Szpiczak mnogi
Etiologia i przyczyny

Szpiczak mnogi to złośliwy nowotwór komórek plazmatycznych szpiku kostnego, którego patogeneza opiera się na złożonych mechanizmach genetycznych, immunologicznych i środowiskowych. Choroba rozwija się na podłożu wcześniejszych stanów przednowotworowych, takich jak MGUS (monoklonalne białko M <3 g/dl, plazmocyty <10%) oraz tlący się szpiczak mnogi (plazmocyty 10-60%), z ryzykiem progresji odpowiednio około 1% i 10% rocznie. Kluczowe aberracje cytogenetyczne obejmują translokacje chromosomu 14q32 (m.in. t(4;14) u 15% pacjentów, t(11;14) u 15-20%), delecje chromosomu 13 (42-50%) i 17p13.1 (utrata TP53), oraz amplifikację 1q (30-40%), które korelują z gorszym rokowaniem. Mutacje onkogenów (c-myc, N-ras, K-ras) i genów supresorowych (TP53) dodatkowo wpływają na progresję choroby. Dziedziczna podatność szacowana jest na 15% dla MGUS i 17% dla szpiczaka mnogiego.

Etiologia szpiczaka mnogiego

Szpiczak mnogi (ang. Multiple myeloma) to nowotwór złośliwy komórek plazmatycznych szpiku kostnego. Dokładna przyczyna rozwoju szpiczaka mnogiego nie jest w pełni poznana, jednak badania wskazują na złożony mechanizm powstawania choroby, obejmujący czynniki genetyczne, środowiskowe oraz immunologiczne12.

Genetyczne podłoże szpiczaka mnogiego

Szpiczak mnogi rozpoczyna się od zmian genetycznych w pojedynczej komórce plazmatycznej szpiku kostnego. Zmutowana komórka plazmatyczna zaczyna szybko namnażać się, prowadząc do powstania klonu komórek nowotworowych12. Badania cytogenetyczne wykazały liczne aberracje chromosomalne związane z rozwojem szpiczaka:

  • Translokacje chromosomu 14q32, które są uważane za wczesne zdarzenie w patogenezie szpiczaka12
  • Translokacja t(4;14) występująca u około 15% pacjentów, związana z gorszym rokowaniem12
  • Translokacja t(11;14) obecna u 15-20% pacjentów1
  • Delecja chromosomu 13 lub jego fragmentu, występująca u około 42-50% pacjentów12
  • Delecja krótkiego ramienia chromosomu 17 (17p13.1), wiążąca się z utratą genu supresorowego TP531
  • Amplifikacja 1q występująca u 30-40% przypadków, związana z gorszym rokowaniem1

Mutacje dotyczą również onkogenów, takich jak c-myc, N-ras, K-ras oraz genów supresorowych, jak TP5312. Warto zaznaczyć, że dziedziczna podatność na szpiczaka mnogiego jest dobrze udokumentowana, z szacowaną dziedzicznością około 15% dla MGUS i 17% dla szpiczaka mnogiego1.

Gammopatia monoklonalna o nieustalonym znaczeniu (MGUS) jako stan prekursorowy

Obecnie uważa się, że szpiczak mnogi rozwija się z wcześniejszego stanu przednowotworowego nazywanego gammopatią monoklonalną o nieustalonym znaczeniu (MGUS)12. MGUS charakteryzuje się obecnością monoklonalnego białka (białka M) w surowicy, przy stężeniu poniżej 3 g/dl, oraz odsetkiem plazmocytów w szpiku kostnym poniżej 10%, bez objawów uszkodzenia narządów docelowych1.

Ryzyko progresji MGUS do szpiczaka mnogiego wynosi około 1% rocznie, co oznacza, że około 20% osób z MGUS rozwinie szpiczaka mnogiego w ciągu swojego życia12. Warto podkreślić, że aktualnie przyjmuje się, iż wszyscy pacjenci ze szpiczakiem mnogim mieli wcześniej MGUS, niezależnie od tego, czy zostało ono zdiagnozowane1.

Kolejnym etapem rozwoju choroby może być tlący się szpiczak mnogi (smoldering multiple myeloma, SMM), który charakteryzuje się wyższym odsetkiem plazmocytów w szpiku (10-60%) oraz wyższym stężeniem białka M, ale bez objawów klinicznych uszkodzenia narządów1. Ryzyko progresji SMM do aktywnego szpiczaka wynosi około 10% rocznie1.

Czynniki ryzyka szpiczaka mnogiego

Zidentyfikowano szereg czynników ryzyka związanych z rozwojem szpiczaka mnogiego:

Czynniki demograficzne
  • Wiek – szpiczak mnogi rzadko występuje u osób poniżej 40 roku życia, a większość przypadków diagnozuje się u osób powyżej 65 roku życia12
  • Płeć – choroba częściej występuje u mężczyzn niż u kobiet12
  • Rasa – szpiczak mnogi jest około dwukrotnie częstszy u osób rasy czarnej niż u osób rasy białej lub azjatyckiej12
Czynniki genetyczne i rodzinne
  • Historia rodzinna – ryzyko rozwoju szpiczaka mnogiego jest niemal 4-krotnie wyższe u osób, których rodzic lub rodzeństwo choruje na szpiczaka mnogiego1
  • Specyficzne mutacje genetyczne – mutacje genów związanych z regulacją cyklu komórkowego, apoptozy oraz systemów naprawy DNA1
Czynniki środowiskowe
  • Ekspozycja na promieniowanie – zwiększone ryzyko obserwowano u osób narażonych na wysokie dawki promieniowania1
  • Ekspozycja na substancje chemiczne – kontakt z pestycydami, herbicydami, benzenem i innymi rozpuszczalnikami organicznymi, a także Agent Orange123
  • Wykonywany zawód – zwiększone ryzyko obserwowano u osób pracujących w przemyśle naftowym, chemicznym, rolniczym oraz u strażaków i fryzjerów12
Inne czynniki ryzyka
  • Otyłość – nadwaga i otyłość zwiększają ryzyko rozwoju szpiczaka mnogiego12
  • Przewlekły stan zapalny – choroby zapalne, takie jak cukrzyca typu 2, choroby serca i reumatoidalne zapalenie stawów, mogą zwiększać ryzyko1
  • Obniżona odporność – stany obniżonej odporności, np. w przebiegu zakażenia HIV, zwiększają ryzyko rozwoju szpiczaka12
  • Zakażenia wirusowe – istnieją doniesienia o związku z zakażeniem wirusem Epsteina-Barr, zwłaszcza u osób z niedoborami odporności1

Mikrootoczenie szpiku kostnego w patogenezie szpiczaka

Coraz więcej dowodów wskazuje na kluczową rolę mikrootoczenia szpiku kostnego w rozwoju i progresji szpiczaka mnogiego1. Mikrootoczenie szpiku stwarza warunki sprzyjające infiltracji, wzrostowi, proliferacji, adhezji i migracji komórek szpiczakowych, a także zapewnia strukturalne i odżywcze podtrzymanie dla komórek mielomowych w stanie uśpienia, które są oporne na leki1.

W typowym mikrootoczeniu guza szpiczakowego znajdują się różne komórki mediatorowe, w tym mezenchymalne komórki zrębu, osteoblasty, osteoklasty, adipocyty szpiku kostnego oraz różne typy komórek immunomodulacyjnych (np. makrofagi, komórki NK, regulatorowe komórki T)1. Interakcje między komórkami szpiczaka a dysfunkcyjnym mikrootoczeniem szpiku przyczyniają się do oporności na chemioterapię, znanej jako oporność na leki zależna od środowiska1.

Warto również wspomnieć o roli cytokin, takich jak CCL3, w patogenezie szpiczaka. Zwiększone poziomy chemokiny CCL3 w osoczu szpiku kostnego efektywnie blokują erytropoezę, przyczyniając się do rozwoju niedokrwistości, która jest najczęstszym powikłaniem szpiczaka12.

Ewolucja klonalna szpiczaka mnogiego

Ewolucja klonalna w szpiczaku mnogim przebiega zgodnie z modelem darwinowskim, który obejmuje losowe nabywanie zmian genetycznych dających przewagę przeżyciową1. Komórki szpiczaka wykazują znaczną niestabilność genomową, co prowadzi do różnorodności genetycznej i heterogenności klonalnej1.

W cytogenetycznym podejściu do inicjacji i progresji szpiczaka mnogiego wyróżnia się zdarzenia pierwotne i wtórne. Zdarzenia pierwotne odpowiedzialne za nieśmiertelność komórek plazmatycznych są dalej kategoryzowane na dwa podtypy: hiperdiploidalny (HRD) i niehiperdiploidalny (non-HRD)1. HRD definiuje się jako liczbę chromosomów większą niż liczba diploidalna (46) i występuje u znacznej części pacjentów ze szpiczakiem1.

Deregulacja punktu przejścia cyklu komórkowego G1/S poprzez nadekspresję genów cykliny D jest kluczową wczesną nieprawidłowością molekularną w szpiczaku mnogim1. Wynik naprawy DNA jest czynnikiem predykcyjnym dla przeżycia wolnego od progresji i ogólnego przeżycia pacjentów ze szpiczakiem mnogim1.

Podsumowanie przyczyn i patogenezy szpiczaka mnogiego

Szpiczak mnogi to złożona choroba nowotworowa, której dokładna etiologia pozostaje nieznana. Obecny stan wiedzy wskazuje, że rozwój szpiczaka mnogiego jest wynikiem wieloetapowego procesu, rozpoczynającego się od nabycia mutacji genetycznych przez pojedynczą komórkę plazmatyczną12.

Większość przypadków szpiczaka mnogiego rozwija się na podłożu MGUS, które następnie może przekształcić się w tlący się szpiczak mnogi, a ostatecznie w aktywną postać choroby1. Na ryzyko rozwoju choroby wpływa wiele czynników, w tym wiek, płeć, rasa, predyspozycje genetyczne oraz ekspozycja na czynniki środowiskowe1.

Mikrootoczenie szpiku kostnego odgrywa kluczową rolę w patogenezie szpiczaka poprzez wspieranie wzrostu, przeżycia i oporności komórek nowotworowych1. Zrozumienie złożonych interakcji między komórkami szpiczaka a mikrootoczeniem szpiku jest istotne dla opracowania skutecznych strategii terapeutycznych1.

Należy podkreślić, że mimo identyfikacji wielu czynników ryzyka i mechanizmów patogenetycznych, nie istnieją potwierdzone metody zapobiegania szpiczakowi mnogiemu12. Dalsze badania nad etiologią szpiczaka mnogiego są niezbędne do lepszego zrozumienia choroby i opracowania skuteczniejszych metod leczenia i zapobiegania.

Kolejne rozdziały

Zapraszamy do dalszego czytania naszego leksykonu.

