights and Diagnostic Challenges

  https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/8/4470

  In addition to neurological factors, psychological factors considerably make a contribution to the pathophysiology of FND. Psychological factors such as stressful life events, interpersonal conflicts, and adverse childhood experiences have traditionally been viewed as potential causes of FND. A meta-analysis of 34 retrospective studies highlighted that stressful life events and maltreatment, including emotional neglect and sexual and physical abuse, are more common in FND patients than in controls. […] Environmental factors additionally make contributions to FND pathophysiology. Cultural factors and societal attitudes in relation to sickness affect FND’s presentation and management. In addition, social support networks and stigma experiences affect the direction of FND. Access to healthcare services and the availability of specialized FND treatment programs also have an impact on diagnosis and management.

• #20 Conversion disorder | PM&R KnowledgeNow

  https://now.aapmr.org/conversion-disorder/

  A large meta-analysis of case-control studies examined the history of stressful life events and maltreatment in CD/FNSD. The study established increase OR of CD/FNSD given certain history of maltreatment. […] Recent research suggests distorted interoception and a disturbance involving the sense of body ownership and sense of agency in patients with CD/FNSD.

• #21 Conversion Disorder: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/mental-health/what-is-conversion-disorder

  Conversion disorder is a condition in which you have physical symptoms but no injury or illness to explain them. […] A newer name for conversion disorder is functional neurologic disorder (FND). In the American Psychiatric Association (APA) diagnostic manual, DSM-5, conversion disorder and FND are listed as the same condition. But while conversion disorder is linked to stress, FND offers a broader reason. There’s an issue with how your brain processes information and sends it to the rest of your body. It’s not always because of a traumatic event. One way to think of it is like a computer glitch. […] Researchers are still looking for a specific cause for conversion disorder. Many years ago, experts used to think it was a way for your brain to deal with emotional stress. While that may be true for many people, several complex factors are likely at work:

• #22 Conversion Disorders Clinical Presentation: History, Physical, Causes

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/287464-clinical

  Psychoanalytic theory postulates that conversion disorder is caused by the repression of unconscious intrapsychic conflicts and conversion of anxiety into physical symptoms. Learning theorists believe that such symptoms develop from classical conditioning that occurs during childhood and that these learned behaviors arise again as coping mechanisms when the person is subjected to overwhelming stress later in life. Such symptoms also can be viewed as a form of physical communication of an emotionally charged idea or feeling when one is unable to verbalize the conflict because of personal or social taboos.

• #23 Conversion Disorders Clinical Presentation: History, Physical, Causes

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/287464-clinical

  Psychoanalytic theory postulates that conversion disorder is caused by the repression of unconscious intrapsychic conflicts and conversion of anxiety into physical symptoms. Learning theorists believe that such symptoms develop from classical conditioning that occurs during childhood and that these learned behaviors arise again as coping mechanisms when the person is subjected to overwhelming stress later in life. Such symptoms also can be viewed as a form of physical communication of an emotionally charged idea or feeling when one is unable to verbalize the conflict because of personal or social taboos.

• #24 Conversion Disorders Clinical Presentation: History, Physical, Causes

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/287464-clinical

  Psychoanalytic theory postulates that conversion disorder is caused by the repression of unconscious intrapsychic conflicts and conversion of anxiety into physical symptoms. Learning theorists believe that such symptoms develop from classical conditioning that occurs during childhood and that these learned behaviors arise again as coping mechanisms when the person is subjected to overwhelming stress later in life. Such symptoms also can be viewed as a form of physical communication of an emotionally charged idea or feeling when one is unable to verbalize the conflict because of personal or social taboos.

• #25 Conversion disorder | PM&R KnowledgeNow

  https://now.aapmr.org/conversion-disorder/

  A large meta-analysis of case-control studies examined the history of stressful life events and maltreatment in CD/FNSD. The study established increase OR of CD/FNSD given certain history of maltreatment. […] Recent research suggests distorted interoception and a disturbance involving the sense of body ownership and sense of agency in patients with CD/FNSD.

• #26 Conversion disorder: definition, causes, symptoms, and treatment – The Diamond Rehab Thailand

  https://diamondrehabthailand.com/conversion-disorder-definition-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/

  The connection between childhood abuse and conversion disorder is complex. According to the American Journal of Psychiatry 2006 issue on Conversion disorder, many individuals with conversion disorder often have a history of past trauma or stress during their formative years and are inclined to prioritize emotional strength leading them to downplay emotional responses when dealing with challenging situations. […] The 2019 issue of the Cureus journal titled Conversion Disorder: The Brains Way of Dealing with Psychological Conflicts. Case Report of a Patient with Non-epileptic Seizures, suggested that conversion disorder emerges when unconscious emotional conflicts are repressed and then transformed into physical symptoms. […] FND often coexists with various conditions seen in neurological practice such as multiple sclerosis, stroke, and epilepsy, as emphasized in the 2023 edition of NORD, titled Functional Neurological Disorder.

• #27 Functional neurologic disorder/conversion disorder – Hancock Health

  https://www.hancockhealth.org/mayo-health-library/functional-neurologic-disorder-conversion-disorder/

  Factors that may increase your risk of functional neurologic disorder include: Having a neurological disease or disorder, such as epilepsy, migraines or a movement disorder; Recent significant stress or emotional or physical trauma; Having a mental health condition, such as a mood or anxiety disorder, dissociative disorder or certain personality disorders; Having a family member with a neurological condition or symptoms; Having a history of physical or sexual abuse or neglect in childhood. […] Some symptoms of functional neurologic disorder, particularly if not treated, can result in substantial disability and poor quality of life, similar to problems caused by medical conditions or disease.

• #28 Conversion disorder: definition, causes, symptoms, and treatment – The Diamond Rehab Thailand

  https://diamondrehabthailand.com/conversion-disorder-definition-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/

  The connection between childhood abuse and conversion disorder is complex. According to the American Journal of Psychiatry 2006 issue on Conversion disorder, many individuals with conversion disorder often have a history of past trauma or stress during their formative years and are inclined to prioritize emotional strength leading them to downplay emotional responses when dealing with challenging situations. […] The 2019 issue of the Cureus journal titled Conversion Disorder: The Brains Way of Dealing with Psychological Conflicts. Case Report of a Patient with Non-epileptic Seizures, suggested that conversion disorder emerges when unconscious emotional conflicts are repressed and then transformed into physical symptoms. […] FND often coexists with various conditions seen in neurological practice such as multiple sclerosis, stroke, and epilepsy, as emphasized in the 2023 edition of NORD, titled Functional Neurological Disorder.

• #29 Conversion disorder/functional neurological disorder – a narrative review on current research into its pathological mechanism | European Journal of Psychiatry

  https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-european-journal-psychiatry-431-articulo-conversion-disorder-functional-neurological-disorder–S0213616320300367

  A meta-analysis tracked the progression of mental illness linked with childhood trauma, there was a significant association between childhood trauma and increased immune activation. […] Although, the idea of stress levels and HPA activation is debated in the pathology of CD/FND, there are varying results on whether or not there is a difference in stress levels between patients and controls. […] The current level of research suggests a correlation between inflammation and adverse childhood events, with links between inflammation and CD/FND. However, interestingly there seems to be trends in CD/FND symptoms where only certain symptoms are caused by certain inflammatory factors. […] Additionally, there are questions to be answered surrounding how adverse events cause varying degrees of inflammation, with there not being a full link between adverse events in childhood and CD/FND, as not all people who have had trauma in their childhood develop CD/FND, and not all CD/FND patients experienced trauma. […] Finally, there seems to be a collection of proteins and structures that seem to be involved in the overall pathogenesis of FND, including BDNF, inflammatory factors, and the limbic system.

