Szczepionka przeciwko pneumokokom
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Szczepionki przeciwko Streptococcus pneumoniae dzielą się na polisacharydowe (PPSV) i skoniugowane (PCV), różniące się mechanizmem indukcji odporności. PPSV, takie jak Pneumovax 23, zawierają oczyszczone polisacharydy 23 serotypów i indukują odpowiedź immunologiczną niezależną od limfocytów T, głównie przeciwciała IgM o krótkotrwałym działaniu, co ogranicza ich skuteczność u dzieci poniżej 2 roku życia oraz osób starszych. PCV, z polisacharydami skoniugowanymi z białkiem nośnikowym (np. toksoidem błoniczym CRM197), wywołują odpowiedź zależną od limfocytów T, indukując przełączanie klas przeciwciał na IgG, dojrzewanie powinowactwa, komórki pamięci oraz odporność błonową, co zmniejsza kolonizację i przenoszenie pneumokoków. Najnowsze PCV (PCV15, PCV20) rozszerzają spektrum ochrony, pokrywając dodatkowe serotypy odpowiedzialne za 15-28% inwazyjnej choroby pneumokokowej u osób starszych i z chorobami współistniejącymi. Skuteczność szczepionek polisacharydowych u dorosłych wynosi 60-70%, a PCV wykazują silniejszą i dłuższą odpowiedź immunologiczną, skuteczną także u dzieci.

Mechanizm działania szczepionki przeciwko pneumokokom

Szczepionka przeciwko pneumokokom (Streptococcus pneumoniae) stanowi jedno z najważniejszych osiągnięć w profilaktyce potencjalnie śmiertelnych chorób wywołanych przez te bakterie. Szczepionki te opracowano w dwóch głównych formach: jako szczepionki polisacharydowe oraz jako szczepionki skoniugowane, a ich działanie opiera się na indukcji odporności przeciwko konkretnym serotypom pneumokoków.12

Patogeneza pneumokokowa i znaczenie kliniczne

Pneumokoki są powszechnie występującymi bakteriami kolonizującymi górne drogi oddechowe, szczególnie nosogardziel. W zależności od populacji, nosicielstwo asymptomatyczne może wynosić od 5% do 90% u zdrowych osób.1 Pneumokoki są odpowiedzialne za szereg chorób o różnym nasileniu, od mniej ciężkich, ale częstych infekcji dróg oddechowych takich jak zapalenie ucha środkowego, zapalenie zatok czy zapalenie oskrzeli, po poważne, zagrażające życiu choroby, w tym zapalenie płuc, zapalenie opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych i bakteriemię.12

Głównym czynnikiem zjadliwości pneumokoków jest ich otoczka polisacharydowa, która pomaga bakteriom uniknąć odpowiedzi immunologicznej gospodarza. Otoczka ta hamuje aktywację dopełniacza i zapobiega fagocytozie, co umożliwia bakteriom przetrwanie w organizmie.12 Kolonizacja dróg oddechowych przez pneumokoki stanowi pierwszy niezbędny krok do rozwoju inwazyjnej choroby pneumokokowej, a przenoszenie się bakterii między gospodarzami jest kluczowym elementem patogenezy.12

Mechanizm działania szczepionek polisacharydowych

Szczepionki polisacharydowe przeciwko pneumokokom (PPSV), takie jak Pneumovax 23, zawierają oczyszczone polisacharydy otoczkowe pochodzące z 23 różnych serotypów S. pneumoniae, które odpowiadają za co najmniej 85-90% przypadków inwazyjnej choroby pneumokokowej w Stanach Zjednoczonych.12 Ta formuła szczepionki była pierwszą opracowaną na bazie polisacharydów otoczkowych pneumokoków.

Szczepionka polisacharydowa indukuje odpowiedź immunologiczną głównie poprzez stymulację limfocytów B, które uwalniają przeciwciała IgM bez udziału limfocytów T.1 Po wstrzyknięciu oczyszczonych polisacharydów otoczkowych, organizm rozpoznaje je jako obce i produkuje przeciwciała, które w przyszłości mogą rozpoznać te same struktury u żywych pneumokoków.1 Przeciwciała te zwiększają opsonizację, fagocytozę i zabijanie pneumokoków przez leukocyty i inne komórki fagocytujące.1

Ten rodzaj szczepionki ma jednak istotne ograniczenia. Ze względu na mechanizm działania niezależny od limfocytów T, PPSV wywołuje głównie krótkotrwałą odpowiedź w postaci przeciwciał IgM o niskim powinowactwie, które znacząco zmniejszają się po sześciu miesiącach w przypadku większości serotypów i powracają do poziomu wyjściowego w ciągu 24 miesięcy.1 Co ważne, szczepionka ta nie jest skuteczna u dzieci poniżej 2 roku życia, prawdopodobnie z powodu niedojrzałości ich układu odpornościowego. Brak odpowiedzi jest również powszechny wśród osób starszych.1

Mechanizm działania szczepionek skoniugowanych

Szczepionki pneumokokowe skoniugowane (PCV) powstały w odpowiedzi na ograniczenia szczepionek polisacharydowych. W PCV polisacharydy otoczkowe są chemicznie połączone (skoniugowane) z białkiem nośnikowym, najczęściej nietoksycznym toksoidem błoniczym CRM197.12

Koniugacja polisacharydów z białkiem nośnikowym przekształca polisacharyd z antygenu niezależnego od limfocytów T w antygen zależny od limfocytów T.1 Ta zmiana ma fundamentalne znaczenie dla odpowiedzi immunologicznej, ponieważ prowadzi do:

  • Aktywacji zarówno limfocytów B, jak i T1
  • Przełączania klas przeciwciał z IgM na IgG12
  • Dojrzewania powinowactwa przeciwciał1
  • Wytwarzania komórek pamięci B i T1
  • Indukcji odporności błonowej12

Synapsę immunologiczną tworzącą się między komórkami B i T ułatwia adaptacyjna odpowiedź immunologiczna poprzez różnicowanie się komórek B w komórki plazmatyczne produkujące przeciwciała IgG o wysokim powinowactwie oraz tworzenie komórek pamięci.1 Szczepionki skoniugowane stymulują silne adaptacyjne odpowiedzi immunologiczne za pośrednictwem limfocytów T specyficznych dla węglowodanów, czyli Tcarbs.1

Istotną zaletą szczepionek skoniugowanych jest ich zdolność do wywoływania odporności błonowej, co skutkuje zmniejszeniem nosicielstwa pneumokoków w jamie nosowo-gardłowej, a tym samym ograniczeniem przenoszenia bakterii w populacji (odporność zbiorowiskowa).12 W przeciwieństwie do szczepionek polisacharydowych, PCV nie tylko zapobiegają inwazyjnej chorobie pneumokokowej, ale również zmniejszają kolonizację przez serotypy szczepionkowe.1

Efektywność szczepionek przeciwpneumokokowych

Ochrona przed inwazyjną chorobą pneumokokową jest zapewniana głównie przez zabijanie S. pneumoniae w mechanizmie opsonofagocytozy.1 W niemowlętach, które otrzymały PCV13, aktywność opsonofagocytarna dobrze koreluje z poziomami przeciwciał IgG specyficznych dla serotypu przeciwko polisacharydom otoczkowym mierzonymi metodą ELISA.1