Wybierz kolejny rozdział z menu poniżej, aby otworzyć nową podstronę kompedium wiedzy i uzyskać szczegółowe informację o leku, substancji lub chorobie.

  1. 13.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Causes of Multiple Myeloma | American Cancer Society
    https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/multiple-myeloma/causes-risks-prevention/what-causes.html
    We know some risk factors for multiple myeloma, but its not always clear exactly what causes it. […] Scientists think multiple myeloma happens when a condition known as monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS) progresses and becomes cancer. […] There are several types of gene changes (mutations) that cause MGUS to progress into multiple myeloma. […] Cancer is caused by changes in the genes inside our cells. This is true of all cancers, including multiple myeloma. […] Any of these types of DNA changes might lead to cells growing out of control, which could lead to cancer. […] MGUS cells often have abnormal (unusual) chromosomes. […] Other types of genetic changes in the cells can then result in MGUS progressing to multiple myeloma. […] Changes in any of these genes (as well as some others) can cause the cells to grow out of control, which can lead to multiple myeloma.
  • #1 Multiple myeloma – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/multiple-myeloma/symptoms-causes/syc-20353378
    Multiple myeloma begins with one plasma cell in the bone marrow. Something happens that turns the plasma cell into a cancerous myeloma cell. The myeloma cell begins making a lot more myeloma cells quickly. […] It’s not clear what causes myeloma. […] There’s no way to prevent multiple myeloma. If you get multiple myeloma, you didn’t do anything to cause it.
  • #1 Multiple Myeloma: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/204369-overview
    The precise etiology of MM has not yet been established. Roles have been suggested for a variety of factors, including genetic causes, environmental or occupational causes, MGUS, radiation, chronic inflammation, and infection. […] MM has been reported in two or more first-degree relatives and in identical twins, although no evidence suggests a hereditary basis for the disease. A study by the Mayo Clinic found MM in eight siblings from a group of 440 patients; these eight siblings had different heavy chains but the same light chains. […] Some studies have shown that abnormalities of certain oncogenes, such as c-myc, are associated with development early in the course of plasma cell tumors and that abnormalities of oncogenes such as N-ras and K-ras are associated with development after bone marrow relapse. Abnormalities of tumor suppressor genes, such as TP53, have been shown to be associated with spread to other organs.
  • #1 Multiple myeloma etiology and treatment
    https://www.oaepublish.com/articles/jtgg.2021.36
    The African American (AA) population has a higher prevalence of MGUS and MM than Caucasian Americans (CA) of European ancestry. […] A study involving GWAS analysis revealed a stronger association between the 7p15.3 (rs4487645) locus and MM in AA. […] The translocation t(4;14) is seen in 15% of MM cases and has a poor prognosis. […] The translocation t(11;14) is the most frequent translocation present in MM (15%-20% patients). […] The chromosome 17 deletion is a late disease event. […] CNVs contribute to genomic instability either via over-expression of proto-oncogenes or loss of tumor suppression genes. […] HRD is defined by a chromosome count greater than the diploid number of chromosomes (46). […] The gain of 1q arm is present in 30 to 40% of MM cases and is associated with a poor prognosis.
  • #1 Multiple Myeloma: Causes and Risk Factors
    https://www.verywellhealth.com/multiple-myeloma-causes-4587351
    Another common genetic mistake that is very common in those with myeloma is a missing piece of chromosome 13, or the entire chromosome missing in many cases. […] Approximately 42 percent of the people diagnosed with multiple myeloma have a deletion of chromosome 13. […] Those who have had prior plasma cell conditions (such as plasmacytoma of the bone or monoclonal gammopathy) are at greater risk of developing myeloma than those who have not had these conditions. […] Just about every case of myeloma begins as what Mayo Clinic describes as a relatively benign condition called monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS). […] The cause of MGUS is unknown.
  • #1 Multiple Myeloma: Available Therapies and Causes of Drug Resistance
    https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/12/2/407
    The genetic, cytogenetic and epigenetic changes related to the MM pathogenesis are associated with predisposition to drug resistance and, eventually, relapse. […] The IgH translocations involving the chromosome 14q32 are believed to be one of the first events involved in the MM pathogenesis. […] The t(4;14) translocation, occurring in 15% of patients, is associated with therapeutic failure and consequently high rates of relapse. […] Secondary cytogenetic events frequently consist of deletions. […] Deletion of the short arm of chromosome 17 (17p13.1) confers a dismal prognosis in MM, associated with advanced stages of MM and drug resistance, essentially due to the loss of the p53 tumor suppressor gene (TP53) and consequent dysregulated control of cell cycle and apoptosis. […] The persistence of cancer stem cells (CSCs, also called tumor initiating cells) within the heterogeneous tumor niche may contribute to justify the high rates of relapsed and refractory MM patients. […] The interaction between MM cells and a dysregulated BM microenvironment also contributes to chemotherapy resistance, known as environment-mediated drug resistance.
  • #1 Multiple myeloma etiology and treatment
    https://www.oaepublish.com/articles/jtgg.2021.36
    Genomic aberrations are central to the development and progression of multiple myeloma. […] Genomic instability affects all levels of the genome and leads to two types of aberrations: large-scale and small-scale. […] In the cytogenetic approach, MM initiation and progression involve primary and secondary events. Primary events responsible for plasma cell immortalization are further categorized into two subtypes: hyperdiploid (HRD) and non-hyperdiploid (non-HRD). […] The inherited susceptibility to MM is well established, with an estimated heritability of about 15% and 17% for MGUS and MM respectively. […] While the familial clustering of MM indicates a genetic predisposition to the disease, only recently (2012) has GWAS identified single-nucleotide polymorphisms associated with MM risk.