• #30 Conversion disorder/functional neurological disorder – a narrative review on current research into its pathological mechanism | European Journal of Psychiatry

  https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-european-journal-psychiatry-431-articulo-conversion-disorder-functional-neurological-disorder–S0213616320300367

  A meta-analysis tracked the progression of mental illness linked with childhood trauma, there was a significant association between childhood trauma and increased immune activation. […] Although, the idea of stress levels and HPA activation is debated in the pathology of CD/FND, there are varying results on whether or not there is a difference in stress levels between patients and controls. […] The current level of research suggests a correlation between inflammation and adverse childhood events, with links between inflammation and CD/FND. However, interestingly there seems to be trends in CD/FND symptoms where only certain symptoms are caused by certain inflammatory factors. […] Additionally, there are questions to be answered surrounding how adverse events cause varying degrees of inflammation, with there not being a full link between adverse events in childhood and CD/FND, as not all people who have had trauma in their childhood develop CD/FND, and not all CD/FND patients experienced trauma. […] Finally, there seems to be a collection of proteins and structures that seem to be involved in the overall pathogenesis of FND, including BDNF, inflammatory factors, and the limbic system.

• #31 Functional neurologic disorder/conversion disorder // Middlesex Health

  https://middlesexhealth.org/learning-center/diseases-and-conditions/functional-neurologic-disorder/conversion-disorder

  Functional neurologic disorder is related to how the brain functions, rather than damage to the brain’s structure (such as from a stroke, multiple sclerosis, infection or injury). […] The cause of functional neurologic disorder is unknown. The condition may be triggered by a neurological disorder or by a reaction to stress or psychological or physical trauma, but that’s not always the case. […] The exact cause of functional neurologic disorder is unknown. Theories regarding what happens in the brain to result in symptoms are complex and involve multiple mechanisms that may differ, depending on the type of functional neurological symptoms. […] Symptoms of functional neurologic disorder may appear suddenly after a stressful event, or with emotional or physical trauma. Other triggers may include changes or disruptions in how the brain functions at the structural, cellular or metabolic level. But the trigger for symptoms can’t always be identified.

• #32 Functional neurologic disorders/conversion disorder

  https://www.mymlc.com/health-information/diseases-and-conditions/f/functional-neurologic-disordersconversion-disorder/

  Symptoms of functional neurologic disorders may appear suddenly after a stressful event, or with emotional or physical trauma. Other triggers may include changes or disruptions in how the brain functions at the structural, cellular or metabolic level. But the trigger for symptoms can’t always be identified.

• #33 Conversion Disorder: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17975-conversion-disorder

  Functional neurological symptom disorder better known as conversion disorder is a mental health condition that causes physical symptoms. The symptoms happen because your brain converts the effects of a mental health issue into disruptions of your brain or nervous system. […] Experts dont know exactly why conversion disorder happens. However, they do know that its more likely to happen along with certain circumstances and some medical conditions. Common circumstances seen in people with conversion disorder include: A history of childhood abuse. Having other mental health conditions, especially depression or anxiety. A recent stressful or traumatic event. A recent health condition or event acting as a trigger for conversion disorder. […] Conversion disorder creates disruptions in your brain that cause physical symptoms. Functional MRI which lets experts see your brain activity can see the effects of conversion disorder. People who have conversion disorder usually have less activity or unusual activity in parts of their brain related to their symptoms. Those changes in brain activity arent something a person can fake.

• #34

• #35 Conversion Disorder: Understanding Symptoms and Causes.

  https://serincenter.com/conditions-we-treat-at-serin-center/conversion-disorder/?srsltid=AfmBOoo7HahlV3rkP5vTt7vmsgScK0phBjAoVdkfPJ8a6g3QvJgDiLYf

  Changes in brain function or alterations in the way the brain processes information may play a role. However, these alterations are not typically associated with detectable structural brain abnormalities. […] Family or social factors, such as dysfunctional family relationships or a history of abuse, may contribute. […] Previous experiences with illness or injury, especially if they were severe, might increase the likelihood of conversion symptoms. […] Each case is unique, and the specific factors contributing to conversion disorder can vary widely among individuals.

• #36 Conversion Disorder (Functional Neurological Disorder) – PsychDB

  https://www.psychdb.com/somatic/dsm-5/conversion

  Conversion Disorder (also known as Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder or Functional Neurological Disorder [FND]) is a mental disorder characterized by neurologic symptoms (either motor or sensory) that is incompatible with any known neurologic disease. Common symptoms include weakness and/or paralysis, non-epileptic seizures, movement disorders, speech or visual impairment, swallowing difficulty, sensory disturbances, or cognitive symptoms. […] About 37% of individuals with conversion disorder have had a physical injury preceding symptom onset. […] Many clinicians use the alternative names of functional (referring to abnormal central nervous system functioning) or psychogenic (referring to a psychiatric etiology) to describe the symptoms of conversion disorder. […] Historically, the psychological causation model of functional disorders suggests that these disorders occur when psychological or psychiatric distress is non-consciously and involuntarily expressed as physical symptoms and signs. […] With the introduction of the DSM-5, the psychological causation model has been replaced with a predominantly agnostic stance, focusing more on brain network dysfunction (a software problem in the brain as opposed to a hardware problem).

• #37 Conversion disorder: definition, causes, symptoms, and treatment – The Diamond Rehab Thailand

  https://diamondrehabthailand.com/conversion-disorder-definition-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/

  The majority of patients with functional dystonia and functional weakness experienced physical injury proximate to the emergence of symptoms. This connection has been consistently observed since 1965, implying the potential role of physical trauma in the onset of FND. […] According to Ali S. et al.s 2015 study titled Conversion Disorder Mind versus Body: A Review, published in the Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience journal, individuals with lower levels of education and lower socioeconomic status are at a higher risk of developing conversion disorder.

• #38 Basics of Functional Neurological Disorder (FND)

  https://www.massgeneral.org/neurology/treatments-and-services/functional-neurological-disorder-basics

  Functional neurological disorder (FND) is a problem largely impacting the function of the brain. […] FND is a disorder that has biological, psychological, and social risk factors and events that trigger it. The equation for the relevance of given biological, psychological and social factors varies across patients. […] Psychological factors can be risk or triggering elements for some individuals, but they are only one part of the overall clinical picture. […] Both biological and psychological factors can play a role in making you more likely to get FND or trigger FND symptoms.

• #39 Functional neurologic disorder/conversion disorder // Middlesex Health

  https://middlesexhealth.org/learning-center/diseases-and-conditions/functional-neurologic-disorder/conversion-disorder

  Functional neurologic disorder is related to how the brain functions, rather than damage to the brain’s structure (such as from a stroke, multiple sclerosis, infection or injury). […] The cause of functional neurologic disorder is unknown. The condition may be triggered by a neurological disorder or by a reaction to stress or psychological or physical trauma, but that’s not always the case. […] The exact cause of functional neurologic disorder is unknown. Theories regarding what happens in the brain to result in symptoms are complex and involve multiple mechanisms that may differ, depending on the type of functional neurological symptoms. […] Symptoms of functional neurologic disorder may appear suddenly after a stressful event, or with emotional or physical trauma. Other triggers may include changes or disruptions in how the brain functions at the structural, cellular or metabolic level. But the trigger for symptoms can’t always be identified.

• #40 Functional neurologic disorder/conversion disorder | Beacon Health System

  https://www.beaconhealthsystem.org/library/diseases-and-conditions/functional-neurologic-disorder-conversion-disorder?content_id=CON-20228115

  The cause of functional neurologic disorder is unknown. The condition may be triggered by a neurological disorder or by a reaction to stress or psychological or physical trauma, but that’s not always the case. […] The exact cause of functional neurologic disorder is unknown. Theories regarding what happens in the brain to result in symptoms are complex and involve multiple mechanisms that may differ, depending on the type of functional neurological symptoms. […] Symptoms of functional neurologic disorder may appear suddenly after a stressful event, or with emotional or physical trauma. Other triggers may include changes or disruptions in how the brain functions at the structural, cellular or metabolic level. But the trigger for symptoms can’t always be identified.

