Zakażenie wirusem brodawczaka ludzkiego (hpv)
Rokowania, prognozy i postęp choroby

Zakażenie wirusem brodawczaka ludzkiego (HPV) stanowi kluczowy czynnik prognostyczny w nowotworach głowy i szyi, zwłaszcza w raku płaskonabłonkowym gardła środkowego (OPSCC), gdzie pacjenci HPV-pozytywni wykazują istotnie lepsze wyniki leczenia. Wskaźniki przeżycia wolnego od choroby (DFS) po 3 latach wynoszą 85% dla HPV+ vs 49% dla HPV-, a przeżycie całkowite (OS) 90% vs 65%. Zakażenie HPV wysokiego ryzyka jest niezależnym predyktorem lepszego rokowania (p=0,001 dla DFS, p=0,004 dla OS). Wysoki poziom limfocytów naciekających guz (TIL) dodatkowo stratyfikuje pacjentów HPV+ na grupy o różnym ryzyku, z 3-letnim przeżyciem odpowiednio 96% (TIL wysokie), 76% (umiarkowane) i 59% (niskie). Inne istotne biomarkery prognostyczne to niska ekspresja MHC klasy I, CD44, CD98 oraz wysoka liczba limfocytów CD8+ i nadekspresja 16Ink4a. Metody diagnostyczne, takie jak p16-IHC, HPV-DNA-ISH i PCR, mają znaczenie prognostyczne i powinny być stosowane łącznie dla precyzyjnej stratyfikacji pacjentów.

Rokowanie zakażenia wirusem brodawczaka ludzkiego (HPV)

Zakażenie wirusem brodawczaka ludzkiego (HPV) jest istotnym czynnikiem prognostycznym w wielu typach nowotworów. Rokowanie pacjentów z HPV-zależnymi nowotworami różni się znacznie od rokowania pacjentów z nowotworami HPV-negatywnymi, co sprawia, że status HPV staje się kluczowym biomarkerem w przewidywaniu wyników leczenia i przeżywalności.12

Rak płaskonabłonkowy jamy ustnej i gardła (OPSCC)

W przypadku raka płaskonabłonkowego gardła środkowego (OPSCC), status HPV jest najważniejszym czynnikiem prognostycznym determinującym przeżycie pacjentów, niezależnie od strategii leczenia.1 Pacjenci z HPV-pozytywnymi guzami wykazują znacząco lepsze rokowanie w porównaniu z pacjentami z nowotworami HPV-negatywnymi:12

  • Zwiększone przeżycie wolne od choroby (DFS) – różnica na korzyść pacjentów HPV-pozytywnych wynosiła 22% po 5 latach i 23% po 10 latach1
  • Lepsze przeżycie całkowite (OS) – różnica 29% po 5 latach i 23% po 10 latach na korzyść pacjentów HPV-pozytywnych1
  • 3-letnie wskaźniki przeżycia dla pacjentów HPV-pozytywnych vs HPV-negatywnych wynoszą odpowiednio 85% vs 49% (DFS) oraz 90% vs 65% (OS)2

Analiza wieloczynnikowa wykazała, że zakażenie HPV wysokiego ryzyka jest jedynym niezależnym predyktorem przeżycia wolnego od choroby i przeżycia całkowitego (p=0,001 i p=0,004).1 Statystycznie istotnym czynnikiem ryzyka nawrotu choroby jest brak zakażenia HPV (p=0,0169), a dla przeżycia całkowitego czynnikami ryzyka są: brak zakażenia HPV (p=0,0123), płeć męska (p=0,0426) i wiek (p=0,0311).2

Rak gardła dolnego (HSCC)

W przypadku raka gardła dolnego, około jedna czwarta przypadków może być związana z HPV. Zakażenie HPV również wiąże się z lepszym rokowaniem:1

  • Pacjenci z HPV-pozytywnymi guzami gardła dolnego wykazują lepsze przeżycie specyficzne dla raka głowy i szyi (HNCSS; P=0,001)
  • Lepsze przeżycie całkowite (OS; P<0,001) w porównaniu do pacjentów z guzami HPV-negatywnymi
  • Dodatkowa chemioterapia nie wydaje się przynosić korzyści w zakresie przeżycia u pacjentów z HPV-pozytywnymi guzami otrzymujących pierwotną radioterapię

Znaczenie typu HPV w rokowaniu

HPV-16 jest odpowiedzialny za około 90% przypadków HPV-pozytywnych nowotworów jamy ustnej i gardła.1 Pacjenci z guzami HPV-16-pozytywnymi znacznie częściej mają przerzuty do węzłów chłonnych szyi (43/45 vs 2/5, p=0,005).2 Istnieją również dane sugerujące, że nowotwory związane z HPV-16 mogą mieć gorsze rokowanie w porównaniu z nowotworami związanymi z innymi typami wysokiego ryzyka HPV.1

W przypadku raka szyjki macicy, niektóre badania wskazują, że podtyp HPV ma znaczenie prognostyczne, a przetrwała obecność HPV u pacjentek po radioterapii jest niekorzystnym czynnikiem prognostycznym.1 Jednakże, niektóre badania wykazały również, że status HPV nie ma znaczenia prognostycznego w raku szyjki macicy.2