  • #1 Multiple Myeloma: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/204369-overview
    Case-controlled studies have suggested a significant risk of developing MM in individuals with significant occupational exposures in the agriculture, food, and petrochemical industries. An increased risk has been reported in farmers, especially in those who use herbicides and insecticides (eg, chlordane), and in people exposed to benzene and other organic solvents. […] Monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS) is defined by the presence of three criteria: Serum monoclonal M protein (M-protein) concentration 3 g/dL, Bone marrow plasma cell concentration 10%, No evidence of end-organ damage. […] Radiation may play a role in some patients. An increased risk has been reported in atomic-bomb survivors exposed to more than 50 Gy: In 109,000 survivors of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki during World War II, 29 died from MM between 1950 and 1976.
  • #1 Precursor Conditions to Multiple Myeloma | Myeloma Center
    https://www.myelomacenter.org/patients/other-plasma-cell-disorders/precursor-conditions-multiple-myeloma
    Prior to a multiple myeloma diagnosis, many patients will have a precursor condition that causes changes in their bone marrow, but doesnt cause the traditional symptoms or organ damage associated with myeloma. […] Both MGUS and SMM cause plasma cells in the bone marrow to grow more rapidly than normal, which can produce abnormal antibodies, called M proteins, and can eventually develop into myeloma. […] The risk of a patient’s progression from MGUS to active myeloma is only 1% per year and approximately 20% of people with MGUS will progress to active myeloma in their lifetime. […] People who have smoldering myeloma have a higher risk of developing myeloma than those with MGUS and the risk of progressing to myeloma is 10% per year. […] Any interruptions to this process can create abnormal blood cells which can ultimately lead to the development of blood cancers.
  • #1 What Causes Myeloma? | Myeloma UK
    https://www.myeloma.org.uk/understanding-myeloma/causes/
    What causes myeloma? Find out which factors may contribute to myeloma, including family history, environmental risks and more. […] The exact cause of myeloma is not yet fully understood. We do know that myeloma develops when genetic ‘errors’ occur within the DNA of a plasma cell, but we do not currently know why these errors occur. […] Although we don’t currently know what causes myeloma, researchers have identified some risk factors. These risk factors are defined as anything that increases a person’s chances of getting myeloma. […] The risk of myeloma increases as people get older and myeloma is slightly more common in men than women, and is more common in black populations than in white or Asian populations. […] Some people go on to develop myeloma after having been diagnosed with a condition called MGUS which stands for Monoclonal Gammopathy of Undetermined Significance. It’s generally now accepted that all myeloma patients have had MGUS first, whether it was identified or not.
  • #1 Understanding Multiple Myeloma for Healthcare Providers | Binding Site
    https://www.thermofisher.com/bindingsite/us/en/healthcare-providers/understanding-multiple-myeloma.html
    Multiple myeloma is a blood cancer caused by the clonal expansion of plasma cells in the bone marrow. […] The underlying cause of multiple myeloma is the topic of active study, but genetic causes of multiple myeloma have not been well established. However, being Black/African American or having a first-degree relative with the disease or other hematologic malignancy confers increased risk for diagnosis with myeloma, suggesting a genetic component. […] Multiple myeloma is preceded by a monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS), a plasma cell disorder in which clonal plasma cells account for less than 10% of the bone marrow. […] About 1% of MGUS patients per year progress to multiple myeloma or another plasma cell or lymphoid disorder. […] As monoclonal plasma cells replicate, the condition may be classified as smoldering multiple myeloma, in which increased levels of M protein are detected in the blood, and 10%-60% of bone marrow is made up of clonal plasma cells, but no myeloma-related end-organ damage has occurred.
  • #1
    https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/multiple-myeloma/
    It’s not known exactly what causes multiple myeloma. However, there is a close link between multiple myeloma and a condition called monoclonal gammopathy of unknown significance (MGUS). […] Every year, around 1 in every 100 people with MGUS go on to develop multiple myeloma. […] Multiple myeloma is also more common in: […] men […] adults over 60 most cases are diagnosed at around the age of 70, and cases affecting people under the age of 40 are rare […] black people multiple myeloma is about twice as common in black populations than white and Asian populations […] people with a family history of MGUS or multiple myeloma.
  • #1 Risks and causes of myeloma | Cancer research UK
    https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/myeloma/risks-causes
    Myeloma is slightly more common in men than women. It’s not clear why this is and there may be many factors involved including genetics and lifestyle. […] There is some evidence that myeloma is more common in Black people than in White people. Its not clear why this is. […] Stories about potential causes are often in the media and it isnt always clear which ideas are supported by evidence.
  • #1 Risk factors for multiple myeloma | Canadian Cancer Society
    https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/multiple-myeloma/risks
    A risk factor is something that increases the risk of developing cancer. It could be a behaviour, substance or condition. Most cancers are the result of many risk factors. But sometimes multiple myeloma develops in people who dont have any of the risk factors described below. […] More men than women are diagnosed with multiple myeloma. The risk for multiple myeloma increases with age. People of African ancestry have a higher risk of developing multiple myeloma. The reasons for this increased risk are not known. […] There is convincing evidence that the following factors increase your risk for multiple myeloma. […] History of monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS) is a plasma cell disorder that has the potential to develop into multiple myeloma. […] Multiple myeloma is more common in some families. The risk of developing multiple myeloma is nearly 4 times greater for a person who has a parent or sibling with multiple myeloma.