• #41 FUNCTIONAL NEUROLOGIC DISORDERS / CONVERSION DISORDER · Parkinson’s Resource Organization

  https://www.parkinsonsresource.org/news/articles/functional-neurologic-disorders-conversion-disorder/

  Functional neurologic disorders a newer and broader term that includes what some people call conversion disorder feature nervous system (neurological) symptoms that cant be explained by a neurological disease or other medical condition. […] The cause of functional neurologic disorders is unknown. […] The exact cause of functional neurologic disorders is unknown. […] Symptoms of functional neurologic disorders may appear suddenly after a stressful event, or with emotional or physical trauma. […] Other triggers may include changes or disruptions in how the brain functions at the structural, cellular or metabolic level. […] Risk factors: Factors that may increase your risk of functional neurologic disorders include: Having a neurological disease or disorder, such as epilepsy, migraines or a movement disorder. […] Having a mental health condition, such as a mood or anxiety disorder, dissociative disorder or certain personality disorders. […] Women may be more likely than men to develop functional neurologic disorders.

• #42 Conversion disorder: definition, causes, symptoms, and treatment – The Diamond Rehab Thailand

  https://diamondrehabthailand.com/conversion-disorder-definition-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/

  The connection between childhood abuse and conversion disorder is complex. According to the American Journal of Psychiatry 2006 issue on Conversion disorder, many individuals with conversion disorder often have a history of past trauma or stress during their formative years and are inclined to prioritize emotional strength leading them to downplay emotional responses when dealing with challenging situations. […] The 2019 issue of the Cureus journal titled Conversion Disorder: The Brains Way of Dealing with Psychological Conflicts. Case Report of a Patient with Non-epileptic Seizures, suggested that conversion disorder emerges when unconscious emotional conflicts are repressed and then transformed into physical symptoms. […] FND often coexists with various conditions seen in neurological practice such as multiple sclerosis, stroke, and epilepsy, as emphasized in the 2023 edition of NORD, titled Functional Neurological Disorder.

• #43 Conversion Disorders: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/287464-overview

  Studies on the natural history of conversion disorder indicate that many patients subsequently develop or are found to have preexisting neurologic disease. In fact, conversion disorders may be more frequently observed in patients with a past history of a central nervous system injury. The simultaneous occurrence of organic brain disease with conversion symptoms is also observed, most notably in observation of high rates of organic seizure syndromes associated with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures (PNES). Familial studies have also shown that conversion symptoms in first-degree female relatives are up to 14 times greater than in the general population. […] That the diagnosis of a conversion reaction or disorder represents a failed diagnosis of an organic syndrome, perhaps with psychogenic overlay that obscures exam and other findings is a valid concern. A recent meta-analysis including more than 1400 cases with follow-up over 5 years reported missed organic diagnosis rates of less than 5%.

• #44 Conversion Disorders: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/287464-overview

  Studies on the natural history of conversion disorder indicate that many patients subsequently develop or are found to have preexisting neurologic disease. In fact, conversion disorders may be more frequently observed in patients with a past history of a central nervous system injury. The simultaneous occurrence of organic brain disease with conversion symptoms is also observed, most notably in observation of high rates of organic seizure syndromes associated with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures (PNES). Familial studies have also shown that conversion symptoms in first-degree female relatives are up to 14 times greater than in the general population. […] That the diagnosis of a conversion reaction or disorder represents a failed diagnosis of an organic syndrome, perhaps with psychogenic overlay that obscures exam and other findings is a valid concern. A recent meta-analysis including more than 1400 cases with follow-up over 5 years reported missed organic diagnosis rates of less than 5%.

• #45 Conversion Disorders: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/287464-overview

  Studies on the natural history of conversion disorder indicate that many patients subsequently develop or are found to have preexisting neurologic disease. In fact, conversion disorders may be more frequently observed in patients with a past history of a central nervous system injury. The simultaneous occurrence of organic brain disease with conversion symptoms is also observed, most notably in observation of high rates of organic seizure syndromes associated with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures (PNES). Familial studies have also shown that conversion symptoms in first-degree female relatives are up to 14 times greater than in the general population. […] That the diagnosis of a conversion reaction or disorder represents a failed diagnosis of an organic syndrome, perhaps with psychogenic overlay that obscures exam and other findings is a valid concern. A recent meta-analysis including more than 1400 cases with follow-up over 5 years reported missed organic diagnosis rates of less than 5%.

• #46 Functional Neurologic Disorder – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551567/

  Functional neurologic disorder, formally conversion disorder, is a psychiatric disorder characterized by signs and symptoms affecting sensory or motor function inconsistent with patterns of known neurologic diseases or other medical conditions and significantly impacting the patients ability to function. […] Psychological, social, and biological factors can all contribute to, precipitate, or perpetuate functional neurologic disorder. Often, there is a trauma, adverse life event, or acute/chronic stressor preceding symptoms of functional neurologic disorder. Many patients with functional neurologic disorder are found to have a history of childhood abuse, both emotional and sexual. Other psychological factors contributing to functional neurologic disorder include poor coping skills and internal psychological conflicts. Patients with functional neurologic disorder are more likely to have certain psychiatric disorders (depression, anxiety, and personality disorders) than patients with known neurologic conditions.

• #47 Conversion disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_disorder

  Conversion disorder (CD) was a formerly diagnosed psychiatric disorder characterized by abnormal sensory experiences and movement problems during periods of high psychological stress. Individuals diagnosed with CD presented with highly distressing neurological symptoms such as numbness, blindness, paralysis, or convulsions, none of which were consistent with a well-established organic cause and could be traced back to a psychological trigger. […] It was thought that these symptoms arise in response to stressful situations affecting a patient’s mental health. Individuals diagnosed with conversion disorder have a greater chance of experiencing certain psychiatric disorders including anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and personality disorders compared to those diagnosed with neurological disorders.

• #48 Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder (Conversion Disorder)

  https://mentalhealthathome.org/2021/10/29/conversion-disorder/

  A family history of conversion disorder increases the risk. Having another mental disorder (e.g. a mood disorder, dissociative disorder, or personality disorder) or a neurological disorder can also increase the risk of developing conversion disorder. […] Past physical or sexual abuse or childhood neglect are also risk factors. […] Conversion disorder is more common in people who live in rural areas, have limited education and health literacy, and are of low socioeconomic status. […] The prognosis is better in people who dont have a co-occurring mental disorder. Other factors associated with a better prognosis include initial presentation of symptoms at a younger age, early diagnosis, acute onset of symptoms, short duration of symptoms, presence of an identifiable stressor, male gender, and higher intelligence. […] Medication isnt indicated for the treatment of conversion disorder. However, people with the disorder often have co-occurring mental disorders like depression that may warrant medication.

• #49 Conversion Disorder: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/mental-health/what-is-conversion-disorder

  Some cases of conversion disorder are linked to a mental health condition called somatic symptoms disorder. […] One theory about conversion disorder is that physical symptoms are a way your brain tries to ease an internal conflict. […] Conversion disorder is rare. […] Some factors that make you more likely to have conversion disorder: […] Although much more research needs to be done, some characteristics appear to be common in children who have conversion disorder. […] Conversion disorder isn’t life-threatening, but its symptoms can look like signs of many other serious conditions, such as epilepsy and multiple sclerosis. […] Conversion disorder (functional neurological disorder) is a complex mental health condition in which your brain doesn’t send the right messages to your body. This can cause many physical symptoms that can be painful and upset your daily life.

• #50 Conversion Disorders: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/287464-overview

  Studies on the natural history of conversion disorder indicate that many patients subsequently develop or are found to have preexisting neurologic disease. In fact, conversion disorders may be more frequently observed in patients with a past history of a central nervous system injury. The simultaneous occurrence of organic brain disease with conversion symptoms is also observed, most notably in observation of high rates of organic seizure syndromes associated with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures (PNES). Familial studies have also shown that conversion symptoms in first-degree female relatives are up to 14 times greater than in the general population. […] That the diagnosis of a conversion reaction or disorder represents a failed diagnosis of an organic syndrome, perhaps with psychogenic overlay that obscures exam and other findings is a valid concern. A recent meta-analysis including more than 1400 cases with follow-up over 5 years reported missed organic diagnosis rates of less than 5%.