Skuteczność ochronna szczepionek polisacharydowych wynosiła 76% i 92% w różnych badaniach dla serotypów reprezentowanych w szczepionce.1 Meta-analiza dziewięciu randomizowanych kontrolowanych badań szczepionki pneumokokowej wykazała, że szczepionka jest skuteczna w zmniejszaniu częstości niebakteryjnego zapalenia płuc pneumokokowego wśród dorosłych w grupach niskiego ryzyka, ale nie w grupach wysokiego ryzyka.1

Badania kliniczno-kontrolne wykazały, że szczepionka pneumokokowa jest skuteczna w zapobieganiu poważnym chorobom pneumokokowym, przy czym szacunki efektywności wahają się od 56% do 81% u osób z prawidłową odpornością.1 Ogólna skuteczność szczepionki Pneumovax23 wynosi 60-70% u dorosłych.1

Ewolucja szczepionek przeciwpneumokokowych

Pierwsze szczepionki skoniugowane (PCV7) zostały wprowadzone na początku XXI wieku i zawierały 7 serotypów pneumokoków najczęściej występujących w chorobach pediatrycznych.1 Z czasem zwiększano liczbę serotypów w szczepionce, tworząc PCV10, PCV13, PCV15, PCV20 i PCV21, aby lepiej pokryć spektrum patogennych serotypów.1

PCV15 zawiera polisacharydy serotypów 22F i 33F oprócz serotypów PCV13, skoniugowane z genetycznie detoksykowaną toksyną błoniczą.12 PCV20 generuje silną odpowiedź immunologiczną na wszystkie 20 serotypów szczepionkowych u dorosłych i zapewnia zwiększoną ochronę, co jest widoczne w teście aktywności opsonofagocytarnej.12

Najnowsze szczepionki pneumokokowe skoniugowane oferują szersze pokrycie serotypów odpowiedzialnych za choroby pneumokokowe. PCV15 i PCV20 w porównaniu ze szczepionką PCV13 pokrywają dodatkowe szczepy powodujące około 15% i 27% inwazyjnej choroby pneumokokowej u pacjentów w wieku 65 lat lub starszych oraz 13% i 28% choroby u pacjentów w wieku 19-64 lat z chorobami współistniejącymi.1

Mechanizmy działania a wyzwania dla szczepionek pneumokokowych

Pomimo znaczących sukcesów w rozwoju szczepionek pneumokokowych, istnieją nadal pewne wyzwania związane z ich mechanizmami działania. Jednym z głównych wyzwań jest zjawisko zastępowania serotypów (serotype replacement), czyli wzrost częstości występowania serotypów niepokrytych szczepieniem po wprowadzeniu szczepionki.12

Innym problemem jest niepełna skuteczność szczepionek w stosunku do niektórych serotypów. Na przykład, częstość zachorowań wywołanych przez izolaty Spn-3 nie zmniejszyła się pomimo jego włączenia do 13-walentnej szczepionki PCV, a skuteczność szczepionki została oceniona jako nieistotna dla tego serotypu.1 Skład chemiczny tego polisacharydu nadaje mu pewne specyficzne cechy, takie jak mokry lub śluzowaty wygląd podczas hodowli na płytkach agarowych, co może implikować szczególną odporność na zabijanie opsoniczne in vivo.1

Należy również zauważyć, że skuteczność szczepionek na bazie otoczki jest niestety równoważona słabą skutecznością w miejscach błonowych, takich jak w przypadku zapalenia płuc i zapalenia ucha środkowego.1 Badania potwierdzają częściowy wpływ szczepienia PCV na zapalenie ucha środkowego i podkreślają zmienność skuteczności w zależności od etiologii zapalenia ucha środkowego i krążących serotypów pneumokoków.1

Nowe kierunki w rozwoju szczepionek przeciwpneumokokowych

W odpowiedzi na ograniczenia obecnych szczepionek przeciwpneumokokowych, badania koncentrują się na tworzeniu szczepionek niezależnych od serotypu, co do tej pory było trudnym i nieuchwytnym przedsięwzięciem.1 Poszukiwania skupiają się na konserwowanych, eksponowanych na powierzchni i immunogennych antygenach białkowych, które mają potencjał do indukcji szerokiej ochrony i zapobiegania zastępowaniu serotypów.1

Nowe metody koniugacji

Metody koniugacji są bardzo ważne w opracowywaniu skutecznej szczepionki, a nowe metody pojawiły się niedawno w celu uzyskania lepszych odpowiedzi immunologicznych i bardziej zdefiniowanych produktów.1 Pomimo znacznych sukcesów tych szczepionek, tradycyjne metody mają istotne wady, w tym niską wydajność i degradację składników.1

W odpowiedzi na to opracowano nowe podejścia, takie jak:

  • Metoda GOase – próba rozwiązania niektórych wad aminacji redukcyjnej, takich jak możliwa degradacja i nisko zdefiniowane sprzęganie, charakterystyczne dla tradycyjnych metod1
  • Technologia MAPS – poszukiwanie nowego typu szczepionki skoniugowanej, która obejmuje lepsze odpowiedzi przeciwciał i generowanie odpowiedzi Th17 w celu uzyskania rozszerzonej ochrony, niezależnie od typu CPS1
  • Technologia PGCT – proponuje rekombinowaną produkcję wszystkich składników, osiągając łatwy proces produkcji i metodologię łatwo adaptowalną do dalszych udoskonaleń w doborze białek nośnikowych i polisacharydów1

Indukcja rezydentnych komórek pamięci T

Nowsze badania wskazują na ważną rolę rezydentnych komórek pamięci T (TRM) w tkankach w ochronie błon śluzowych. Odkryto, że donosowe podawanie żywych lub zabitych pneumokoków u myszy generuje odpowiedź w postaci produkujących IL-17A CD4+ TRM w błonie śluzowej nosa.1 Co ciekawe, i wbrew dotychczasowym paradygmatom, stwierdzono, że parenteralne podawanie zabitych pneumokoków również generuje ochronne IL-17A+CD4+ TRM w błonie śluzowej nosa.1

Wykazano, że komórki TRM CD4+ mogą zapewnić ochronę przed kolonizacją nosa przez pneumokoki na podstawie ich zdolności do rekrutacji neutrofili do błony śluzowej nosa.1 Te odkrycia sugerują, że długotrwałe TRM błony śluzowej o wysokim potencjale ochronnym mogą być generowane po szczepieniu pozajelitowym, co ma istotne implikacje dla rozwoju szczepionek.1

Znaczenie opracowania szczepionek przystępnych cenowo

PCVs są jednymi z najbardziej skomplikowanych i drogich szczepionek w produkcji, do tego stopnia, że tylko jeden inny producent szczepionek zdołał wejść na rynek w ciągu pierwszych 20 lat po licencjonowaniu pierwszej PCV w 2000 roku.1 Wysiłki w kierunku tworzenia przystępnych cenowo szczepionek PCV są kluczowe dla poszerzenia dostępu do tych szczepionek w krajach o niskich i średnich dochodach.