  • #1 Multiple myeloma etiology and treatment
    https://www.oaepublish.com/articles/jtgg.2021.36
    Loss of chromosome 13 is present in 45%-50% of MM cases, and primarily in non-HRD tumors. […] The deregulation of the G1/S cell cycle transition point via cyclin D gene overexpression is central to an early molecular abnormality in MM. […] The DNA repair score is a predictive factor for progression-free and overall survival of MM patients. […] The understanding of DNA repair mechanisms in MM is important for developing therapeutic approaches based on the concept of synthetic lethality. […] The clonal evolution in MM follows the Darwinian model, which involves the random acquisition of genetic changes that offer a survival advantage. […] A complex interaction exists between malignant plasma cells and non-malignant stromal cells in the bone marrow microenvironment.
  • #1 Multiple Myeloma – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK534764/
    The exact etiology of multiple myeloma is unknown. However, frequent alterations and translocations in the promoter genes, especially chromosome 14, are commonly found in multiple myeloma and likely play a role in disease development. […] Other factors contributing to disease occurrence include obesity, alcohol consumption, environmental causes such as insecticides, organic solvents, agent orange, and radiation exposure. […] The exact causes of MGUS development and progression to MM remain unknown. However, as noted above, genetic alterations may cause an increased expression of promoter genes or resistance to apoptosis, both resulting in higher plasma cell proliferation and population. Under the „second hit” hypothesis, progression could also be a consequence of additional cytogenetic lesions gained by the original plasma cell clone, caused either by genetic instability or abnormalities in the hematopoietic microenvironment.
  • #1 Multiple myeloma – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_myeloma
    The cause of multiple myeloma is unknown. […] Risk factors include obesity, radiation exposure, family history, age and certain chemicals. […] There is an increased risk of multiple myeloma in certain occupations. […] This is due to the occupational exposure to aromatic hydrocarbon solvents having a role in causation of multiple myeloma. […] In a study to investigate the association between occupational exposure to aromatic hydrocarbon solvents (Benzene and its many derivatives), evidence has shown that these solvents have a role in causation of multiple myeloma. […] The occurrence of multiple myeloma may occur more in certain occupations. […] The risk of multiple myeloma occurring is greater in occupations as a firefighter, as a hairdresser, and in agricultural and industrial occupations.
  • #1 Risks and causes of myeloma | Cancer research UK
    https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/myeloma/risks-causes
    We dont know what causes most cases of myeloma. But there are some risks factors that can increase your risk of developing it. These include being older, being overweight and having certain medical conditions. […] The risk of myeloma is higher in people who are overweight or obese. This is compared to people with a healthy body weight. […] As with most other cancers, the risk of myeloma increases as you get older. It is very rare in people under 40. […] Some people with myeloma already have a rare medical condition called MGUS. MGUS means there are too many large protein molecules (immunoglobulins) in the blood. […] You have a higher risk of myeloma or MGUS if you have a close relative with myeloma or MGUS. […] An autoimmune condition called pernicious anaemia appears to increase the risk of myeloma and MGUS.
  • #1 Multiple Myeloma: Symptoms, What It Is, Prognosis & Treatment
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/6178-multiple-myeloma
    Genetic mutations: Researchers are investigating links between mutating or changing oncogenes (cells that promote growth) and multiple myeloma. […] Environmental factors: Some studies show potential connections between multiple myeloma and exposure to radiation or chemicals in pesticides, fertilizer or Agent Orange. […] Having an inflammatory disease or condition: Examples of inflammatory disease include heart disease, Type 2 diabetes and rheumatoid arthritis. […] Having obesity: This is having high levels of body fat.
  • #1 Risk factors for multiple myeloma | Canadian Cancer Society
    https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/multiple-myeloma/risks
    Multiple myeloma occurs more often in people with a high body mass index (BMI) than in those who have a healthy weight. […] Many studies show that people who work on a farm have a higher risk of developing multiple myeloma. […] People with a weakened immune system (immunosuppression) have a higher risk of developing multiple myeloma. […] The following factors have been linked with multiple myeloma, but there is not enough evidence to show for sure that they are risk factors. More research is needed to clarify the role of these factors for multiple myeloma: autoimmune conditions, viral infections such as hepatitis B and C, working in occupations such as petroleum production, machinery production or carpentry, which expose you to chemicals such as benzene, coal or wood dust.
  • #1 Multiple myeloma – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_myeloma
    The risk in certain occupations is due to exposure to different chemicals. […] Repeated exposure to chemicals increases the risk of multiple myeloma. […] Exposure to aromatic hydrocarbon solvents, benzene, toluene, and xylene, can increase risk of multiple myeloma. […] EpsteinBarr virus is associated with multiple myeloma, particularly in individuals who have an immunodeficiency due to e.g. HIV/AIDS, organ transplantation, or a chronic inflammatory condition such as rheumatoid arthritis. […] EBV-positive disease is more common in the plasmacytoma rather than multiple myeloma form of plasma cell cancer. […] While the EBV contributes to the development and/or progression of most EpsteinBarr virus-associated lymphoproliferative diseases, its role in multiple myeloma is not known.