• #51 Neural correlates of conversion disorder: overview and meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies on motor conversion disorder | BMC Psychiatry | Full Text

  https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-016-0890-x

  Conversion Disorders (CD) are prevalent functional disorders. Although the pathogenesis is still not completely understood, an interaction of genetic, neurobiological, and psychosocial factors is quite likely. […] Despite the historical relevance of the disorder in relation to hysteria, the current knowledge on aetiology and neurological background of CD is incomplete. Similar to other psychiatric disorders an interrelation of genetic, neurobiological, and psychosocial factors is highly plausible. Twin studies showed that approximately 50 % of the variance could be explained by genetic factors. […] Psychological factors like alexithymia – the inability to identify and describe emotions in the self – is a risk factor for dissociative disorders. There is rising evidence that dissociative symptoms are associated with trauma, as depersonalization and derealisation are quintessential responses to acute trauma and dissociative symptoms often occur in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

• #52 Conversion Disorders: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/287464-overview

  Studies on the natural history of conversion disorder indicate that many patients subsequently develop or are found to have preexisting neurologic disease. In fact, conversion disorders may be more frequently observed in patients with a past history of a central nervous system injury. The simultaneous occurrence of organic brain disease with conversion symptoms is also observed, most notably in observation of high rates of organic seizure syndromes associated with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures (PNES). Familial studies have also shown that conversion symptoms in first-degree female relatives are up to 14 times greater than in the general population. […] That the diagnosis of a conversion reaction or disorder represents a failed diagnosis of an organic syndrome, perhaps with psychogenic overlay that obscures exam and other findings is a valid concern. A recent meta-analysis including more than 1400 cases with follow-up over 5 years reported missed organic diagnosis rates of less than 5%.

• #53 Functional neurologic disorder/conversion disorder – Hancock Health

  https://www.hancockhealth.org/mayo-health-library/functional-neurologic-disorder-conversion-disorder/

  Factors that may increase your risk of functional neurologic disorder include: Having a neurological disease or disorder, such as epilepsy, migraines or a movement disorder; Recent significant stress or emotional or physical trauma; Having a mental health condition, such as a mood or anxiety disorder, dissociative disorder or certain personality disorders; Having a family member with a neurological condition or symptoms; Having a history of physical or sexual abuse or neglect in childhood. […] Some symptoms of functional neurologic disorder, particularly if not treated, can result in substantial disability and poor quality of life, similar to problems caused by medical conditions or disease.

• #54 Conversion Disorder (300.11) | Abnormal Psychology

  https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-herkimer-abnormalpsych/chapter/conversion-disorder-300-11/

  Other factors may influence the development of Conversion Disorder. There is some evidence that Conversion Disorder may be genetically transmitted, but there is not enough data to prove this conclusively. Socioeconomic factors are also known to influence the development of this disorder, but the exact manner in which they impact an individual has not been definitively identified. […] Research shows that Conversion Disorder is triggered by a significant stressor such as, difficulty with peer relationships, family discord or marital problems, difficulties with academics or economic hardship within the family. […] Studies have also shown that children whose family members have a chronic illness are more likely to model their symptoms. Also, between 10% and 60% of children with Conversion Disorder had previous illness.

• #55 Understanding Functional Neurological Disorder: Recent Insights and Diagnostic Challenges

  https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/8/4470

  In addition to neurological factors, psychological factors considerably make a contribution to the pathophysiology of FND. Psychological factors such as stressful life events, interpersonal conflicts, and adverse childhood experiences have traditionally been viewed as potential causes of FND. A meta-analysis of 34 retrospective studies highlighted that stressful life events and maltreatment, including emotional neglect and sexual and physical abuse, are more common in FND patients than in controls. […] Environmental factors additionally make contributions to FND pathophysiology. Cultural factors and societal attitudes in relation to sickness affect FND’s presentation and management. In addition, social support networks and stigma experiences affect the direction of FND. Access to healthcare services and the availability of specialized FND treatment programs also have an impact on diagnosis and management.

• #56 Conversion Disorder: Symptoms, Causes, & Treatments | BetterHelp

  https://www.betterhelp.com/mental-health/disorders-conditions/conversion-disorder-functional-neurological-symptom-disorder/

  Specific cultural and societal influences may contribute to the presentation of conversion disorder. For example, in societies where expressing emotional distress is stigmatized, individuals may unconsciously convert this distress into physical symptoms. […] The diagnosis of conversion disorder is typically a diagnosis of exclusion, made only after a thorough medical evaluation has ruled out other neurological or medical conditions that could explain the symptoms. The relationship between these risk factors and symptoms is complex and often requires a multifaceted approach to treatment.

• #57 Understanding Functional Neurological Disorder: Recent Insights and Diagnostic Challenges

  https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/8/4470

  In addition to neurological factors, psychological factors considerably make a contribution to the pathophysiology of FND. Psychological factors such as stressful life events, interpersonal conflicts, and adverse childhood experiences have traditionally been viewed as potential causes of FND. A meta-analysis of 34 retrospective studies highlighted that stressful life events and maltreatment, including emotional neglect and sexual and physical abuse, are more common in FND patients than in controls. […] Environmental factors additionally make contributions to FND pathophysiology. Cultural factors and societal attitudes in relation to sickness affect FND’s presentation and management. In addition, social support networks and stigma experiences affect the direction of FND. Access to healthcare services and the availability of specialized FND treatment programs also have an impact on diagnosis and management.

• #58 Conversion disorder: definition, causes, symptoms, and treatment – The Diamond Rehab Thailand

  https://diamondrehabthailand.com/conversion-disorder-definition-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/

  The majority of patients with functional dystonia and functional weakness experienced physical injury proximate to the emergence of symptoms. This connection has been consistently observed since 1965, implying the potential role of physical trauma in the onset of FND. […] According to Ali S. et al.s 2015 study titled Conversion Disorder Mind versus Body: A Review, published in the Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience journal, individuals with lower levels of education and lower socioeconomic status are at a higher risk of developing conversion disorder.

• #59 Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder (Conversion Disorder)

  https://mentalhealthathome.org/2021/10/29/conversion-disorder/

  A family history of conversion disorder increases the risk. Having another mental disorder (e.g. a mood disorder, dissociative disorder, or personality disorder) or a neurological disorder can also increase the risk of developing conversion disorder. […] Past physical or sexual abuse or childhood neglect are also risk factors. […] Conversion disorder is more common in people who live in rural areas, have limited education and health literacy, and are of low socioeconomic status. […] The prognosis is better in people who dont have a co-occurring mental disorder. Other factors associated with a better prognosis include initial presentation of symptoms at a younger age, early diagnosis, acute onset of symptoms, short duration of symptoms, presence of an identifiable stressor, male gender, and higher intelligence. […] Medication isnt indicated for the treatment of conversion disorder. However, people with the disorder often have co-occurring mental disorders like depression that may warrant medication.

• #60 Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder (Conversion Disorder)

  https://mentalhealthathome.org/2021/10/29/conversion-disorder/

  A family history of conversion disorder increases the risk. Having another mental disorder (e.g. a mood disorder, dissociative disorder, or personality disorder) or a neurological disorder can also increase the risk of developing conversion disorder. […] Past physical or sexual abuse or childhood neglect are also risk factors. […] Conversion disorder is more common in people who live in rural areas, have limited education and health literacy, and are of low socioeconomic status. […] The prognosis is better in people who dont have a co-occurring mental disorder. Other factors associated with a better prognosis include initial presentation of symptoms at a younger age, early diagnosis, acute onset of symptoms, short duration of symptoms, presence of an identifiable stressor, male gender, and higher intelligence. […] Medication isnt indicated for the treatment of conversion disorder. However, people with the disorder often have co-occurring mental disorders like depression that may warrant medication.