Jednym z przykładów takiego podejścia jest opracowanie PNEUMOSIL, szczepionki PCV, która koncentruje się na serotypach zagrażających dzieciom w niedostatecznie obsługiwanych krajach, spełnia wysokie standardy wydajności oczekiwane od PCVs, jest licencjonowana i prekwalifikowana przez WHO.1 Szczepionka ta zawiera 10 serotypów najczęściej powodujących ciężkie choroby w regionach Afryki, Azji i Ameryki Łacińskiej, w tym niektóre, które pojawiły się jako pilne zagrożenia (serotypy 6A i 19A).1

Wejście na rynek PNEUMOSIL jest ważnym kamieniem milowym w kierunku wzbogacenia światowego arsenału nowoczesnych PCVs i złagodzenia cenowych i podażowych barier, które historycznie utrudniały lub uniemożliwiały zrównoważony dostęp dla wielu krajów o niskich i średnich dochodach.1

Znaczenie kliniczne mechanizmu działania szczepionek pneumokokowych

Zrozumienie mechanizmów działania szczepionek pneumokokowych ma fundamentalne znaczenie dla ich skutecznego stosowania w praktyce klinicznej. Odpowiedź immunologiczna wywołana przez szczepionki polisacharydowe i skoniugowane różni się znacząco, co ma bezpośrednie przełożenie na ich zastosowanie kliniczne:12

  • Szczepionki polisacharydowe (np. Pneumovax 23) są bardziej odpowiednie dla dorosłych i starszych dzieci z dojrzałym układem immunologicznym
  • Szczepionki skoniugowane (np. Prevenar 13, Prevenar 20) są skuteczne zarówno u dzieci, jak i dorosłych, zapewniając silniejszą i dłuższą odpowiedź immunologiczną

Odporność po podaniu szczepionki pneumokokowej rozwija się po około 2-3 tygodniach od szczepienia i utrzymuje się przez około 5 lat. Jednak u dzieci i osób starszych może być konieczna wcześniejsza ponowna immunizacja.1 Poziomy przeciwciał specyficznych dla serotypu zmniejszają się po 5-10 latach po szczepieniu przeciwko pneumokokom.1

Mechanizm działania szczepionek pneumokokowych ma również znaczenie w kontekście rosnącej oporności na antybiotyki. Wprowadzenie szczepionek zmieniło profil oporności przeciwdrobnoustrojowej S. pneumoniae, ale istnieje duża zmienność geograficzna: oporność na penicylinę obserwuje się szczególnie w Afryce Południowej, na Dalekim Wschodzie i Bliskim Wschodzie (>50%), podczas gdy w krajach europejskich jest niższa (15%).1 W 2012 roku 10% australijskich izolatów inwazyjnej choroby pneumokokowej było niewrażliwych na penicylinę, a 2% było niewrażliwych na ceftriakson/cefotaksym.1

Zrozumienie jak działają szczepionki skoniugowane (tj. co czyni je antygennymi i immunogennymi) oraz dlaczego obecne szczepionki zawodzą, są krytycznymi parametrami do osiągnięcia prawdziwie ochronnych, szeroko stosowanych i dostępnych szczepionek przeciwko patogenom bakteryjnym.1