Czynniki wpływające na rokowanie w HPV-pozytywnych nowotworach

Limfocyty naciekające guz (TIL)

Poziom limfocytów naciekających guz (TIL) jest istotnym czynnikiem prognostycznym w HPV-pozytywnych nowotworach:12

  • Wysoki poziom TIL stratyfikuje pacjentów HPV-pozytywnych na grupy wysokiego i niskiego ryzyka
  • 3-letnie przeżycie dla pacjentów HPV-pozytywnych/TIL-wysokie wynosi 96%, dla HPV-pozytywnych/TIL-umiarkowane 76%, a dla HPV-pozytywnych/TIL-niskie 59%
  • Przeżycie pacjentów HPV-pozytywnych/TIL-niskie nie różni się od pacjentów HPV-negatywnych (3-letnie przeżycie 56% vs 59%)

Dane te sugerują, że odpowiedź immunologiczna odzwierciedlona przez poziom TIL w guzie pierwotnym odgrywa ważną rolę w poprawie przeżycia obserwowanej u większości pacjentów HPV-pozytywnych.1 Wysoki poziom TIL koreluje znacząco z guzami HPV-pozytywnymi (P<0,001).1

Markery biologiczne wpływające na rokowanie

Zidentyfikowano również inne biomarkery, które mogą pomóc w przewidywaniu odpowiedzi na leczenie u pacjentów z HPV-pozytywnymi nowotworami:12

  • Niski/brak ekspresji MHC klasy I – wskaźnik o wysokiej wartości prognostycznej, wskazujący 95-100% prawdopodobieństwo 3-letniego przeżycia wolnego od choroby i przeżycia całkowitego
  • Niska ekspresja CD44 lub CD98
  • Wysoka liczba limfocytów CD8+ naciekających guz
  • Nadekspresja 16Ink4a
  • Status osoby nigdy niepalącej

Te biomarkery mogą być wykorzystane w połączeniu ze statusem HPV-pozytywnym do przewidywania odpowiedzi na terapię i potencjalnie do selekcji pacjentów do mniej intensywnego leczenia.1

Metody detekcji HPV jako czynnik prognostyczny

Wybór metody detekcji HPV ma znaczenie prognostyczne:12

  • P16-IHC (immunohistochemia) jako pojedynczy biomarker wykazuje najlepszą dokładność diagnostyczną dla stratyfikacji prognostycznej u pacjentów z OPSCC, gdzie wysoka ekspresja wskazuje na korzyść w przeżyciu
  • HPV-DNA-ISH (p=0,0039), HPV-DNA-PCR (p=0,0113) i podwójne barwienie p16-Ki67 (p=0,0047) są również istotnie związane z rokowaniem w analizie jedno- i wielozmiennej dla raka gardła środkowego

Zaleca się bezpośrednie testowanie DNA HPV w przypadkach p16-pozytywnych, gdy rozważane są konsekwencje terapeutyczne na podstawie statusu HPV.1

Rokowanie w zakażeniach HPV genitalnych

Brodawki genitalne i infekcje HPV

Rokowanie w przypadku zakażeń HPV genitalnych jest zazwyczaj dobre, a większość przypadków brodawek płciowych poddaje się leczeniu:1

  • Brodawki genitalne mogą spontanicznie ustępować, pozostać niezmienione lub zwiększać swój rozmiar
  • Około dwie trzecie pacjentów z brodawkami pozagenitalnymi doświadcza spontanicznej regresji w ciągu 2 lat, chociaż mogą pojawić się nowe brodawki
  • Leczenie zmian nie wpływa na rozwój raka szyjki macicy

Infekcje HPV typowo ustępują szybko – szacuje się, że 67% infekcji ustępuje w ciągu 12 miesięcy, chociaż tempo ustępowania prawdopodobnie różni się między grupami wiekowymi i typami HPV.1 Po oczyszczeniu wirusowym (tj. gdy onkogenny HPV nie jest już wykrywany), kobiety mają bardzo niskie ryzyko znaczącej choroby szyjki macicy przez następne 5 lat.2

Ryzyko rozwoju choroby nowotworowej

W przypadku zakażeń HPV typami onkogennymi innymi niż 16/18, ryzyko rozwoju zmian CIN2+ wynosi około 8,1-8,5%, a ryzyko zmian CIN3+ około 3,1-3,4%. Ryzyko inwazyjnego raka szyjki macicy jest wyjątkowo niskie (0,02%).1

Pacjenci, którzy nie rozwiną odporności na HPV, mogą stanąć w obliczu potencjalnie poważnych następstw. Zakażenie HPV sromu może prowadzić do śródnabłonkowej neoplazji sromu (dysplazja) lub raka płaskonabłonkowego sromu. Większość badań wskazuje na silny związek między zakażeniem HPV a rozwojem dysplazji szyjki macicy i raka szyjki macicy – HPV odpowiada za ponad 99% ryzyka dysplazji szyjki macicy.2