• #61 Conversion disorder: definition, causes, symptoms, and treatment – The Diamond Rehab Thailand

  https://diamondrehabthailand.com/conversion-disorder-definition-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/

  The majority of patients with functional dystonia and functional weakness experienced physical injury proximate to the emergence of symptoms. This connection has been consistently observed since 1965, implying the potential role of physical trauma in the onset of FND. […] According to Ali S. et al.s 2015 study titled Conversion Disorder Mind versus Body: A Review, published in the Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience journal, individuals with lower levels of education and lower socioeconomic status are at a higher risk of developing conversion disorder.

• #62 FUNCTIONAL NEUROLOGIC DISORDERS / CONVERSION DISORDER · Parkinson’s Resource Organization

  https://www.parkinsonsresource.org/news/articles/functional-neurologic-disorders-conversion-disorder/

  Functional neurologic disorders a newer and broader term that includes what some people call conversion disorder feature nervous system (neurological) symptoms that cant be explained by a neurological disease or other medical condition. […] The cause of functional neurologic disorders is unknown. […] The exact cause of functional neurologic disorders is unknown. […] Symptoms of functional neurologic disorders may appear suddenly after a stressful event, or with emotional or physical trauma. […] Other triggers may include changes or disruptions in how the brain functions at the structural, cellular or metabolic level. […] Risk factors: Factors that may increase your risk of functional neurologic disorders include: Having a neurological disease or disorder, such as epilepsy, migraines or a movement disorder. […] Having a mental health condition, such as a mood or anxiety disorder, dissociative disorder or certain personality disorders. […] Women may be more likely than men to develop functional neurologic disorders.

• #63 Conversion Disorder: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.verywellmind.com/conversion-disorder-2671575

  Conversion disorder (also known as functional neurological symptom disorder) is a psychological condition that causes symptoms that appear to be neurological, such as paralysis, speech impairment, or tremors, but with no obvious or known organic causes. […] While exact causes are not well understood, research suggests that it could be caused by abnormal flow to certain areas of the brain. […] Conversion disorder may also be a psychological reaction to a highly stressful event or emotional trauma. For example, a soldier who subconsciously wishes to avoid firing a gun may develop paralysis in their hand. […] Other risk factors of conversion disorder include: Being female (Women have a higher risk of developing the disorder.) […] Research also suggests that people with conversion disorder also tend to have abnormal emotional regulation.

• #64 The Road to Functional Neurological Disorder – Proto Magazine

  https://protomag.com/neurology/the-road-to-functional-neurological-disorder/

  Once regarded as a purely mental condition, functional neurological disorder emerges from the shadows. […] FND, under various names, has perplexed physicians since ancient times. Many know it as conversion disorder, a term still in use, which frames the condition as a psychological illnessstress or neurosis expressed, or converted, into physical symptoms. […] The idea that this is the root cause of the disease is drastically changing. […] The new model proposed by Stone, Perez and others suggests a biopsychosocial origina problem with multiple roots in brain biology, patient history and the social context of their lives. […] Indeed, as a wealth of research shows, FND cant be understood exclusively as the result of either psychological or biological factors. […] Events during childhood can affect brain development, sometimes leading to over-activation of parts of the limbic system, including the amygdala and the hippocampus.

• #65 Kevin William Grant—Registered Psychotherapist – Beyond the Mind-Body Dichotomy: Unraveling Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder

  https://www.kevinwgrant.com/blog/item/unraveling-functional-neurological-symptom-disorder

  Conversion Disorder, now more commonly referred to as Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder (FNSD) in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), is a complex psychological condition where patients experience neurological symptoms that a medical condition or another psychiatric disorder cannot explain. […] The exact etiology remains elusive, with theories pointing to a combination of neurological, cognitive, and psychological factors (Brown et al., 2014). […] The etiology of Conversion Disorder, now termed Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder (FNSD), is multifaceted and not completely understood. […] The biopsychosocial model posits that biological, psychological, and social factors contribute to the onset and persistence of FNSD. […] The psychological dimension emphasizes the role of trauma, stressors, and emotional conflicts, wherein the physical symptoms of FNSD can be perceived as a manifestation or expression of unresolved psychological issues. […] Many patients with FNSD report a history of physical or psychological trauma. Stressful life events, such as accidents, surgeries, or significant losses, can precede the onset of symptoms. […] The origins and causes of FNSD are complex and likely result from an interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors. Individual presentations can vary significantly, necessitating personalized diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.

• #66 The Road to Functional Neurological Disorder – Proto Magazine

  https://protomag.com/neurology/the-road-to-functional-neurological-disorder/

  Once regarded as a purely mental condition, functional neurological disorder emerges from the shadows. […] FND, under various names, has perplexed physicians since ancient times. Many know it as conversion disorder, a term still in use, which frames the condition as a psychological illnessstress or neurosis expressed, or converted, into physical symptoms. […] The idea that this is the root cause of the disease is drastically changing. […] The new model proposed by Stone, Perez and others suggests a biopsychosocial origina problem with multiple roots in brain biology, patient history and the social context of their lives. […] Indeed, as a wealth of research shows, FND cant be understood exclusively as the result of either psychological or biological factors. […] Events during childhood can affect brain development, sometimes leading to over-activation of parts of the limbic system, including the amygdala and the hippocampus.

• #67 The Road to Functional Neurological Disorder – Proto Magazine

  https://protomag.com/neurology/the-road-to-functional-neurological-disorder/

  Once regarded as a purely mental condition, functional neurological disorder emerges from the shadows. […] FND, under various names, has perplexed physicians since ancient times. Many know it as conversion disorder, a term still in use, which frames the condition as a psychological illnessstress or neurosis expressed, or converted, into physical symptoms. […] The idea that this is the root cause of the disease is drastically changing. […] The new model proposed by Stone, Perez and others suggests a biopsychosocial origina problem with multiple roots in brain biology, patient history and the social context of their lives. […] Indeed, as a wealth of research shows, FND cant be understood exclusively as the result of either psychological or biological factors. […] Events during childhood can affect brain development, sometimes leading to over-activation of parts of the limbic system, including the amygdala and the hippocampus.

• #68 Functional Neurologic Disorder | National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke

  https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/functional-neurologic-disorder

  Functional neurologic disorder (FND) refers to a neurological condition caused by changes in how brain networks work, rather than changes in the structure of the brain itself, as seen in many other neurological disorders. The exact cause of FND is unknown. […] The fundamental of FND involve biological and sociological factors. While risk factors in adults include exposure to psychological stressors and a history of childhood adversity, those factors are not seen in all people with FND. In children, risk factors can include family problems, bullying, perceived peer pressure, and abuse. Some studies suggest that genetic or environmental factors may affect a persons risk. […] NINDS scientists and other experts review this content to ensure it is accurate and up-to-date.

• #69 Functional neurologic disorder/conversion disorder // Middlesex Health

  https://middlesexhealth.org/learning-center/diseases-and-conditions/functional-neurologic-disorder/conversion-disorder

  Functional neurologic disorder is related to how the brain functions, rather than damage to the brain’s structure (such as from a stroke, multiple sclerosis, infection or injury). […] The cause of functional neurologic disorder is unknown. The condition may be triggered by a neurological disorder or by a reaction to stress or psychological or physical trauma, but that’s not always the case. […] The exact cause of functional neurologic disorder is unknown. Theories regarding what happens in the brain to result in symptoms are complex and involve multiple mechanisms that may differ, depending on the type of functional neurological symptoms. […] Symptoms of functional neurologic disorder may appear suddenly after a stressful event, or with emotional or physical trauma. Other triggers may include changes or disruptions in how the brain functions at the structural, cellular or metabolic level. But the trigger for symptoms can’t always be identified.