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  1. 18.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Pneumococcal Vaccine – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507794/
    The advent of pneumococcal vaccines has proven to be a significant advancement in treating and preventing a widespread and sometimes deadly disease process. […] This activity describes the mode of action of pneumococcal vaccines, including methods of administration, formulations, adverse event profiles, eligible patient populations, and monitoring, and highlights the role of the interprofessional team in the management of these patients. […] Pneumococcal vaccines are vaccines that work against the bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae. These vaccines come in 2 formulations: polysaccharide vaccine and conjugate vaccine. […] The advent of pneumococcal vaccines has proven to significantly advance in treating and preventing a widespread and sometimes deadly disease. […] Both vaccines promote active immunization against the serotypes of the conjugate and capsular polysaccharides contained in the formulation of the vaccine. Immunity develops approximately 2 to 3 weeks after vaccination and lasts 5 years. However, in children and the elderly, re-immunization may be necessary sooner.
  • #1 Chapter 17: Pneumococcal Disease | Pink Book | CDC
    https://www.cdc.gov/pinkbook/hcp/table-of-contents/chapter-17-pneumococcal-disease.html
    Pneumococci are common inhabitants of the respiratory tract and may be isolated from the nasopharynx of 5% to 90% of healthy persons. […] Capsular polysaccharides are one determinant of the pathogenicity of the organism. […] The relationship of carriage to the development of natural immunity is poorly understood. […] Pneumococci commonly inhabit respiratory tract. […] Asymptomatic carriage varies. […] The relationship of carriage to development of natural immunity is poorly understood.
  • #1 Pneumococcal vaccine polyvalent (intramuscular route, subcutaneous route) – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements/pneumococcal-vaccine-polyvalent-intramuscular-route-subcutaneous-route/description/drg-20065538
    Pneumococcal polyvalent vaccine is an active immunizing agent used to prevent infection by pneumococcal bacteria. It works by causing your body to produce its own protection (antibodies) against the disease. […] Pneumococcal infection can cause serious problems, such as pneumonia, which affects the lungs; meningitis, which affects the brain; bacteremia, which is a severe infection in the blood; and possibly death. These problems are more likely to occur in older adults and persons with certain diseases or conditions that make them more susceptible to a pneumococcal infection or more apt to develop serious problems from a pneumococcal infection. […] Immunization (vaccination) against pneumococcal infection is not recommended for infants and children younger than 2 years of age, because these persons cannot produce enough antibodies to the vaccine to protect them against a pneumococcal infection. […] The pneumococcal polyvalent vaccine will not protect you or your child against all types of pneumococcal infections. It will also not treat an active infection.
  • #1 Emerging vaccine strategies against the incessant pneumococcal disease | npj Vaccines
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41541-023-00715-w
    The incidence of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) caused by infection with the pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae (Spn) has been on a downward trend for decades due to worldwide vaccination programs. […] This review focuses on the immune mechanisms triggered by existing pneumococcal vaccines and provides an overview of the current and upcoming clinical strategies being employed. […] Phagocytosis is the primary mechanism for the immune clearance of pneumococcal colonization by the host. […] CPSs help bacterial pathogens evade immune-mediated clearance by inhibiting complement activation and preventing phagocytosis. […] On the other hand, their surface exposure and distinct chemical structures allow for the exploitation of CPSs in vaccine design as antigens to induce opsonophagocytic killing of bacteria and elicit protective immune responses against encapsulated bacterial pathogens.
  • #1 Deciphering mechanisms of host-to-host transmission in pathogenesis of pneumococcal disease – University of Liverpool
    https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/study/postgraduate-research/studentships/deciphering-mechanisms-of-host-to-host-transmission-in-pathogenesis-of-pneumococcal-disease/
    The major human pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) is the main cause of pneumonia and meningitis worldwide and despite the global implementation of vaccine programmes, the burden of pneumococcal disease remains unacceptably high, especially in low-income countries. […] Asymptomatic carriage of pneumococci at the mucosal surface of the nasopharynx is the essential first step to invasive infection and acquiring the bacteria through transmission from colonised individuals is the route to establishing carriage. Host to host transmission occurs directly through inhalation of droplets and aerosols derived from an infected host, or indirectly following contact with contaminated fomites. Transmission is therefore a crucial stage in pneumococcal pathogenesis and disease, however, mechanistic detail on the bacterial and host factors which play key roles during transmission is limited.
  • #1 Pneumococcal Vaccine – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507794/
    This vaccine formulation demonstrates improved antibody response compared to the pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine because it contains purified capsular polysaccharides of pneumococcal serotypes conjugated to a carrier protein. […] PCV15 contains polysaccharide serotypes 22F and 33F in addition to the PCV13 serotypes, conjugated to genetically detoxified diphtheria toxin. […] PCV20 produced a strong immune response to all 20 vaccine serotypes in adults 1849 years. PCV20 provides enhanced protection, which is evident from an opsonophagocytic activity assay. […] This vaccine formulation is the first pneumococcal vaccine formulated from a capsular polysaccharide. PPSV 23 contains 23 capsular polysaccharide types of S. pneumoniae, representing at least 85% to 90% of pneumococcal disease isolates in the United States.
  • #1 Pneumococcal vaccine – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumococcal_vaccine
    Pneumococcal vaccines are vaccines against the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae. Their use can prevent some cases of pneumonia, meningitis, and sepsis. There are two types of pneumococcal vaccines: conjugate vaccines and polysaccharide vaccines. They are given by injection either into a muscle or just under the skin. […] The pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine most commonly used today consists of purified polysaccharides from 23 serotypes (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6b, 7F, 8, 9N, 9V, 10A, 11A, 12F, 14, 15B, 17F, 18C, 19A, 19F, 20, 22F, 23F, and 33F). Immunity is induced primarily through stimulation of B-cells which release IgM without the assistance of T cells. […] This immune response is less robust than the response provoked by conjugated vaccines, which has several consequences. The vaccine is ineffective in children less than 2 years old, presumably due to their less mature immune systems. Non-response is also common amongst older adults. Immunity is not lifelong, so individuals must be re-vaccinated at age 65 if their initial vaccination was given at age 60 or younger.
  • #1 pneumococcal vaccine (Pneumovax 23) Uses & Side Effects
    https://www.medicinenet.com/pneumococcal_vaccine-injection/article.htm
    Pneumococcal vaccine is used for prevention of pneumonia. This pneumococcal vaccine contains chemicals (polysaccharides) extracted from 23 types of Streptococcus pneumonia bacteria. Upon injecting pneumococcal vaccine, our body recognizes these chemical as foreign and produces antibodies to destroy the chemicals. Antibodies are blood protein that help the body fight infection and destroy other harmful substances. Once produced, these antibodies destroy injected Streptococcus pneumonia chemicals. However, the antibodies remain active in the body and can detect the same chemicals from live Streptococcus pneumonia in the future. If a vaccinated person comes in contact with Streptococcus pneumonia the antibodies will destroy the bacteria and prevent pneumonia or reduce its severity. […] Administration of pneumococcal vaccine is not recommended at the same time as zoster vaccine live (Zostavax). When they are given concurrently, pneumococcal vaccine reduces the response of zoster vaccine compared to those who received both vaccines 4 weeks apart.
  • #1 Pneumovax 23 (Pneumococcal Vaccine Polyvalent): Side Effects, Uses, Dosage, Interactions, Warnings
    https://www.rxlist.com/pneumovax-23-drug.htm