Czynniki ryzyka wpływające na rokowanie

Na rokowanie zakażeń HPV wpływają następujące czynniki:12

  • Immunosupresja – pacjenci z immunosupresją spowodowaną terapią immunosupresyjną lub zakażeniem HIV są w grupie wyższego ryzyka przetrwałej choroby HPV i częściej rozwijają dysplazję lub raka sromu, pochwy lub szyjki macicy
  • Historia HGSIL – kobiety z historią zmian HGSIL (zmian śródnabłonkowych wysokiego stopnia) szyjki macicy lub inwazyjnego raka płaskonabłonkowego szyjki macicy mają zwiększone ryzyko rozwoju inwazyjnego raka w innych tkankach błony śluzowej narządów płciowych, szczególnie raka pochwy i odbytu
  • Ekspozycja na inne czynniki rakotwórcze – u pacjentów z epidermodysplazją verruciformis (EV), unikanie promieni rentgenowskich i ekspozycji na słońce może zapobiec rozwojowi transformacji złośliwej

W przypadku pacjentów HPV-pozytywnych z rakiem jamy ustnej i gardła, statystycznie istotnymi czynnikami ryzyka zgonu są wiek (p=0,0096) i palenie tytoniu (p=0,0387).1 Model prognostyczny oparty na niskim poziomie TIL, intensywnym paleniu i późnym stadium T jest niezwykle skuteczny w identyfikowaniu grupy pacjentów HPV-pozytywnych o złym rokowaniu.1

Implikacje kliniczne dla personelu medycznego

Status HPV w nowotworach głowy i szyi jest istotnym biomarkerem prognostycznym, a pacjenci wykazują lepsze odpowiedzi terapeutyczne i wyniki w porównaniu do osób z nowotworami wywołanymi przez tytoń/alkohol.12 Nowotwory HPV-pozytywne są zasadniczo różne od tradycyjnych nowotworów związanych z tytoniem i alkoholem.1

Lepsze rokowanie pacjentów z HPV-pozytywnymi OPSCC sugeruje, że wielu z nich może nie wymagać bardziej agresywnej, zintensyfikowanej chemioradioterapii stosowanej obecnie u pacjentów z nowotworami głowy i szyi. Przy nieco złagodzonym leczeniu mogliby utrzymać doskonałą przeżywalność, unikając niektórych ciężkich skutków ubocznych związanych z intensywnym leczeniem.1

Jednakże, przed zastosowaniem mniej intensywnego leczenia, konieczne są dodatkowe biomarkery w połączeniu ze statusem HPV-pozytywnym, aby przewidzieć i wybrać pacjentów, którzy korzystnie zareagują na terapię.1 Pacjenci z HPV-pozytywnymi OPSCC, z biomarkerami dobrej odpowiedzi na terapię, np. niską ekspresją MHC klasy I lub CD44, lub wysoką liczbą limfocytów CD8+ naciekających guz, mogliby być włączeni do badań z randomizacją z mniej ciężką terapią.2

W przypadku zakażeń HPV w obrębie szyjki macicy, wdrożenie zaleceń dotyczących monitorowania pozwala uniknąć wielu niepotrzebnych kolposkopii i związanych z nimi szkód (w tym biopsji, nadmiernego leczenia, niepokoju i kosztów finansowych) u kobiet z HPV-związanymi nieprawidłowościami szyjki macicy, które ustępowałyby samoistnie bez interwencji medycznej.1

Typ nowotworu Wskaźniki przeżycia HPV+ vs HPV- Kluczowe biomarkery prognostyczne
Rak płaskonabłonkowy gardła środkowego (OPSCC) 3-letnie DFS: 85% vs 49%
3-letnie OS: 90% vs 65%
Status HPV, poziom TIL, ekspresja MHC klasy I, CD44, CD98
Rak gardła dolnego (HSCC) Lepsze HNCSS i OS u HPV+ pacjentów Status HPV
HPV+ OPSCC z wysokim TIL 3-letnie przeżycie: 96% Status HPV, poziom TIL
HPV+ OPSCC z niskim TIL 3-letnie przeżycie: 59% Status HPV, poziom TIL, palenie, stadium T

Integracja testów opartych na metylacji DNA z cytologią szyjki macicy znacznie zwiększa dokładność diagnostyczną dla zmian CIN2+, szczególnie w przypadkach HPV16/18-pozytywnych. Jednakże, stosunkowo niższa AUC i specyficzność obserwowana w innych typach HPV wysokiego ryzyka sugeruje potrzebę dalszej optymalizacji w celu zwiększenia dokładności w zakażeniach innymi niż 16/18.1