• #70 From conversion disorders to functional neurological disorders. Overcoming the rule-out diagnosis? | Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría (English Edition)

  https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-revista-colombiana-psiquiatria-english-edition–479-articulo-from-conversion-disorders-functional-neurological-S2530312019300281

  The term functional is not used as a synonym of psychogenic, but instead it is used to describe a group of disorders in which a functional and non-structural alteration of the nervous system and biopsychosocial model is fundamental to understand the nature of the symptom or of the syndrome. […] The proposal of the DSM-5 to reach the diagnosis of functional neurological disorders from the positive signs found in the neurological examination triggered the interest of clinicians and investigators. […] Therefore, to determine that a symptom is functional neurological, the following conditions should be met: (a) that it causes discomfort or difficulty in the patient’s functioning; (b) that it is not consistent with another recognised disease, and (c) that it is not explained as a simulated symptom.

• #71 Conversion Disorder (Functional Neurological Disorder) – PsychDB

  https://www.psychdb.com/somatic/dsm-5/conversion

  Conversion Disorder (also known as Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder or Functional Neurological Disorder [FND]) is a mental disorder characterized by neurologic symptoms (either motor or sensory) that is incompatible with any known neurologic disease. Common symptoms include weakness and/or paralysis, non-epileptic seizures, movement disorders, speech or visual impairment, swallowing difficulty, sensory disturbances, or cognitive symptoms. […] About 37% of individuals with conversion disorder have had a physical injury preceding symptom onset. […] Many clinicians use the alternative names of functional (referring to abnormal central nervous system functioning) or psychogenic (referring to a psychiatric etiology) to describe the symptoms of conversion disorder. […] Historically, the psychological causation model of functional disorders suggests that these disorders occur when psychological or psychiatric distress is non-consciously and involuntarily expressed as physical symptoms and signs. […] With the introduction of the DSM-5, the psychological causation model has been replaced with a predominantly agnostic stance, focusing more on brain network dysfunction (a software problem in the brain as opposed to a hardware problem).

• #72 Conversion Disorders Clinical Presentation: History, Physical, Causes

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/287464-clinical

  Psychoanalytic theory postulates that conversion disorder is caused by the repression of unconscious intrapsychic conflicts and conversion of anxiety into physical symptoms. Learning theorists believe that such symptoms develop from classical conditioning that occurs during childhood and that these learned behaviors arise again as coping mechanisms when the person is subjected to overwhelming stress later in life. Such symptoms also can be viewed as a form of physical communication of an emotionally charged idea or feeling when one is unable to verbalize the conflict because of personal or social taboos.

• #73 Conversion Disorders Clinical Presentation: History, Physical, Causes

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/287464-clinical

  Psychoanalytic theory postulates that conversion disorder is caused by the repression of unconscious intrapsychic conflicts and conversion of anxiety into physical symptoms. Learning theorists believe that such symptoms develop from classical conditioning that occurs during childhood and that these learned behaviors arise again as coping mechanisms when the person is subjected to overwhelming stress later in life. Such symptoms also can be viewed as a form of physical communication of an emotionally charged idea or feeling when one is unable to verbalize the conflict because of personal or social taboos.

• #74 Conversion Disorders: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/287464-overview

  Conversion symptoms suggest a physical disorder but are the result of psychological factors. According to the psychodynamic model, the symptoms are a consequence of emotional conflict, with the repression of conflict into the unconscious. In the late 1880s, Freud and Breuer suggested that hysterical symptoms resulted from the intrusion of „memories connected to psychical trauma” into the somatic innervation. This mind-to-body process was referred to as conversion. Others have introduced attachment theory as a means to understanding conversion disorder in terms of the freeze response and the appeasement defense behavior seen in animal subjects. […] The patient has been postulated to derive primary and secondary gain. With primary gain, the symptoms allow the patient to express the conflict that has been suppressed unconsciously. With secondary gain, symptoms allow the patient to avoid unpleasant situations or garner support from friends, family, and the medical system that would otherwise be unobtainable. According to sociocultural theories, the direct expression of emotions is impermissible and somatization takes its place. In behavioral models, conversion symptoms are viewed as a learned maladaptive behavior that is reinforced by the environment.

• #75 Conversion Disorders: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/287464-overview

  Conversion symptoms suggest a physical disorder but are the result of psychological factors. According to the psychodynamic model, the symptoms are a consequence of emotional conflict, with the repression of conflict into the unconscious. In the late 1880s, Freud and Breuer suggested that hysterical symptoms resulted from the intrusion of „memories connected to psychical trauma” into the somatic innervation. This mind-to-body process was referred to as conversion. Others have introduced attachment theory as a means to understanding conversion disorder in terms of the freeze response and the appeasement defense behavior seen in animal subjects. […] The patient has been postulated to derive primary and secondary gain. With primary gain, the symptoms allow the patient to express the conflict that has been suppressed unconsciously. With secondary gain, symptoms allow the patient to avoid unpleasant situations or garner support from friends, family, and the medical system that would otherwise be unobtainable. According to sociocultural theories, the direct expression of emotions is impermissible and somatization takes its place. In behavioral models, conversion symptoms are viewed as a learned maladaptive behavior that is reinforced by the environment.

• #76 Functional neurological symptom disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_neurologic_disorder

  Functional neurological symptom disorder (FNSD), also referred to as dissociative neurological symptom disorder (DNSD), is a condition in which patients experience neurological symptoms such as weakness, movement problems, sensory symptoms, and convulsions. As a functional disorder, there is, by definition, no known disease process affecting the structure of the body, yet the person experiences symptoms relating to their body function. Symptoms of functional neurological disorders are clinically recognisable, but are not categorically associated with a definable organic disease. […] A systematic review found that stressful life events and childhood neglect were significantly more common in patients with FNSD than the general population, although some patients report no stressors. […] Converging evidence from several studies using different techniques and paradigms has now demonstrated distinctive brain activation patterns associated with functional deficits, unlike those seen in actors simulating similar deficits. […] FNSD has been reported as a rare occurrence in the period following general anesthesia. […] There is a growing understanding that symptoms are real and distressing, and are caused by an incorrect functioning of the brain rather than being imagined or feigned.

• #77 Conversion Disorder: Symptoms, Causes & Treatments | Ada

  https://ada.com/conditions/conversion-disorder/

  Conversion disorder is believed to be an expression of psychologically stressful experiences. […] While many people experience physical changes related to their mindset, such as a racing heart when feeling nervous, people with conversion disorder tend to experience more dramatic symptoms when faced with psychological and emotional stress. […] Examples of such emotions causing physical symptoms in people experiencing conversion disorder include: A person suppressing anger and the desire to hit someone may experience numbness, tingling, or paralysis of the arm. […] A person with a past history of traumatic experiences may experience seizures and loss of consciousness, due to suppressing memories of their experience(s). […] Somatization is a process in which psychological distress is converted into physical symptoms. […] Although there may be no medical or physical cause found to explain them, the symptoms are real, and affected people are encouraged to seek medical attention.

• #78 Conversion Disorders Clinical Presentation: History, Physical, Causes

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/287464-clinical

  Psychoanalytic theory postulates that conversion disorder is caused by the repression of unconscious intrapsychic conflicts and conversion of anxiety into physical symptoms. Learning theorists believe that such symptoms develop from classical conditioning that occurs during childhood and that these learned behaviors arise again as coping mechanisms when the person is subjected to overwhelming stress later in life. Such symptoms also can be viewed as a form of physical communication of an emotionally charged idea or feeling when one is unable to verbalize the conflict because of personal or social taboos.