    PNEUMOVAX 23 induces type-specific antibodies that enhance opsonization, phagocytosis, and killing of pneumococci by leukocytes and other phagocytic cells. The levels of antibodies that correlate with protection against pneumococcal disease have not been clearly defined. […] The protective efficacy of pneumococcal vaccines containing six (types 1, 2, 4, 8, 12F, and 25) or twelve (types 1, 2, 3, 4, 6A, 8, 9N, 12F, 25, 7F, 18C, and 46) capsular polysaccharides was investigated in two controlled studies in South Africa in male novice gold miners ranging in age from 16 to 58 years, in whom there was a high attack rate for pneumococcal pneumonia and bacteremia. […] A retrospective cohort analysis study based on the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) pneumococcal surveillance system, showed 57% (95%CI: 45% to 66%) overall protective effectiveness against invasive infections caused by serotypes included in PNEUMOVAX 23 in persons 6 years of age, 65 to 84% effectiveness among specific patient groups (e.g., persons with diabetes mellitus, coronary vascular disease, congestive heart failure, chronic pulmonary disease, and anatomic asplenia) and 75% (95%CI: 57% to 85%) effectiveness in immunocompetent persons aged 65 years of age. Vaccine effectiveness could not be confirmed for certain groups of immunocompromised patients.
  • #1 Emerging vaccine strategies against the incessant pneumococcal disease | npj Vaccines
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41541-023-00715-w
    The earliest iterations of this vaccine used purified, bacterial-derived CPS to activate the immune system, which is incapable of initiating the adaptive immune response and thus limited the vaccines effectiveness to eliciting predominantly short-living, low-affinity IgM antibody responses that are significantly reduced after six months in most serotypes, and back to baseline immunity within 24 months. […] However, most pure CPSs cannot trigger T cell help to induce antibody class switching, affinity maturation, and memory B and T cell production, all important for effective and prolonged protection. […] An important milestone in vaccine design has been the introduction of conjugation technology in clinical vaccine programs. […] Glycoconjugate vaccines induce an adaptive immune response targeting the CPS, IgM to IgG antibody class switching, affinity maturation, and immune memory, and are significantly more protective than pure polysaccharide vaccines.
  • #1 Pneumococcal vaccine – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumococcal_vaccine
    The pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) consists of capsular polysaccharides covalently bound to the diphtheria toxoid CRM197, which is highly immunogenic but non-toxic. This combination provokes a significantly more robust immune response by recruiting CRM197-specific type 2 helper T cells, which allow for immunoglobulin type switching (to produce non-IgM immunoglobulin) and production of memory B cells. […] Among other things, this results in mucosal immunity and the eventual establishment of lifelong immunity after several exposures. For targeted serotypes, the PCV reduces colonization rates and provides herd immunity. It appears to also reduce the development of antimicrobial resistance among targeted serotypes.
  • #1 Prevenar®- Mechanism of Action | Prevenar 13® | PfizerPro India
    https://www.pfizerpro.in/medicine/prevenar13-adult/about/mechanism-of-action
    Conjugate vaccines can generate immune memory cells, which increase the duration of immune response1. […] Conjugate vaccines elicit antibacterial immune responses and immune memory2. […] Conjugation of the T-cellindependent capsular polysaccharide to a protein carrier converts the polysaccharide to a T-celldependent antigen2. […] Conjugation elicits robust and long-lasting immune responses and establishes immune memory2,3. […] Prevenar 13, comprising polysaccharide antigens conjugated to a carrier protein, elicits a T-celldependent immune response1,2.
  • #1 Pneumococcal vaccines: mechanism of action, impact on epidemiology and adaption of the species – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18378430/
    Pneumococcal infections elicited by Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) (pneumonia, otitis media, sinusitis, meningitis) are frequently occurring diseases that are associated with considerable morbidity and mortality even in developed countries. […] Two pneumococcal vaccines are currently in clinical use. One of them contains 23 capsular polysaccharides of the as yet known 91 different pneumococcal serotypes. Because polysaccharide vaccines primarily induce a B-cell-dependent immune response, this type of vaccine prevents bacteraemia but does not efficiently protect the host against pneumococcal infection. […] In 2000, a vaccination programme was launched in the USA making use of a novel pneumococcal conjugate vaccine containing capsular polysaccharides derived from the seven most frequent pneumococcal serotypes causing pneumococcal disease in children 2 years of age. Conjugation of capsular polysaccharides with a highly immunogenic protein, i.e. a non-toxic diphtheria toxoid, induces a B- and T-cell response resulting in mucosal immunity and thus effectively protects against vaccine serotypes that induce invasive pneumococcal disease, thereby at the same time reducing vaccine serotype carrier rates.
  • #1 Emerging vaccine strategies against the incessant pneumococcal disease | npj Vaccines
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41541-023-00715-w
    The immune synapse formed between the B and T cell facilitates the adaptive immune response through the differentiation of B cells to high-affinity IgG-producing plasma cells and memory cell formation. […] A comprehensive elucidation of glycoconjugate vaccine-induced immune mechanisms was reported over a decade ago. […] According to this model, glycoconjugate vaccines stimulate strong adaptive immune responses through carbohydrate-specific T cells, or Tcarbs. […] The immune mechanisms to facilitate a protective immune response forms the knowledge basis for a forward-thinking approach to new-generation vaccine design. […] The current conjugation methods add an additional degree of uncertainty, as there is no systematic assessment looking at all the different chemical approaches amongst the different serotypes and the relevance that linker molecules or degree of attachment can play in getting the CPS to be recognized by the B and T cells. […] Understanding how conjugate vaccines work (i.e., what makes them antigenic and immunogenic) and why the current vaccines fail are critical parameters to achieve truly protective, widely applicable, and accessible vaccines against bacterial pathogens.
  • #1 Pneumococcal vaccines: mechanism of action, impact on epidemiology and adaption of the species – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18378430/
    Pronounced herd immunity resulted in a decrease in invasive pneumococcal diseases in vaccinees and non-vaccinees as well as reduced antibiotic resistance rates. However, recent studies report that serotypes eradicated by the vaccine are being replaced by non-vaccine pneumococcal serotypes. This so-called 'replacement’ might soon threaten the success of vaccine use.
  • #1 Simplifying Pneumococcal Immunizations for Adults | AAFP
    https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2022/0600/p580.html
    PCV15 and PCV20 are conjugate vaccines that provide durable protection because of a T celldependent mechanism of action and resulting memory B cell formation that provide mucosal immunity. […] In contrast, PPSV23, a capsular polysaccharide vaccine that induces an immune response via release of immunoglobulin from B cells, does not result in mucosal immunity, and protection wanes over five to six years. […] Compared with the PCV13 vaccine, the PCV15 and PCV20 vaccines cover additional strains that cause about 15% and 27% of invasive pneumococcal disease in patients 65 years or older and 13% and 28% of disease in patients 19 to 64 years of age with underlying conditions, respectively. […] Studies have shown that overall immunogenicity of PCV20 alone or PCV15 plus PPSV23 is similar to PCV13 plus PPSV23. […] Both PCV15 and PCV20 are expected to be safe and well-tolerated, with no serious adverse events noted in clinical trials.
  • #1 Capvaxive (pneumococcal vaccine 21-valent) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more
    https://reference.medscape.com/drug/capvaxive-pneumococcal-vaccine-21-valent-4000435
    Elicits antibodies in response to antigenic stimulation; immune responses are measured by opsonophagocytic activity (OPA) […] Protection against invasive pneumococcal disease is conferred mainly by opsonophagocytic killing of S pneumoniae […] Induces OPA against 22 S pneumoniae serotypes; the de-O-acetylated polysaccharide from serotype 15B has a molecular structure similar to the polysaccharide from serotype 15C and induces OPA to serotype 15C; deOAc15B also induces cross-reactive OPA against serotype 15B […] OPA titer that is predictive of protection against invasive pneumococcal disease or pneumococcal pneumonia has not been established.
  • #1 PREVNAR® 13 (pneumococcal 13-valent conjugate vaccine – diphtheria CRM197 protein) Clinical Pharmacology | Pfizer Medical Information – US
    https://www.pfizermedicalinformation.com/prevnar-13/clinical-pharmacology