  • #1 Multiple myeloma in the marrow: pathogenesis and treatments
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4806534/
    The contributions of the bone marrow microenvironment (BMM) to MM are a focal area of research. […] The BMM is a primary modulator of both malignant transformation and MM disease progression. […] Properties of the BMM allow for infiltration, growth, proliferation, adhesion, and migration of MM cells, while providing the structural and nutritional sustenance to harbor quiescent, drug-resistant MM cells. […] Interestingly, ROS formation via cells in the BM niche has been implicated as a potential primary, tumor-initiating event in leukaemogenesis in mice, demonstrating the complexities of understanding oncogenesis in the BMM. […] The tumor microenvironment is ever evolving in response to changes in the molecular biochemistry, genetic profile, and diversity in type and number of cell populations.
  • #1 Multiple myeloma in the marrow: pathogenesis and treatments
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4806534/
    A typical MM tumor microenvironment contains several cellular mediators/cell subtypes, including MM mesenchymal stromal cells, osteoblast (OB) and osteoclast (OC) bone cells, BM adipocytes, and a variety of immunomodulatory cell types (e.g., macrophages, NK cells, regulatory T cells etc.). […] Obesity has been established as a physiological risk factor for MM development, and obese individuals have shown a 1.52 fold elevated risk for developing MM when compared to individuals of normal weight. […] Together these results suggest that adipocytes may support advancement of MM in the BM niche; however, additional studies are required to evaluate this hypothesis. […] The integration of multi-system regulatory factors through the use of better disease models is crucial for continued understanding of MM pathogenesis for better prevention, as well as treatment approaches.
  • #1 Multiple myeloma hinders erythropoiesis and causes anaemia owing to high levels of CCL3 in the bone marrow microenvironment | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-77450-y
    Anaemia is the most common complication of myeloma and is associated with worse clinical outcomes. […] Although marrow replacement with myeloma cells is widely considered a mechanistic rationale for anaemia, the exact process has not been fully understood. […] This means that myeloma cell infiltration is highly involved in the pathogenesis of anaemia in myeloma patients. […] The most frequent underlying pathophysiological conditions reported previously in myeloma-related anaemia are aberrant iron metabolism, renal impairment and anaemia of chronic disease. […] The increase in the levels of the chemokine CCL3 in bone marrow plasma effectively blocks the erythropoiesis of HSPCs via downregulation of GATA1 in HSPCs by activating the p38 signalling pathway. […] These findings suggest that the aberrant microenvironment owing to myeloma cells suppressed the differentiation of HSPCs to erythrocytes.
  • #1 Multiple myeloma: Pathobiology – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/multiple-myeloma-pathobiology
    Multiple myeloma (MM) is a plasma cell neoplasm that accounts for approximately 10 percent of all hematologic malignancies. It is an incurable disease and the cause of about 20 percent of deaths from hematologic malignancy and 2 percent of deaths from all cancers. […] MM evolves from an asymptomatic premalignant stage of clonal plasma cell proliferation termed monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS). MGUS is present in over 3 percent of the population above the age of 50 and progresses to MM or a related malignancy at a rate of 1 percent per year. […] While MGUS is asymptomatic, MM is characterized by end-organ damage, which includes hypercalcemia, renal dysfunction, anemia, or lytic bone lesions.
  • #1 Multiple Myeloma – Symptoms & Causes | MD Anderson Cancer Center
    https://www.mdanderson.org/cancer-types/multiple-myeloma.html
    Multiple myeloma, also known as Kahler’s disease, is an uncommon blood cancer that affects the bone marrow, the body’s blood-forming system, and can lead to kidney problems. […] The exact cause of multiple myeloma is not known and no avoidable risk factors have been found. However, certain things appear to make you more likely to develop the disease. […] Risk factors for multiple myeloma include age over 65, being male, being Black, radiation exposure, family history, working in the oil-related industry, obesity, and other plasma cell disorders.
  • #2 What Causes Myeloma? | Myeloma UK
    https://www.myeloma.org.uk/understanding-myeloma/causes/
    What causes myeloma? Find out which factors may contribute to myeloma, including family history, environmental risks and more. […] The exact cause of myeloma is not yet fully understood. We do know that myeloma develops when genetic ‘errors’ occur within the DNA of a plasma cell, but we do not currently know why these errors occur. […] Although we don’t currently know what causes myeloma, researchers have identified some risk factors. These risk factors are defined as anything that increases a person’s chances of getting myeloma. […] The risk of myeloma increases as people get older and myeloma is slightly more common in men than women, and is more common in black populations than in white or Asian populations. […] Some people go on to develop myeloma after having been diagnosed with a condition called MGUS which stands for Monoclonal Gammopathy of Undetermined Significance. It’s generally now accepted that all myeloma patients have had MGUS first, whether it was identified or not.
  • #2 Multiple Myeloma: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment & More
    https://www.healthline.com/health/multiple-myeloma
    Multiple myeloma is a type of cancer that occurs when an atypical plasma cell develops in the bone marrow and reproduces quickly. […] The exact cause of multiple myeloma is unknown. However, it starts with one atypical plasma cell that rapidly multiplies in the bone marrow. […] The resulting cancerous myeloma cells dont have a typical life cycle. Instead of multiplying and eventually dying, they continue dividing indefinitely. This can overwhelm your body and impair the production of healthy cells. […] You may have a higher risk of developing multiple myeloma if youre: male, over age 50, African American, overweight or have obesity, exposed to radiation, employed in the petroleum industry. […] Another risk factor for multiple myeloma is a history of monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS). This is a condition that causes plasma cells to produce M proteins. It usually doesnt cause any problems. However, MGUS can sometimes develop into multiple myeloma over time.