• #79 Conversion Disorders: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/287464-overview

  Conversion symptoms suggest a physical disorder but are the result of psychological factors. According to the psychodynamic model, the symptoms are a consequence of emotional conflict, with the repression of conflict into the unconscious. In the late 1880s, Freud and Breuer suggested that hysterical symptoms resulted from the intrusion of „memories connected to psychical trauma” into the somatic innervation. This mind-to-body process was referred to as conversion. Others have introduced attachment theory as a means to understanding conversion disorder in terms of the freeze response and the appeasement defense behavior seen in animal subjects. […] The patient has been postulated to derive primary and secondary gain. With primary gain, the symptoms allow the patient to express the conflict that has been suppressed unconsciously. With secondary gain, symptoms allow the patient to avoid unpleasant situations or garner support from friends, family, and the medical system that would otherwise be unobtainable. According to sociocultural theories, the direct expression of emotions is impermissible and somatization takes its place. In behavioral models, conversion symptoms are viewed as a learned maladaptive behavior that is reinforced by the environment.

• #80 Conversion Disorder (Functional Neurological Disorder) – PsychDB

  https://www.psychdb.com/somatic/dsm-5/conversion

  Conversion Disorder (also known as Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder or Functional Neurological Disorder [FND]) is a mental disorder characterized by neurologic symptoms (either motor or sensory) that is incompatible with any known neurologic disease. Common symptoms include weakness and/or paralysis, non-epileptic seizures, movement disorders, speech or visual impairment, swallowing difficulty, sensory disturbances, or cognitive symptoms. […] About 37% of individuals with conversion disorder have had a physical injury preceding symptom onset. […] Many clinicians use the alternative names of functional (referring to abnormal central nervous system functioning) or psychogenic (referring to a psychiatric etiology) to describe the symptoms of conversion disorder. […] Historically, the psychological causation model of functional disorders suggests that these disorders occur when psychological or psychiatric distress is non-consciously and involuntarily expressed as physical symptoms and signs. […] With the introduction of the DSM-5, the psychological causation model has been replaced with a predominantly agnostic stance, focusing more on brain network dysfunction (a software problem in the brain as opposed to a hardware problem).

• #81 From conversion disorders to functional neurological disorders. Overcoming the rule-out diagnosis? | Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría (English Edition)

  https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-revista-colombiana-psiquiatria-english-edition–479-articulo-from-conversion-disorders-functional-neurological-S2530312019300281

  From the first version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-I) to the fourth version (DSM-IV), sensorimotor symptoms which fall into the denomination medically unexplained were classified first as hysterical neurosis and then as conversion disorders. […] An important debate was raised on how somatoform disorders could be reclassified in the DSM-5. […] Finally, with the DSM-5, the need for a psychological stressor as an explanation of functional neurological disorder was eliminated, and it was sought to emphasise the identification of the positive characteristics in the physical examination. […] The objective of this article was to review the practical implications for patients and doctors with regard to the diagnostic category of functional neurological disorders, emphasising movement disorders.

• #82 From conversion disorders to functional neurological disorders. Overcoming the rule-out diagnosis? | Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría (English Edition)

  https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-revista-colombiana-psiquiatria-english-edition–479-articulo-from-conversion-disorders-functional-neurological-S2530312019300281

  From the first version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-I) to the fourth version (DSM-IV), sensorimotor symptoms which fall into the denomination medically unexplained were classified first as hysterical neurosis and then as conversion disorders. […] An important debate was raised on how somatoform disorders could be reclassified in the DSM-5. […] Finally, with the DSM-5, the need for a psychological stressor as an explanation of functional neurological disorder was eliminated, and it was sought to emphasise the identification of the positive characteristics in the physical examination. […] The objective of this article was to review the practical implications for patients and doctors with regard to the diagnostic category of functional neurological disorders, emphasising movement disorders.

• #83 From conversion disorders to functional neurological disorders. Overcoming the rule-out diagnosis? | Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría (English Edition)

  https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-revista-colombiana-psiquiatria-english-edition–479-articulo-from-conversion-disorders-functional-neurological-S2530312019300281

  Functional neurological disorders, formerly referred to as conversion disorders, are a frequent clinical problem in neurology, psychiatry and primary care departments. […] The conceptual differences between conversion disorders and functional neurological disorders and the implications of these changes in the clinical approach are identified. […] The new proposed diagnosis for functional neurological disorders provides the opportunity to transform a diagnosis made by ruling out other pathologies to a diagnosis where the presence of neurological signs suggestive of the disorder are verified and can be taught to the patient, and based on them, treatment strategies posed. […] The incidence of functional neurological disorders has been estimated to be between 2.5 and 500/100,000 in the general population and 20 and 120/100,000 in hospitalised patients.

• #84 Uncovering the etiology of conversion disorder: insights from function | NDT

  https://www.dovepress.com/uncovering-the-etiology-of-conversion-disorder-insights-from-functiona-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-NDT

  Conversion disorder (CD) is a syndrome of neurological symptoms arising without organic cause, arguably in response to emotional stress, but the exact neural substrates of these symptoms and the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood with the hunt for a biological basis afoot for centuries. […] The etiology of medically unexplained symptoms, including CD, is poorly understood. Neuroimaging research is at the forefront of efforts to establish a neurobiological model for CD. […] The elements of a stress-diathesis model for CD have long been hypothesized. Traumatic life events were associated with CD even before Freud, though their relevance has been disputed. […] These could provide clues improving our understanding of abnormal influence and connection of emotion processing areas onto brain areas responsible for sensorimotor and cognitive processes and perhaps ultimately a pathophysiological model, for how distressing emotions are converted into neurological symptoms.

• #85 Neural correlates of conversion disorder: overview and meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies on motor conversion disorder | BMC Psychiatry | Full Text

  https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-016-0890-x

  Although there is an incremental increase of knowledge about the causes of dissociative disorders, there is currently a lack of evidence for the effectiveness of psychological and pharmacological treatments. […] Our results support the emotional unawareness theory but also underline the need of more support by conduction imaging studies on both CD and MCD. […] Our results show that emotional, motor planning, and inhibitory processes are involved in MCD. Instead of single miss-functioning of a specific neuroanatomical area, a complete network of areas seems to influence the presentation of MCD symptoms. […] Changes in affective functions are highly plausible based on the increased activity of the amygdala and ACC in MCD. Support of dysfunctional inhibitory abilities is provided by the increased activity of the affected side. […] In order to better understand CD and specific forms of CD, more neurobiological research has to be conducted on disorders listed in Table 1, so that comparative ALEs can be calculated.

• #86 Conversion Disorder: Symptoms and Management

  https://www.healthline.com/health/conversion-disorder-management

  There is also a 2021 study that suggested inflammation can play a role in the development of conversion disorder. […] Conversion disorder was described more than a century ago as a hysterical disorder in which psychological or emotional stress translated into physical symptoms ranging from fatigue to paralysis. […] Newer functional brain imaging tests helped identify conversion disorder as a true disorder, not just something that a person imagines.

• #87 The Road to Functional Neurological Disorder – Proto Magazine

  https://protomag.com/neurology/the-road-to-functional-neurological-disorder/

  An important implication of this and other recent work has been to support the idea that FND is a brain-based condition that bridges neurology and psychiatry, Perez says. […] The researchers discovered elevated levels of inflammation in patients with FND that could possibly mimic stroke-like symptoms, and microRNA levels in the blood also seemed to play a role, influencing the expression of genes.

• #88 Functional neurological symptom disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_neurologic_disorder

  Functional neurological symptom disorder (FNSD), also referred to as dissociative neurological symptom disorder (DNSD), is a condition in which patients experience neurological symptoms such as weakness, movement problems, sensory symptoms, and convulsions. As a functional disorder, there is, by definition, no known disease process affecting the structure of the body, yet the person experiences symptoms relating to their body function. Symptoms of functional neurological disorders are clinically recognisable, but are not categorically associated with a definable organic disease. […] A systematic review found that stressful life events and childhood neglect were significantly more common in patients with FNSD than the general population, although some patients report no stressors. […] Converging evidence from several studies using different techniques and paradigms has now demonstrated distinctive brain activation patterns associated with functional deficits, unlike those seen in actors simulating similar deficits. […] FNSD has been reported as a rare occurrence in the period following general anesthesia. […] There is a growing understanding that symptoms are real and distressing, and are caused by an incorrect functioning of the brain rather than being imagined or feigned.