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  1. 10.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Human papillomavirus infection predicts a better survival rate in patients with oropharyngeal cancer
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8425231/
    Squamous cell carcinoma is the most common malignant tumour occurring in the head and neck region. It is now understood that (human papillomavirus (HPV)- positive and HPV-negative diseases are two very different clinical entities associated with different outcomes. […] Our data show that HPV infection is a predictor of better disease-free and overall survival in patients with oropharyngeal cancer. […] A statistically significant difference in the disease-free survival probability and overall survival probability between HPV-positive and HPV-negative patients was found (p = 0.0045 and p = 0.0037 respectively). […] For disease-free survival a statistically significant factor of the risk of recurrence was HPV infection (p = 0.0169). […] For overall survival for the entire group statistically significant risk factors were absence of HPV infection (p = 0.0123), male sex (p = 0.0426), and age (p = 0.0311).
  • #1 Human papillomavirus association is the most important predictor for surgically treated patients with oropharyngeal cancer | British Journal of Cancer
    https://www.nature.com/articles/bjc2017132
    Human papillomavirus (HPV) status is the most important parameter followed by T-stage in HPV-related and performance status in HPV-negative OPSCC. […] Regardless of treatment strategies, HPV status is the strongest predictor of survival in unselected OPSCC patients. […] The proposed risk models are suitable to discriminate risk groups in unselected OPSCC patients treated with upfront surgery, which has substantial impact for design and interpretation of de-escalation trials.
  • #1 Human papillomavirus infection predicts a better survival rate in patients with oropharyngeal cancer
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8425231/
    For HPV-positive patients, age (p = 0.0096) and smoking (p = 0.0387) were statistically significant risk factors of death. […] The observation time for HPV-positive patients was significantly longer (p = 0.0008). […] The number of deaths in HPV-negative patients was statistically significantly higher (p = 0.0222). […] HPV-positive patients had longer DFS and OS. The difference in favour of HPV-positive patients for DFS was 22% and 23% after 5 and 10 years respectively and for OS 29% and 23% after 5 and 10 years respectively. […] For HPV-positive oropharyngeal cancer patients weekly given cisplatin with concurrent radiotherapy can be an alternative to three weekly given cisplatin considering effectiveness and early toxicity.
  • #1 Does HPV type affect outcome in oropharyngeal cancer? | Journal of Otolaryngology – Head & Neck Surgery | Full Text
    https://journalotohns.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1916-0216-42-9
    Three year DFS and OS rates for patients with HPV-positive versus HPV-negative tumors were 85% vs 49%, and 90% vs 65%; respectively. […] Multivariate analysis revealed high-risk HPV infection as the only independent predictor of disease-free and overall survival (p=0.001 and p=0.004, respectively, Table 4). […] HPV-positive cancers are fundamentally distinct from traditional tobacco and alcohol related cancers. […] HPV-16 cancers may present more frequently with lymph node metastases and may have a poorer outcome compared with non-16 high-risk HPV types. […] HPV infection is the etiologic factor for a significant proportion of OPSCC in Southwestern Ontario as has been observed worldwide. The majority of cases are attributable to HPV-16, while other high-risk subtypes are responsible for the remainder.
  • #1 The Prognostic and Predictive Effects of Human Papillomavirus Status in Hypopharyngeal Carcinoma: Population-Based Study
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9804097/
    The role of the Human Papillomavirus (HPV) status in patients with hypopharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (HSCC) remains controversial. […] Our aim was to determine the prognostic and predictive effects of HPV status in patients with locally advanced HSCC (stage III-IVB) receiving primary radiotherapy. […] HPV-positive HSCC had better head and neck cancer-specific survival (HNCSS; P=.001) and overall survival (OS; P.001) compared to those with HPV-negative tumors. […] Approximately one-quarter of HSCC may be HPV-related, and HPV-positive HSCC is associated with improved survival outcomes. […] Furthermore, additional chemotherapy appears to be not related to a survival benefit in patients with HPV-positive tumors who received primary radiotherapy.
  • #1 Does HPV type affect outcome in oropharyngeal cancer? | Journal of Otolaryngology – Head & Neck Surgery | Full Text
    https://journalotohns.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1916-0216-42-9
    An epidemic of human papillomavirus (HPV)-related oropharyngeal squamous cell cancer (OPSCC) has been reported worldwide largely due to oral infection with HPV type-16, which is responsible for approximately 90% of HPV-positive cases. […] Patients with HPV-positive tumors had improved 3-year overall (OS) and disease-free survival (DFS) compared to patients with HPV-negative tumors (90% vs 65%, p=0.001; and 85% vs 49%, p=0.005; respectively). […] HPV-16 infection is responsible for a significant proportion of OPSCC in Southwestern Ontario. Other high-risk subtypes are responsible for a smaller subset of OPSCC that present less frequently with cervical metastases and may have a different prognosis. […] HPV-16-positive tumors were significantly more likely to have neck metastases (43/45 versus 2/5, p=0.005, Table 3).
  • #1 Prediction of carcinogenic human papillomavirus types in cervical cancer from multiparametric magnetic resonance images with machine learning-based radiomics models – Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology
    https://www.dirjournal.org/articles/prediction-of-carcinogenic-human-papillomavirus-types-in-cervical-cancer-from-multiparametric-magnetic-resonance-images-with-machine-learning-based-radiomics-models/doi/dir.2022.221335