  • #2 Multiple myeloma etiology and treatment
    https://www.oaepublish.com/articles/jtgg.2021.36
    The African American (AA) population has a higher prevalence of MGUS and MM than Caucasian Americans (CA) of European ancestry. […] A study involving GWAS analysis revealed a stronger association between the 7p15.3 (rs4487645) locus and MM in AA. […] The translocation t(4;14) is seen in 15% of MM cases and has a poor prognosis. […] The translocation t(11;14) is the most frequent translocation present in MM (15%-20% patients). […] The chromosome 17 deletion is a late disease event. […] CNVs contribute to genomic instability either via over-expression of proto-oncogenes or loss of tumor suppression genes. […] HRD is defined by a chromosome count greater than the diploid number of chromosomes (46). […] The gain of 1q arm is present in 30 to 40% of MM cases and is associated with a poor prognosis.
  • #2 Multiple Myeloma: Available Therapies and Causes of Drug Resistance
    https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/12/2/407
    The genetic, cytogenetic and epigenetic changes related to the MM pathogenesis are associated with predisposition to drug resistance and, eventually, relapse. […] The IgH translocations involving the chromosome 14q32 are believed to be one of the first events involved in the MM pathogenesis. […] The t(4;14) translocation, occurring in 15% of patients, is associated with therapeutic failure and consequently high rates of relapse. […] Secondary cytogenetic events frequently consist of deletions. […] Deletion of the short arm of chromosome 17 (17p13.1) confers a dismal prognosis in MM, associated with advanced stages of MM and drug resistance, essentially due to the loss of the p53 tumor suppressor gene (TP53) and consequent dysregulated control of cell cycle and apoptosis. […] The persistence of cancer stem cells (CSCs, also called tumor initiating cells) within the heterogeneous tumor niche may contribute to justify the high rates of relapsed and refractory MM patients. […] The interaction between MM cells and a dysregulated BM microenvironment also contributes to chemotherapy resistance, known as environment-mediated drug resistance.
  • #2 Multiple myeloma etiology and treatment
    https://www.oaepublish.com/articles/jtgg.2021.36
    Loss of chromosome 13 is present in 45%-50% of MM cases, and primarily in non-HRD tumors. […] The deregulation of the G1/S cell cycle transition point via cyclin D gene overexpression is central to an early molecular abnormality in MM. […] The DNA repair score is a predictive factor for progression-free and overall survival of MM patients. […] The understanding of DNA repair mechanisms in MM is important for developing therapeutic approaches based on the concept of synthetic lethality. […] The clonal evolution in MM follows the Darwinian model, which involves the random acquisition of genetic changes that offer a survival advantage. […] A complex interaction exists between malignant plasma cells and non-malignant stromal cells in the bone marrow microenvironment.
  • #2 Myeloma: Causes and Symptoms | Doctor
    https://patient.info/doctor/myeloma-pro
    Neoplastic plasma cells accumulate in the bone marrow and produce a monoclonal protein that causes organ or tissue impairment. It appears to be preceded by monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS). […] Myeloma arises because of genetic changes that occur during the terminal differentiation of B lymphocytes into plasma cells. In around half of cases, a chromosomal translocation occurs, which places an oncogene into the immunoglobulin heavy chain gene on chromosome 14. The remaining cases are characterised by trisomies of several chromosomes (hyperdiploidy). […] As myeloma develops, further genetic events, such as mutations of the RAS genes, occur. The main RAS genes are KRAS, HRAS and NRAS. They encode proteins that have a role in cell signalling. Mutations of RAS genes cause cells to grow uncontrollably and make cells resistant to some available cancer therapies.
  • #2 Multiple myeloma: Pathobiology – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/multiple-myeloma-pathobiology
    Multiple myeloma (MM) is a plasma cell neoplasm that accounts for approximately 10 percent of all hematologic malignancies. It is an incurable disease and the cause of about 20 percent of deaths from hematologic malignancy and 2 percent of deaths from all cancers. […] MM evolves from an asymptomatic premalignant stage of clonal plasma cell proliferation termed monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS). MGUS is present in over 3 percent of the population above the age of 50 and progresses to MM or a related malignancy at a rate of 1 percent per year. […] While MGUS is asymptomatic, MM is characterized by end-organ damage, which includes hypercalcemia, renal dysfunction, anemia, or lytic bone lesions.
  • #2 Multiple myeloma | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org
    https://radiopaedia.org/articles/multiple-myeloma-1?lang=us
    Multiple myeloma (MM), also known by the names plasma cell myeloma and Kahler disease, is a multifocal proliferation of plasma cells based in the bone marrow. It arises from red marrow due to the monoclonal proliferation of plasma cells and manifests in a wide range of radiographic abnormalities. Multiple myeloma remains incurable. […] Multiple myeloma is a common malignancy in patients above 40; 70% of cases are diagnosed between ages 50 and 70 with a median age of diagnosis being 70 years; there is a male predilection (M: F 2:1). It accounts for 1% of all malignancies and 10-15% of all hematological neoplasms. Black populations are affected at nearly twice the rate as White populations. […] Multiple myeloma results from monoclonal proliferation of malignant plasma cells which produce immunoglobulins and infiltrate haemopoietic locations (i.e. red marrow).
  • #2 What causes myeloma?
    https://myeloma.ca/recently-diagnosed/what-is-myeloma/what-causes-myeloma/
    Myeloma is slightly more common in men than in women. […] There are higher incidences of myeloma within the Black population, with males being at higher risk than females of developing the disease. […] Exposure to large amounts of radiation, and/or certain agricultural and industrial chemicals can be environmental factors contributing to myeloma.