• #89 Functional neurologic disorder/conversion disorder – Diagnosis & treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/conversion-disorder/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20355202

  Understanding what functional neurologic disorder is, that the symptoms are real, and that improvement is possible can help you with treatment choices and recovery. […] For some people, education and reassurance that they don’t have a serious medical problem is the most effective treatment. […] Your medical team provides treatment of any underlying neurological or other medical disease you may have that might be a trigger for your symptoms. […] Even though functional neurological symptoms are not „all in your head,” emotions and the way you think about things can have an impact on your symptoms and your recovery. […] Treating mental health conditions along with functional neurologic disorder can help recovery. […] Medications are not effective for functional neurologic disorder, and no drugs are approved by the Food and Drug Administration specifically as a treatment.

• #90 From conversion disorders to functional neurological disorders. Overcoming the rule-out diagnosis? | Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría (English Edition)

  https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-revista-colombiana-psiquiatria-english-edition–479-articulo-from-conversion-disorders-functional-neurological-S2530312019300281

  The importance of neurologists in the teams who evaluate these patients is increasingly insisted upon. […] Once the diagnosis is clear, its nature should be communicated appropriately to the patient. […] The positive findings of the physical examination of a patient with functional neurological symptoms are the key to the diagnosis. […] The use of suggestion in hypnosis for the treatment of functional symptoms has increased in recent decades. […] To conclude, functional neurological disorders are made up of a range of diverse symptoms which are disabling for patients and highly prevalent in general and specialised medical consultations. […] Clinicians who treat patients with suspected functional neurological disorders now have the opportunity to adopt new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies which test the clinical ability to explain the diagnosis and educate the patient and their family in the face of these clinical manifestations, which will have a crucial importance in the progression and prognosis of the patients.

• #91 From conversion disorders to functional neurological disorders. Overcoming the rule-out diagnosis? | Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría (English Edition)

  https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-revista-colombiana-psiquiatria-english-edition–479-articulo-from-conversion-disorders-functional-neurological-S2530312019300281

  The importance of neurologists in the teams who evaluate these patients is increasingly insisted upon. […] Once the diagnosis is clear, its nature should be communicated appropriately to the patient. […] The positive findings of the physical examination of a patient with functional neurological symptoms are the key to the diagnosis. […] The use of suggestion in hypnosis for the treatment of functional symptoms has increased in recent decades. […] To conclude, functional neurological disorders are made up of a range of diverse symptoms which are disabling for patients and highly prevalent in general and specialised medical consultations. […] Clinicians who treat patients with suspected functional neurological disorders now have the opportunity to adopt new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies which test the clinical ability to explain the diagnosis and educate the patient and their family in the face of these clinical manifestations, which will have a crucial importance in the progression and prognosis of the patients.

• #92 Functional neurologic disorder/conversion disorder – Diagnosis & treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/conversion-disorder/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20355202

  Understanding what functional neurologic disorder is, that the symptoms are real, and that improvement is possible can help you with treatment choices and recovery. […] For some people, education and reassurance that they don’t have a serious medical problem is the most effective treatment. […] Your medical team provides treatment of any underlying neurological or other medical disease you may have that might be a trigger for your symptoms. […] Even though functional neurological symptoms are not „all in your head,” emotions and the way you think about things can have an impact on your symptoms and your recovery. […] Treating mental health conditions along with functional neurologic disorder can help recovery. […] Medications are not effective for functional neurologic disorder, and no drugs are approved by the Food and Drug Administration specifically as a treatment.

• #93 Functional neurologic disorder/conversion disorder – Diagnosis & treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/conversion-disorder/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20355202

  Understanding what functional neurologic disorder is, that the symptoms are real, and that improvement is possible can help you with treatment choices and recovery. […] For some people, education and reassurance that they don’t have a serious medical problem is the most effective treatment. […] Your medical team provides treatment of any underlying neurological or other medical disease you may have that might be a trigger for your symptoms. […] Even though functional neurological symptoms are not „all in your head,” emotions and the way you think about things can have an impact on your symptoms and your recovery. […] Treating mental health conditions along with functional neurologic disorder can help recovery. […] Medications are not effective for functional neurologic disorder, and no drugs are approved by the Food and Drug Administration specifically as a treatment.

• #94 Understanding Functional Neurological Disorder: Recent Insights and Diagnostic Challenges

  https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/25/8/4470

  The etiology of Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder, formerly known as conversion disorder, is multifaceted, involving various biological, psychological, and social factors. These factors are more prevalent in patients with FND than in those with comparable symptoms due to recognized diseases. However, it is important to note that while these factors may contribute to the disorder, they are not individually causal. […] Several neurobiological factors contribute to functional neurological disorder (FND). In patients with FND, abnormalities have been reported in neurotransmitters such as dopamine, serotonin, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Moreover, the presence of inflammatory markers and microglial activation in FND patients suggests a possible immune-mediated mechanism of symptom generation. FND may also be caused by abnormalities in neuroplasticity, including synaptic plasticity and cortical reorganization, which affect the brain’s ability to adapt to environmental stressors and maintain normal neuronal function.

• #95 What Is FND – FND Hope International

  https://fndhope.org/fnd-guide/

  Functional Neurological Disorder (FND) is a problem with the functioning of the nervous system and how the brain and body send and receive signals. Physical and/or psychological risk factors can cause functional symptoms which include a variety of physical, sensory and cognitive symptoms that have yet to be explained by a recognised disease. Functional Neurological Disorders are considered to be multifactorial, which means many different risk factors can contribute to the development of the disorder. […] Despite the prevalence of Functional Neurological Disorder, the exact cause of FND is unknown. Many different predisposing factors likely make patients more susceptible to functional symptoms, and at the time of illness onset, these precipitating factors may likely trigger or exacerbate FND symptoms which then cultivate on-going functional symptoms. Perpetuating factors likely begin to create new neuropathways, which could eventually cause changes in the brain.

• #96 What Is FND – FND Hope International

  https://fndhope.org/fnd-guide/

  Historically FND has traditionally been viewed as an entirely psychological disorder resulting in physical symptoms caused by suppressed trauma. Psychological disorders and stressful life events, both recent and in childhood, may be risk factors for developing the condition in some patients, but they rarely provide a full explanation for the cause of the condition and are absent in many patients.

• #97 Uncovering the etiology of conversion disorder: insights from function | NDT

  https://www.dovepress.com/uncovering-the-etiology-of-conversion-disorder-insights-from-functiona-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-NDT

  There are nevertheless many clues to etiology from the studies reviewed. […] Specific traumatic life events have been shown to be differentially processed and linked to symptoms in CD, and this has been interpreted in a way familiar to any student of Freud: the recall of events judged to be of etiological relevance were associated with brain activation analogous to memory suppression and with brain activation in the now-familiar SMA and TPJ, plausible sites of symptom production.

• #98 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/news/20210316/Researchers-identify-a-possible-cause-of-functional-neurological-disorder.aspx

  Researchers believe they may have discovered a possible cause of a mystery condition that can leave sufferers suddenly unable to walk, talk or see. […] The condition, also known as functional neurological disorder (FND), causes physical symptoms that would appear neurological but doctors can’t find an injury or physical condition to explain them. […] The first findings suggest that conversion disorder could be caused by a low grade inflammation process that influences gene expression, which is the process by which the instructions in our DNA are converted into a functional product, such as a protein. […] We made the discovery by examining levels of inflammation in blood samples from patients with FND that mimicked stroke-like symptoms. They were found to be higher than normal. Also, microRNA levels in the blood seemed to play a role and this influences the expression of genes in the cell. […] The CANDO researchers hope the new study will help in the development of new treatments, as treatments previously given to people with conversion disorder have often not helped ease the symptoms.

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