    In addition to the studies showing that HPV negativity before treatment is a poor prognostic factor for disease-free survival and overall survival, one study has shown that the carcinogenic HPV subtype has prognostic significance. […] Persistent HPV positivity in patients after radiotherapy is a poor prognostic factor. […] The fact that HPV status, an essential prognostic factor in survival, can be predicted by MRI raises the issue of whether we can predict survival using MRI.
  • #1 Tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes predict for outcome in HPV-positive oropharyngeal cancer | British Journal of Cancer
    https://www.nature.com/articles/bjc2013639
    Human papillomavirus (HPV)-positive oropharyngeal cancer (OPSCC) is associated with improved survival compared with HPV-negative disease. However, a minority of HPV-positive patients have poor prognosis. Currently, there is no generally accepted strategy for identifying these patients. […] Patients with HPV-positive tumours showed improved survival (hazard ratio (HR), 0.33 (0.210.53)). High levels of tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) stratified HPV-positive patients into high-risk and low-risk groups (3-year survival; HPV-positive/TILhigh=96%, HPV-positive/TILlow=59%). Survival of HPV-positive/TILlow patients did not differ from HPV-negative patients (HR, 1.01; P=0.98). […] Our data suggest that an immune response, reflected by TIL levels in the primary tumour, has an important role in the improved survival seen in most HPV-positive patients, and is relevant for the clinical evaluation of HPV-positive OPSCC.
  • #1 Tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes predict for outcome in HPV-positive oropharyngeal cancer | British Journal of Cancer
    https://www.nature.com/articles/bjc2013639
    In unstratified OPSCC, high TIL levels predicted for survival and correlated significantly with HPV-positive tumours (P0.001). […] The 3-year survival for HPV-positive/TILhigh tumours was 96% compared with 76% for HPV-positive/TILmod and 59% for HPV-positive/TILlow. The HPV-positive/TILlow tumours had similar survival to HPV-negative tumours (3-year survival, 56%). […] A prognostic model based on low TIL levels, heavy smoking, and late T stage is extremely effective at identifying a group of HPV-positive patients with poor survival.
  • #1 Human papillomavirus and oropharyngeal cancer, the epidemics, and significance of additional clinical biomarkers for prediction of response to therapy (Review)
    https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/ijo.2014.2355
    However, before de-intensified treatment is administered additional biomarkers are necessary in combination with HPV-positive status in order to predict and select patients that will respond favorably to therapy. […] In conclusion, noteworthy issues within this field with an increasing cohort of patients with HPV-positive OPSCC are better-tailored therapy and prevention. […] Patients with HPV-positive OPSCC, with biomarkers for good response to therapy e.g., low MHC class I, or CD44 expression or high numbers of CD8+ tumor infiltrating lymphocytes, could be included in randomized trials with less severe therapy. […] New therapeutic and preventive strategies are required since HPV-positive OPSCC today comprises a larger proportion of all HNSCC. […] Nevertheless, to taper therapy, maintaining excellent survival and improved quality of life, as well as decreased costs for society, better approaches to select patients that respond well to therapy are necessary.
  • #1 HPV Status as Prognostic Biomarker in Head and Neck Cancer—Which Method Fits the Best for Outcome Prediction?
    https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/13/18/4730
    HPV status in head and neck cancer is a significant prognostic biomarker, with patients showing better therapeutic responses and outcomes compared to those with tobacco/alcohol-induced cancers. […] In our study, we tested six different detection methods that are currently used and compared their diagnostic and prognostic validity in a collective of 153 head and neck cancer patients. […] P16-IHC alone showed the best performance for discriminating between good (high expression) vs poor outcome (low expression; p = 0.0030) in OPSCC patients. […] Additionally, HPV-DNA-ISH (p = 0.0039), HPV-DNA-PCR (p = 0.0113), and p16-Ki67 dual stain (p = 0.0047) were significantly associated with prognosis in uni- and multivariable analysis for oropharyngeal cancer. […] Taken together, P16-IHC as a single biomarker displays the best diagnostic accuracy for prognosis stratification in OPSCC patients with a direct detection of HPV-DNA by PCR or ISH as well as p16-Ki67 dual stain as potential alternatives.
  • #1 HPV Status as Prognostic Biomarker in Head and Neck Cancer—Which Method Fits the Best for Outcome Prediction?
    https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/13/18/4730
    HPV-related head and neck cancers are associated with better response to radiotherapy and chemoradiotherapy, as well as improved overall survival, compared to tobacco-/alcohol-associated disease. […] Despite clear tendencies of expression patterns when comparing the six different biomarkers with each other, a large gray zone was observed with ambiguous interpretation on the role of HPV in the individual tumor biology. […] Taken together, our study showed that p16-IHC as a single biomarker displays the best diagnostic accuracy for prognosis stratification in oropharyngeal cancer patients, with high expression levels indicating a survival benefit. […] However, one should add direct testing for HPV-DNA in p16-positive cases whenever therapeutic consequences are considered based on HPV status.
  • #1 Human Papillomavirus (HPV): Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/219110-overview
    HPV infection primarily involves the basal epithelial cells, leading to common recurrences and regressions. The prognosis generally is good, and most cases of genital warts are treatable. However, patients who do not develop immunity to HPV may face potentially serious sequelae. […] Genital warts can spontaneously regress, remain unchanged, or increase in size. Treating these lesions does not impact the development of cervical cancer. Approximately two-thirds of patients with nongenital cutaneous warts experience spontaneous regression within 2 years, although new warts may appear. […] HPV infection of the vulva can result in vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (dysplasia) or squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. Most research indicates a strong association between HPV infection and the development of cervical dysplasia and cervical carcinoma. HPV accounts for more than 99% of the attributable risk for cervical dysplasia.