    In infants that have received Prevnar 13, opsonophagocytic activity correlates well with serotype specific anti-capsular polysaccharide IgG levels as measured by ELISA. A serum anti-capsular polysaccharide antibody concentration of 0.35 g/mL as measured by ELISA one month after the third dose as a single antibody reference concentration was used to estimate the effectiveness of Prevnar 13 against invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) in infants and children. […] In adults, an antipolysaccharide binding antibody IgG level to predict protection against invasive pneumococcal disease or non-bacteremic pneumonia has not been defined. Noninferiority trials for Prevnar 13 were designed to show that functional OPA antibody responses (as measured by a microcolony OPA [mcOPA] antibody assay) for the Prevnar 13 serotypes are noninferior and for some serotypes superior to the common serotypes in the currently licensed pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23). OPA antibody titers measured in the mcOPA antibody assay cannot be compared directly to titers measured in the dOPA antibody assay.
  • #1 Pneumovax 23 Mechanism of Action | MIMS Malaysia
    https://www.mims.com/malaysia/drug/info/pneumovax%2023/mechanism-of-action
    Protective efficacy was 76% and 92%, respectively, in the two studies for the capsular types represented. […] A meta-analysis of nine randomized controlled trials of pneumococcal vaccine concluded that pneumococcal vaccine is efficacious in reducing the frequency of nonbacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia among adults in low risk groups but not in high-risk groups. […] More recently, multiple case-control studies have shown pneumococcal vaccine is effective in the prevention of serious pneumococcal disease, with point estimates of efficacy ranging from 56% to 81% in immunocompetent persons. […] A serotype prevalence study, based on the Centers for Disease Control pneumococcal surveillance system, demonstrated 57% overall protective effectiveness against invasive infections caused by serotypes included in the vaccine in persons 6 years of age, 65-84% effectiveness among specific patient groups (e.g., persons with diabetes mellitus, coronary vascular disease, congestive heart failure, chronic pulmonary disease, and anatomic asplenia) and 75% effectiveness in immunocompetent persons aged 65 years of age. […] Duration of Immunity: Following pneumococcal vaccination, serotype-specific antibody levels decline after 5-10 years.
  • #1
    https://bpac.org.nz/bpj/2011/april/pneumovax23.aspx
    Invasive pneumococcal disease caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae can result in life-threatening pneumonia, meningitis and septicaemia. […] Vaccination is the only method for preventing invasive pneumococcal disease. […] Pneumovax23, a pneumococcal vaccine, is recommended (but not funded, except post-splenectomy) for all adults aged over 65 years, as well as people at increased risk of invasive pneumococcal disease due to co-morbidity or immunodeficiency. […] Pneumovax23 vaccine contains antigens of 23 different serotypes of S. pneumoniae, which are responsible for more than 90% of cases of invasive pneumococcal disease. […] Pneumovax23 has an overall efficacy of 6070% in adults, i.e. it will prevent pneumococcal illness in 6070% of people who are vaccinated. […] The Pneumovax23 vaccine has no significant effect on nasal carriage of S. pneumoniae in adults, therefore does not reduce spread to unvaccinated people, i.e. it has no herd immunity effect.
  • #1 Pneumococcal Vacine: Overall View
    https://www.ijraset.com/research-paper/pneumococcal-vacine-overall-view
    Pneumococcal vaccine is a type of vaccine that protects against pneumococcal disease, which is caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumonia (also known as pneumococcus). […] The heptavalent pneumococcal conjugated immunization (PCV-7) contains capsular polysaccharides from those pneumococci (4, 6B, 9V, 14, 18C, 19F and 23F) that are most as often as possible included in pediatric diseases. […] Capsular polysaccharides of PCV-7 are conjugated to exceedingly immunogenic cross-reactive fabric 197 (CRM197), a non-toxic diphtheria toxoid protein. […] Work of this pneumococcal immunization is especially effective in the inoculation of youthful children. […] This sort of versatile safe reaction is characterized by counter acting agent isotype exchanging and the era of memory B-cells.
  • #1
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10719-023-10100-3
    Multivalent vaccines addressing an increasing number of Streptococcus pneumoniae types (7-, 10-, 13-, 15-, 20-valent) have been licensed over the last 22 years. The use of polysaccharide-protein conjugate vaccines has been pivotal in reducing the incidence of invasive pneumococcal disease despite the emergence of non-vaccine serotypes. […] Spn produces several virulence factors that are involved in the disease process. Among them the polysaccharide capsule is the most important virulence factor needed to invade the host and cause disease. The capsule is essential for the survival of the pneumococcus by protecting the organism from complement and subsequent killing of phagocytes. […] Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccines (PPVs) and pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs) targeting multiple Spn serotypes have been developed over the last years and are widely available for the prevention of pneumococcal disease.
  • #1
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10719-023-10100-3
    In general, PCV10 and PCV13 reduced nasal colonization of vaccine types and led to herd immunity in the population. […] However, the incidence of disease caused by Spn-3 isolates has not declined despite its inclusion in the 13-valent PCV vaccine and vaccine effectiveness has been reported as non-significant for this serotype, leading to it being recorded as a non-vaccine type in some vaccine efficacy studies. […] The chemical composition of this polysaccharide provides some specific features to it, such as a wet or mucoid appearance when grown on agar plates, which could imply a peculiar resistance to opsonic killing in vivo. […] The success of capsule-based vaccines against invasive disease is unfortunately counterbalanced by weak efficacy at mucosal sites, such as for pneumonia and otitis media.
  • #1
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10719-023-10100-3
    Overall, these studies support partial impact of PCV vaccination in OM and highlight variability of efficaciousness depending on AOM etiology and circulating pneumococcal serotypes. […] Despite widespread utilization of PCVs and the consequent disease reduction, the research is still active and innovative technologies are being explored for the synthesis of higher valency polysaccharide-based vaccines, with increased efficacy, coverage and at reduced costs.
  • #1 The remarkable history of pneumococcal vaccination: an ongoing challenge | Pneumonia | Full Text
    https://pneumonia.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s41479-022-00097-y
    Although it varies with age and geographical distribution, the global burden of infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) remains considerable. […] Vaccination should be the backbone of our current strategies to deal with this infection. […] The principal problem with these, as with other polysaccharide vaccines, was that they failed to immunize infants and toddlers, who were at highest risk for pneumococcal disease. […] This was overcome by chemical linking or conjugation of the polysaccharide molecules to an immunogenic carrier protein. […] Current research addresses serotype-independent vaccines which, so far, has been a challenging and elusive endeavor. […] While there has been enormous progress in the development of pneumococcal vaccines during the past century, attempts to develop a vaccine that will retain its efficacy for most pneumococcal serotypes are ongoing.
  • #1 Pneumonia and Invasive Pneumococcal Diseases: The Role of Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine in the Era of Multi-Drug Resistance
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/9/5/420
    The search is now focused on conserved surface-exposed and immunogenic protein antigens, with the potential to induce broad protection and to prevent serotype replacement. […] The whole-cell vaccine (WCV) has some limitations too: the live-attenuated one gives concern for the risk of reactivation of the pathogenicity, while the inactivated WCV needs multiple dosages and it does not confer long-term humoral immunity. […] The resistance to penicillin is determined by the modifications of the penicillin-binding proteins within the cell wall; it has a prevalence up to 50% of all pneumococcal infections in some countries such as Spain. […] The introduction of vaccines has changed the antimicrobial resistance profile of SP nowadays, but there is a great geographical variability: penicillin resistance has been observed in particular in South Africa, Far East, and Middle East (>50%) while in European countries, is lower (15%).
  • #1 Conjugation Mechanism for Pneumococcal Glycoconjugate Vaccines: Classic and Emerging Methods
    https://www.mdpi.com/2306-5354/9/12/774