  • #2 Multiple Myeloma: Diagnosis and Treatment | AAFP
    https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2017/0315/p373.html
    Multiple myeloma accounts for 1.6% of all cancer cases and approximately 10% of hematologic malignancies in the United States. […] Patients older than 65 years account for 85% of those diagnosed with multiple myeloma, and there is a twofold increased incidence in blacks compared with whites. […] Cytogenetic abnormalities are detected in 90% of the plasma cells in patients with multiple myeloma, and multistep genetic alterations lead to the progression from MGUS to multiple myeloma in some persons. […] Risk factors for disease progression of these conditions include non-IgG subtype, higher levels of monoclonal protein, abnormal free light chain ratio, and certain gene alterations. […] The classic definition of multiple myeloma required a clonal proliferation of plasma cells with evidence of end-organ damage.
  • #2 Multiple myeloma – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_myeloma
    The risk in certain occupations is due to exposure to different chemicals. […] Repeated exposure to chemicals increases the risk of multiple myeloma. […] Exposure to aromatic hydrocarbon solvents, benzene, toluene, and xylene, can increase risk of multiple myeloma. […] EpsteinBarr virus is associated with multiple myeloma, particularly in individuals who have an immunodeficiency due to e.g. HIV/AIDS, organ transplantation, or a chronic inflammatory condition such as rheumatoid arthritis. […] EBV-positive disease is more common in the plasmacytoma rather than multiple myeloma form of plasma cell cancer. […] While the EBV contributes to the development and/or progression of most EpsteinBarr virus-associated lymphoproliferative diseases, its role in multiple myeloma is not known.
  • #2 What causes multiple myeloma?
    https://myelomabeacon.org/forum/what-causes-multiple-myeloma-t603-20.html
    Benzene. My husband was a W4 and flew both helicopters and fixed wings for the Army. He smelled of fuel everyday with his flight suits and the JP 4 fuel he was exposed to. We are awaiting an appeal for 3 years now. Multiple Myeloma is approved for benzene if you were in Vietnam. He went in a year after. Benzene is benzene, whether Agent Orange or JP 4 fuel. We have two letters from two different oncologists (from Moffitt and Rapid City, South Dakota) stating they believe that benzene was the culprit. Wait until December- March 2019 for decision. Keep fighting. […] In my simple mind, myeloma is a group of plasma cells with cytogenetic and/or trisomic mutations that have an eternal life. What ultimately causes the mutation and the eternal life of the plasma cells seems to have various candidate causes, none of which are fully proven and often are found to be inconsistent. As an example, obesity and adipose tissue is said to be a risk factor for the bone marrow environment, and yet many suffers of myeloma are marathon runners and regular cyclists. Other causes are often suggested, e.g., modern pesticides, and yet these things were not around in ancient Egypt and myeloma was. I guess I am waiting for science to explain the root cause of the myeloma cell mutations and discover a way to more effectively kill those plasma cells that have an eternal life.
  • #2 What Causes Multiple Myeloma and Is It Hereditary?
    https://www.cancercenter.com/cancer-types/multiple-myeloma/risk-factors
    Men have a slightly higher risk than women for developing the disease. […] Only a very small percentage of young adults are diagnosed with multiple myeloma. The majority of those diagnosed are over 65 years old. […] Research has found that obesity may lead to an increased risk of multiple myeloma. […] Some people who have MGUS may be at increased risk for multiple myeloma. […] A small number of cases may be linked to exposure to high doses of radiation.
  • #2 Multiple myeloma hinders erythropoiesis and causes anaemia owing to high levels of CCL3 in the bone marrow microenvironment | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-77450-y
    The chemokine CCL3 caused not only lytic bone lesions but also defective erythropoiesis. […] Our results demonstrated that myeloma cells secreted high levels of CCL3 in the bone marrow microenvironment and caused defective erythropoiesis of HSPCs by downregulating the expression of transcription factors in HSPCs, which resulted in anaemia. […] Targeting CCL3 would be a potential treatment strategy against bone disease and anaemia, which could essentially kill two birds with one stone in patients with multiple myeloma.
  • #2 What is Multiple Myeloma? Symptoms, Causes, & Prognosis
    http://www.themmrf.org/multiple-myeloma/
    Multiple myeloma is caused by certain genetic mutations, and these mutations are different from person to person. […] But though certain mutations have been identified as risk factors for myeloma, multiple myeloma is not thought to be a hereditary disease. […] Rather, the mutations that cause myeloma likely develop spontaneously as people age.
  • #2 Myeloma | Causes, Symptoms & Treatments | Cancer Council
    https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/types-of-cancer/myeloma
    The causes of myeloma are unknown. Certain chemicals, high levels of radiation (such as from working in a nuclear power plant) and viruses (such as HIV) have been linked to an increased risk of myeloma. […] Myeloma is not considered hereditary, so it is rare for more than one person in a family to be affected. […] There are no proven measures to prevent myeloma. However, certain chemicals (e.g. dioxins), radiation and viruses (such as HIV) have been linked to an increased risk of myeloma and related diseases.
  • #3 Multiple Myeloma: Symptoms, What It Is, Prognosis & Treatment
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/6178-multiple-myeloma
    Genetic mutations: Researchers are investigating links between mutating or changing oncogenes (cells that promote growth) and multiple myeloma. […] Environmental factors: Some studies show potential connections between multiple myeloma and exposure to radiation or chemicals in pesticides, fertilizer or Agent Orange. […] Having an inflammatory disease or condition: Examples of inflammatory disease include heart disease, Type 2 diabetes and rheumatoid arthritis. […] Having obesity: This is having high levels of body fat.