  • #1 Oncogenic HPV types not 16/18 | Cancer Council
    https://www.cancer.org.au/clinical-guidelines/cervical-cancer/cervical-cancer-screening/management-of-oncogenic-hpv-test-results/oncogenic-hpv-types-not-16-18
    Women who have a positive oncogenic human papillomavirus (HPV) test result for which HPV types other than 16 and/or 18 are detected (HPV not 16/18), should be managed according to the recommendations in this section. […] HPV infections typically clear rapidly. Overall, an estimated 67% of infections resolve by 12 months, although the rate of resolution probably varies between age groups and by HPV type. After viral clearance (i.e. oncogenic HPV is no longer detected), women are at very low risk of significant cervical disease for the next 5 years. Therefore, if women with a positive oncogenic HPV (not 16/18) test result are not referred to colposcopy immediately, 12 months is an appropriate follow-up interval for retesting and allows for viral clearance to occur in a proportion of women.
  • #1 Oncogenic HPV types not 16/18 | Cancer Council
    https://www.cancer.org.au/clinical-guidelines/cervical-cancer/cervical-cancer-screening/management-of-oncogenic-hpv-test-results/oncogenic-hpv-types-not-16-18
    The likelihood of histologically confirmed CIN2+ is approximately 8.18.5%. The likelihood of histologically confirmed CIN3+ is approximately 3.13.4%. The risk of invasive cervical cancer is extremely low (0.02%). […] The original prediction of low risk among women with oncogenic HPV (not 16/18) and a reflex LBC prediction of pLSIL/LSIL has been borne out by a 2020 review of NCSP data from the first 2 years of the renewed program. In fact, the risk of CIN2+ among women presenting for colposcopy following persistent detection of HPV (not 16/18), in the absence of pHSIL, HSIL, cancer of glandular abnormality on cytology, is low enough to justify a further 12 months of surveillance prior to referral to colposcopy. This change results in a better balance of benefits and potential harms by allowing women at very low risk of CIN2+ (and based on current data, very low risk of cancer) a further 12 months, by which time many women will have cleared the HPV infection and will then not require colposcopy at all. […] Implementation of these recommendations will avoid many unnecessary colposcopies and associated harms (including biopsy, overtreatment, anxiety and financial costs) for women with HPV-related cervical abnormalities that would resolve spontaneously without medical intervention.
  • #1 Human Papillomavirus (HPV): Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/219110-overview
    Vaginal dysplasia and vaginal cancer also are linked to HPV exposure. […] There is a direct correlation between anogenital HPV infection and measures of sexual activity, such as the age of first intercourse and the lifetime number of sexual partners. Women with a history of high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HGSIL) of the cervix or invasive squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of the cervix are at increased risk of developing invasive cancer in other anogenital mucosal tissues, particularly vaginal and anal carcinoma. In these patients, the relative risk for vaginal carcinoma is 5.6, and the risk of anal carcinoma is 4. […] Women who are immunocompromised due to immunosuppressive drug therapy or HIV infection are at higher risk for persistent HPV disease. These women are more likely to develop dysplasia or cancer of the vulva, vagina, or cervix.
  • #1 Human papillomavirus and oropharyngeal cancer, the epidemics, and significance of additional clinical biomarkers for prediction of response to therapy (Review)
    https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/ijo.2014.2355
    In 2007, the International Agency for Research against Cancer (IARC) recognized human papillomavirus (HPV), especially HPV16, besides smoking and alcohol, as a risk factor for oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (OPSCC), where tonsillar and base of tongue cancer dominate. […] Notably, patients with HPV-positive OPSCC, where the majority are men, particularly never-smokers have a better clinical outcome than patients with HPV-negative OPSCC and other head neck cancer (roughly 80 vs. 40% disease-free survival with conventional radiotherapy and surgery). […] This suggests that many patients with HPV-positive OPSCC may not require the more aggressive intensified chemo-radiotherapy given to head neck cancer patients today, and could with somewhat tapered treatment maintain excellent survival, avoiding some of the severe side effects along with intensified treatment.
  • #1 Biomedicines | An Open Access Journal from MDPI
    https://www.mdpi.com/journal/biomedicines
    The Role of HPV Genotyping, Cytology, and Methylation in the Triage of High-Risk HPV-Positive Patients […] Background/Objectives: This study evaluates the diagnostic performance of DNA methylation testing, alone and in combination with cervical cytology, for high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HSIL) detection. […] The integration of DNA methylation with cervical cytology significantly enhances diagnostic accuracy for CIN2+ lesions, especially in HPV16/18-positive cases. However, the comparatively lower AUC and specificity observed in other hrHPV types suggest the need for further optimization to enhance accuracy in non-16/18 infections. These findings support the integration of methylation-based testing with cytology as a valuable triage strategy for improving cervical cancer screening and patient management.
  • #2 Human papillomavirus association is the most important predictor for surgically treated patients with oropharyngeal cancer | British Journal of Cancer
    https://www.nature.com/articles/bjc2017132
    Human papillomavirus (HPV) status is the most important parameter followed by T-stage in HPV-related and performance status in HPV-negative OPSCC. […] Regardless of treatment strategies, HPV status is the strongest predictor of survival in unselected OPSCC patients. […] The proposed risk models are suitable to discriminate risk groups in unselected OPSCC patients treated with upfront surgery, which has substantial impact for design and interpretation of de-escalation trials.