    The introduction of conjugate pneumococcal vaccines (PCVs) in the 21st century has been widely accepted, and they are used in children in most countries. […] Notably, the conjugation methods are very important in the development of an effective vaccine, and new methods have recently emerged to obtain better immune responses and more defined products. […] Despite the significant success of these vaccines, there are important drawbacks of these methods, including low yield and component degradation. […] Consequently, different novel designs as MAPS, PGCT, and GOase have recently emerged. […] In the case of the GOase method, an attempt was made to solve some of the drawbacks of reductive amination, such as the possible degradation and the low defined coupling, characteristics of the traditional methods.
  • #1 Conjugation Mechanism for Pneumococcal Glycoconjugate Vaccines: Classic and Emerging Methods
    https://www.mdpi.com/2306-5354/9/12/774
    On the other hand, MAPS technology seeks a new type of conjugated vaccine that includes better antibody responses and generation of Th17 response to obtain extended protection, regardless of the CPS type. […] Finally, The PGCT technology proposes the recombinant production of all components, achieving an easy production process and a methodology easily adaptable to further improvements in the selection of carrier proteins and polysaccharides.
  • #1 Generation of protective pneumococcal-specific nasal resident memory CD4+ T cells via parenteral immunization | Mucosal Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41385-019-0218-5
    The generation of tissue-resident memory T cells (TRM) is an essential aspect of immunity at mucosal surfaces, and it has been suggested that preferential generation of TRM is one of the principal advantages of mucosally administered vaccines. […] Here, we show that intranasal administration of live or killed pneumococci to mice generates pneumococcus-responsive IL-17A-producing CD4+ mucosal TRM. Furthermore, we show that these cells are sufficient to mediate long-lived, neutrophil-dependent protection against subsequent pneumococcal nasal challenge. […] Unexpectedly, and in contrast with the prevailing paradigm, we found that parenteral administration of killed pneumococci also generates protective IL-17A+CD4+ TRM in the nasal mucosa. […] Our findings therefore have important implications regarding the generation of immune protection at mucosal surfaces by vaccination.
  • #1 Generation of protective pneumococcal-specific nasal resident memory CD4+ T cells via parenteral immunization | Mucosal Immunology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41385-019-0218-5
    If generation of nasal TRM is a key mechanism for protection of the nasopharynx from subsequent pneumococcal challenge, then this may be an important immunological marker for effective vaccination. […] Here, we show that intranasal exposure of mice to a live encapsulated strain of pneumococcus induces the accumulation of pneumococcal-responsive IL-17A+CD4+ TRM cells in the nose, and further that these cells are sufficient to mediate nasal clearance upon subsequent intranasal rechallenge of previously exposed mice. […] These data demonstrate that nasal CD4+ TRM can provide protection against nasal colonization with pneumococcus based on their ability to recruit neutrophils to the nasal mucosa. […] Potentially of greatest interest, these findings indicate that highly protective, long-lasting mucosal TRM can be generated following parenteral vaccination, and thus have important implications for vaccine development.
  • #1 Developing a more affordable pneumococcal vaccine | PATH
    https://www.path.org/our-impact/case-studies/developing-more-affordable-pneumococcal-vaccine/
    Pneumonia remains the single biggest infectious killer of adults and children worldwide. Roughly 740,000 children die from it before their fifth birthdays each year, mostly in low- and middle-income parts of the world. […] The most common cause of deadly childhood pneumonia is the pneumococcus. This bacterium is complex with at least 100 varieties (serotypes) and also causes meningitis, sepsis, and debilitating middle ear infections. […] PCVs protect against some key serotypes and have helped reduce childhood deaths and illness where used. They are, however, among the most complicated and expensive vaccines to manufacture, so much so that only one other vaccine manufacturer managed to enter the market in the initial 20 years after the first PCV was licensed in 2000. […] The shared vision was ambitious. We set out to develop a PCV that would be sustainably affordable for all low- and middle-income economies and protective against the pneumococcal serotypes causing the most disease and death in Africa, Asia, and Latin America—where pneumococcal disease claims the most lives.
  • #1 Developing a more affordable pneumococcal vaccine | PATH
    https://www.path.org/our-impact/case-studies/developing-more-affordable-pneumococcal-vaccine/
    After a decade of strong partnership, the resulting PCV, PNEUMOSIL, focuses on serotypes threatening children in underserved countries, meets the high standard of performance expected of PCVs, is licensed and WHO prequalified, and is poised to reach more children by breaking down inherent price barriers to access. […] The task wasn’t easy. We had to improve the inherent affordability of a PCV while preserving performance, quality, and serotype coverage optimal for countries with high disease burdens in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. […] For PNEUMOSIL, we included the 10 serotypes most likely to cause severe disease in these regions, including some that were emerging as urgent threats (serotypes 6A and 19A). This decision ended up being key for achieving a balance of serotypes that matched or exceeded other PCVs in terms of disease coverage and helped keep manufacturing costs as low as possible.
  • #1 Developing a more affordable pneumococcal vaccine | PATH
    https://www.path.org/our-impact/case-studies/developing-more-affordable-pneumococcal-vaccine/
    Serum Institute achieved further affordability by optimizing several processes for large-scale manufacturing that lowered costs while maintaining high vaccine quality. […] This creative dual-pathway approach was highly successful and collectively provided the data package needed to meet both objectives. Not only did the vaccine have a good safety record, but it was shown to perform on par (or better in some regards) with the other WHO-prequalified PCVs. […] PNEUMOSIL received WHO prequalification in December 2019 and Indian marketing authorization in July 2020. […] PNEUMOSIL’s market entry is an important milestone toward enhancing the world’s arsenal of state-of-the-art PCVs and alleviating the price and supply barriers that have historically hindered or precluded sustainable access for many low- and middle-income countries.
  • #1 Pneumococcal disease | The Australian Immunisation Handbook
    https://immunisationhandbook.health.gov.au/contents/vaccine-preventable-diseases/pneumococcal-disease
    The polysaccharide capsule is the most important virulence factor of pneumococci. […] The natural reservoir of pneumococci is the mucosal surface of the human upper respiratory tract. Different pneumococcal serotypes vary in their propensity to cause nasopharyngeal colonisation or disease. […] Antibiotic resistance in pneumococci is an increasing challenge. In 2012, 10% of Australian invasive pneumococcal disease isolates were non-susceptible to penicillin, and 2% were non-susceptible to ceftriaxone/cefotaxime.
  • #2 Pneumococcal vaccines: mechanism of action, impact on epidemiology and adaption of the species – PubMed
    https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18378430/
    Pneumococcal infections elicited by Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) (pneumonia, otitis media, sinusitis, meningitis) are frequently occurring diseases that are associated with considerable morbidity and mortality even in developed countries. […] Two pneumococcal vaccines are currently in clinical use. One of them contains 23 capsular polysaccharides of the as yet known 91 different pneumococcal serotypes. Because polysaccharide vaccines primarily induce a B-cell-dependent immune response, this type of vaccine prevents bacteraemia but does not efficiently protect the host against pneumococcal infection. […] In 2000, a vaccination programme was launched in the USA making use of a novel pneumococcal conjugate vaccine containing capsular polysaccharides derived from the seven most frequent pneumococcal serotypes causing pneumococcal disease in children 2 years of age. Conjugation of capsular polysaccharides with a highly immunogenic protein, i.e. a non-toxic diphtheria toxoid, induces a B- and T-cell response resulting in mucosal immunity and thus effectively protects against vaccine serotypes that induce invasive pneumococcal disease, thereby at the same time reducing vaccine serotype carrier rates.
  • #2 First African country introduces GSK’s pneumococcal vaccine through innovative financing mechanism | GSK
    https://www.gsk.com/en-gb/media/press-releases/first-african-country-introduces-gsk-s-pneumococcal-vaccine-through-innovative-financing-mechanism/
    GSKs Synflorix is the first vaccine to be rolled out in Africa under the AMC framework and provides protection against 10 strains of the pneumococcus bacteria that are responsible for the large majority of pneumococcal disease in Kenya and worldwide. […] Synflorix helps protect against diseases due to pneumococcus bacteria. It contains 10 serotypes, three of which 1, 5, and 14 were required to be included in the vaccine for the AMC due to the high burden of invasive diseases caused by these serotypes in the developing world. […] Pneumococcal disease is a global health issue. Each year, S.pneumoniae infections are estimated to kill one million children under five years of age, mostly in developing countries. […] Pneumococcal bacteria can cause life-threatening diseases such as meningitis, pneumonia and bacteraemia. […] S.pneumoniae can also cause less severe, but considerably more common diseases of the respiratory tract such as middle ear infections, sinusitis and bronchitis.
  • #2 Pneumococcal disease | The Australian Immunisation Handbook
    https://immunisationhandbook.health.gov.au/contents/vaccine-preventable-diseases/pneumococcal-disease
    The polysaccharide capsule is the most important virulence factor of pneumococci. […] The natural reservoir of pneumococci is the mucosal surface of the human upper respiratory tract. Different pneumococcal serotypes vary in their propensity to cause nasopharyngeal colonisation or disease. […] Antibiotic resistance in pneumococci is an increasing challenge. In 2012, 10% of Australian invasive pneumococcal disease isolates were non-susceptible to penicillin, and 2% were non-susceptible to ceftriaxone/cefotaxime.
  • #2 Deciphering mechanisms of host-to-host transmission in pathogenesis of pneumococcal disease – University of Liverpool
    https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/study/postgraduate-research/studentships/deciphering-mechanisms-of-host-to-host-transmission-in-pathogenesis-of-pneumococcal-disease/
    You will aim to understand how host to host transmission occurs and how we can develop novel strategies to stop it. You will also develop a clear understanding of how pneumococcal transmission and host immunity interact and how this affects the local and systemic host responses to pneumococcal infection. […] You will use a newly developed clinically relevant mouse model of host-to-host transmission to study its key role in disease progression and pathogenesis.
  • #2 Pneumococcal Vaccine | Treatment & Management | Point of Care
    https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/27346
    PCV20 produced a strong immune response to all 20 vaccine serotypes in adults 1849 years. PCV20 provides enhanced protection, which is evident from an opsonophagocytic activity assay. […] This vaccine formulation is the first pneumococcal vaccine formulated from a capsular polysaccharide. PPSV 23 contains 23 capsular polysaccharide types of S. pneumoniae, representing at least 85% to 90% of pneumococcal disease isolates in the United States. It has shown a 50% to 80% efficacy in preventing invasive pneumococcal disease in adults.
  • #2 Prevnar 13 (pneumococcal vaccine 13-valent) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more.
    https://reference.medscape.com/drug/prevnar-13-pneumococcal-vaccine-13-valent-999483
    Pneumococcal vaccine 13-valent (PCV13) is indicated for active immunization for the prevention of pneumonia and invasive disease caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae serotypes 1, 3, 4, 5, 6A, 6B, 7F, 9V, 14, 18C, 19A, 19F and 23F […] Elicits antibodies in response to antigenic stimulation […] Capsular polysaccharide vaccine against 13 strains of pneumococci, conjugated to nontoxic diphtheria protein.
  • #2 Emerging vaccine strategies against the incessant pneumococcal disease | npj Vaccines
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41541-023-00715-w
    The immune synapse formed between the B and T cell facilitates the adaptive immune response through the differentiation of B cells to high-affinity IgG-producing plasma cells and memory cell formation. […] A comprehensive elucidation of glycoconjugate vaccine-induced immune mechanisms was reported over a decade ago. […] According to this model, glycoconjugate vaccines stimulate strong adaptive immune responses through carbohydrate-specific T cells, or Tcarbs. […] The immune mechanisms to facilitate a protective immune response forms the knowledge basis for a forward-thinking approach to new-generation vaccine design. […] The current conjugation methods add an additional degree of uncertainty, as there is no systematic assessment looking at all the different chemical approaches amongst the different serotypes and the relevance that linker molecules or degree of attachment can play in getting the CPS to be recognized by the B and T cells. […] Understanding how conjugate vaccines work (i.e., what makes them antigenic and immunogenic) and why the current vaccines fail are critical parameters to achieve truly protective, widely applicable, and accessible vaccines against bacterial pathogens.
  • #2 Pneumococcal vaccine – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumococcal_vaccine
    The pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) consists of capsular polysaccharides covalently bound to the diphtheria toxoid CRM197, which is highly immunogenic but non-toxic. This combination provokes a significantly more robust immune response by recruiting CRM197-specific type 2 helper T cells, which allow for immunoglobulin type switching (to produce non-IgM immunoglobulin) and production of memory B cells. […] Among other things, this results in mucosal immunity and the eventual establishment of lifelong immunity after several exposures. For targeted serotypes, the PCV reduces colonization rates and provides herd immunity. It appears to also reduce the development of antimicrobial resistance among targeted serotypes.
  • #2
    https://bpac.org.nz/bpj/2011/april/pneumovax23.aspx
    Invasive pneumococcal disease caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae can result in life-threatening pneumonia, meningitis and septicaemia. […] Vaccination is the only method for preventing invasive pneumococcal disease. […] Pneumovax23, a pneumococcal vaccine, is recommended (but not funded, except post-splenectomy) for all adults aged over 65 years, as well as people at increased risk of invasive pneumococcal disease due to co-morbidity or immunodeficiency. […] Pneumovax23 vaccine contains antigens of 23 different serotypes of S. pneumoniae, which are responsible for more than 90% of cases of invasive pneumococcal disease. […] Pneumovax23 has an overall efficacy of 6070% in adults, i.e. it will prevent pneumococcal illness in 6070% of people who are vaccinated. […] The Pneumovax23 vaccine has no significant effect on nasal carriage of S. pneumoniae in adults, therefore does not reduce spread to unvaccinated people, i.e. it has no herd immunity effect.
  • #2 Pneumococcal Vaccine | Treatment & Management | Point of Care
    https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/27346
    Both vaccines promote active immunization against the serotypes of the conjugate and capsular polysaccharides contained in the formulation of the vaccine. Immunity develops approximately 2 to 3 weeks after vaccination and lasts 5 years. However, in children and the elderly, re-immunization may be necessary sooner. […] This vaccine formulation demonstrates improved antibody response compared to the pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine because it contains purified capsular polysaccharides of pneumococcal serotypes conjugated to a carrier protein. PCV 13 actively immunizes against invasive disease caused by S. pneumoniae capsular serotypes 1, 3, 4, 5, 6B, 6A, 7F, 9V, 14, 18C, 19A, 19F, and 23F. All of the serotypes are individually conjugated to a CRM197 protein. […] PCV15 contains polysaccharide serotypes 22F and 33F in addition to the PCV13 serotypes, conjugated to genetically detoxified diphtheria toxin. The randomized controlled trial in adults 50 years demonstrated that PCV15 met the noninferiority criteria compared with PCV13 for the 13 shared serotypes. PCV15 also had statistically significant responses for serotype 3 and PCV15-unique serotypes 22F and 33F.
  • #2 Pneumonia and Invasive Pneumococcal Diseases: The Role of Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine in the Era of Multi-Drug Resistance
    https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/9/5/420
    In order to reduce morbidity and mortality caused by this agent, pneumococcal vaccines have been developed over the years. […] The first licensed conjugated vaccine was heptavalent (PCV7, Prevnar 7), licensed in the US in 2000, then preparations with more serotypes were developed, in particular 10 (PCV10, Synflorix) and 13 (PCV13, Prevnar). […] The introduction of pneumococcal vaccines containing a wider range of serotypes was the solution to broader serotype coverage, likely with a positive impact on decreasing serious infections. […] There is a need for a serotype independent vaccine derived from the emerging problem of serotype replacement and also from the emerging non-encapsuleted SP (NESp), causing both invasive and non-invasive diseases. […] The success of the research in this field mostly depends on availability of appropriate animal models that represent characteristics of humans’ diseases.