  • #2 Human papillomavirus infection predicts a better survival rate in patients with oropharyngeal cancer
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8425231/
    For HPV-positive patients, age (p = 0.0096) and smoking (p = 0.0387) were statistically significant risk factors of death. […] The observation time for HPV-positive patients was significantly longer (p = 0.0008). […] The number of deaths in HPV-negative patients was statistically significantly higher (p = 0.0222). […] HPV-positive patients had longer DFS and OS. The difference in favour of HPV-positive patients for DFS was 22% and 23% after 5 and 10 years respectively and for OS 29% and 23% after 5 and 10 years respectively. […] For HPV-positive oropharyngeal cancer patients weekly given cisplatin with concurrent radiotherapy can be an alternative to three weekly given cisplatin considering effectiveness and early toxicity.
  • #2 Does HPV type affect outcome in oropharyngeal cancer? | Journal of Otolaryngology – Head & Neck Surgery | Full Text
    https://journalotohns.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1916-0216-42-9
    Three year DFS and OS rates for patients with HPV-positive versus HPV-negative tumors were 85% vs 49%, and 90% vs 65%; respectively. […] Multivariate analysis revealed high-risk HPV infection as the only independent predictor of disease-free and overall survival (p=0.001 and p=0.004, respectively, Table 4). […] HPV-positive cancers are fundamentally distinct from traditional tobacco and alcohol related cancers. […] HPV-16 cancers may present more frequently with lymph node metastases and may have a poorer outcome compared with non-16 high-risk HPV types. […] HPV infection is the etiologic factor for a significant proportion of OPSCC in Southwestern Ontario as has been observed worldwide. The majority of cases are attributable to HPV-16, while other high-risk subtypes are responsible for the remainder.
  • #2 Human papillomavirus infection predicts a better survival rate in patients with oropharyngeal cancer
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8425231/
    Squamous cell carcinoma is the most common malignant tumour occurring in the head and neck region. It is now understood that (human papillomavirus (HPV)- positive and HPV-negative diseases are two very different clinical entities associated with different outcomes. […] Our data show that HPV infection is a predictor of better disease-free and overall survival in patients with oropharyngeal cancer. […] A statistically significant difference in the disease-free survival probability and overall survival probability between HPV-positive and HPV-negative patients was found (p = 0.0045 and p = 0.0037 respectively). […] For disease-free survival a statistically significant factor of the risk of recurrence was HPV infection (p = 0.0169). […] For overall survival for the entire group statistically significant risk factors were absence of HPV infection (p = 0.0123), male sex (p = 0.0426), and age (p = 0.0311).
  • #2 Does HPV type affect outcome in oropharyngeal cancer? | Journal of Otolaryngology – Head & Neck Surgery | Full Text
    https://journalotohns.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1916-0216-42-9
    An epidemic of human papillomavirus (HPV)-related oropharyngeal squamous cell cancer (OPSCC) has been reported worldwide largely due to oral infection with HPV type-16, which is responsible for approximately 90% of HPV-positive cases. […] Patients with HPV-positive tumors had improved 3-year overall (OS) and disease-free survival (DFS) compared to patients with HPV-negative tumors (90% vs 65%, p=0.001; and 85% vs 49%, p=0.005; respectively). […] HPV-16 infection is responsible for a significant proportion of OPSCC in Southwestern Ontario. Other high-risk subtypes are responsible for a smaller subset of OPSCC that present less frequently with cervical metastases and may have a different prognosis. […] HPV-16-positive tumors were significantly more likely to have neck metastases (43/45 versus 2/5, p=0.005, Table 3).
  • #2 Prediction of carcinogenic human papillomavirus types in cervical cancer from multiparametric magnetic resonance images with machine learning-based radiomics models – Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology
    https://www.dirjournal.org/articles/prediction-of-carcinogenic-human-papillomavirus-types-in-cervical-cancer-from-multiparametric-magnetic-resonance-images-with-machine-learning-based-radiomics-models/doi/dir.2022.221335
    Machine learning-based radiomics models based on pre-treatment MRI can detect carcinogenic HPV status with discriminative accuracy. […] Prediction of carcinogenic human papillomavirus (HPV) oncogenes enables the identification of high-risk patients and can be used as a prognostic marker. […] Machine learning-based radiomics models can predict carcinogenic HPV DNA status in cervical cancer. […] Several studies in the literature report that HPV DNA status is associated with treatment response, disease-free survival, and overall survival in patients with cervical carcinoma. […] A recently published meta-analysis indicated that positive HPV DNA status favors good prognosis in cervical cancer. […] Although the prognostic role of HPV in cervical cancer has been reported in a comprehensive meta-analysis, several studies have shown that HPV status does not have any prognostic significance.
  • #2 Tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes predict for outcome in HPV-positive oropharyngeal cancer | British Journal of Cancer
    https://www.nature.com/articles/bjc2013639
    In unstratified OPSCC, high TIL levels predicted for survival and correlated significantly with HPV-positive tumours (P0.001). […] The 3-year survival for HPV-positive/TILhigh tumours was 96% compared with 76% for HPV-positive/TILmod and 59% for HPV-positive/TILlow. The HPV-positive/TILlow tumours had similar survival to HPV-negative tumours (3-year survival, 56%). […] A prognostic model based on low TIL levels, heavy smoking, and late T stage is extremely effective at identifying a group of HPV-positive patients with poor survival.
  • #2 Human papillomavirus and oropharyngeal cancer, the epidemics, and significance of additional clinical biomarkers for prediction of response to therapy (Review)
    https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/ijo.2014.2355
    It has been shown that absent/low expression of MHC class I, CD44 or CD98 intensity staining is of very high prognostic value for patients with HPV-positive OPSCC and e.g., for absent MHC class I staining indicates a 95-100% probability of a 3-year disease-free and overall survival. […] Furthermore, having high CD8+ tumor infiltrating lymphocyte (TIL) counts was also of high prognostic value for patients with HPV-positive OPSCC. […] In summary, some information is available with regard to markers e.g., overexpression of 16Ink4a, low MHC class I, CD44 and CD98 expression, having high CD8+ TIL counts, and being a never-smoker to guide treatment strategy for patients with HPV-positive OPSCC.
  • #2 HPV Status as Prognostic Biomarker in Head and Neck Cancer—Which Method Fits the Best for Outcome Prediction?
    https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/13/18/4730
    HPV-related head and neck cancers are associated with better response to radiotherapy and chemoradiotherapy, as well as improved overall survival, compared to tobacco-/alcohol-associated disease. […] Despite clear tendencies of expression patterns when comparing the six different biomarkers with each other, a large gray zone was observed with ambiguous interpretation on the role of HPV in the individual tumor biology. […] Taken together, our study showed that p16-IHC as a single biomarker displays the best diagnostic accuracy for prognosis stratification in oropharyngeal cancer patients, with high expression levels indicating a survival benefit. […] However, one should add direct testing for HPV-DNA in p16-positive cases whenever therapeutic consequences are considered based on HPV status.
  • #2 Oncogenic HPV types not 16/18 | Cancer Council
    https://www.cancer.org.au/clinical-guidelines/cervical-cancer/cervical-cancer-screening/management-of-oncogenic-hpv-test-results/oncogenic-hpv-types-not-16-18
    Women who have a positive oncogenic human papillomavirus (HPV) test result for which HPV types other than 16 and/or 18 are detected (HPV not 16/18), should be managed according to the recommendations in this section. […] HPV infections typically clear rapidly. Overall, an estimated 67% of infections resolve by 12 months, although the rate of resolution probably varies between age groups and by HPV type. After viral clearance (i.e. oncogenic HPV is no longer detected), women are at very low risk of significant cervical disease for the next 5 years. Therefore, if women with a positive oncogenic HPV (not 16/18) test result are not referred to colposcopy immediately, 12 months is an appropriate follow-up interval for retesting and allows for viral clearance to occur in a proportion of women.
  • #2 Human Papillomavirus (HPV): Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/219110-overview
    HPV infection primarily involves the basal epithelial cells, leading to common recurrences and regressions. The prognosis generally is good, and most cases of genital warts are treatable. However, patients who do not develop immunity to HPV may face potentially serious sequelae. […] Genital warts can spontaneously regress, remain unchanged, or increase in size. Treating these lesions does not impact the development of cervical cancer. Approximately two-thirds of patients with nongenital cutaneous warts experience spontaneous regression within 2 years, although new warts may appear. […] HPV infection of the vulva can result in vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (dysplasia) or squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. Most research indicates a strong association between HPV infection and the development of cervical dysplasia and cervical carcinoma. HPV accounts for more than 99% of the attributable risk for cervical dysplasia.
  • #2 Risk factors for human papillomavirus infection, cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and cervical cancer: an umbrella review and follow-up Mendelian randomisation studies | BMC Medicine | Full Text
    https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12916-023-02965-w
    Persistent infection by oncogenic human papillomavirus (HPV) is necessary although not sufficient for development of cervical cancer. […] Our main analysis supported the association of systemic (HIV infection, immunosuppressive medications) and local immunosuppression (altered vaginal microbiota) with increased risk for worse HPV and cervical disease outcomes. […] This evidence strengthens the need for more frequent HPV screening in people with immunosuppression, further investigation of the vaginal microbiome and access to sexual health services. […] We identified meta-analyses with strong, highly suggestive, and suggestive evidence for an increased risk of hrHPV and cervical cancer incidence in HIV-positive women, when compared to the general population. […] There is consistently strong and highly suggestive evidence that HIV positivity reduces HPV clearance rates and increases the risk of HPV infection and cervical cancer development.
  • #2 Human papillomavirus and oropharyngeal cancer, the epidemics, and significance of additional clinical biomarkers for prediction of response to therapy (Review)
    https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/ijo.2014.2355
    However, before de-intensified treatment is administered additional biomarkers are necessary in combination with HPV-positive status in order to predict and select patients that will respond favorably to therapy. […] In conclusion, noteworthy issues within this field with an increasing cohort of patients with HPV-positive OPSCC are better-tailored therapy and prevention. […] Patients with HPV-positive OPSCC, with biomarkers for good response to therapy e.g., low MHC class I, or CD44 expression or high numbers of CD8+ tumor infiltrating lymphocytes, could be included in randomized trials with less severe therapy. […] New therapeutic and preventive strategies are required since HPV-positive OPSCC today comprises a larger proportion of all HNSCC. […] Nevertheless, to taper therapy, maintaining excellent survival and improved quality of life, as well as decreased costs for society, better approaches to select patients that respond well to therapy are necessary.