Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Togaviruses: Rubella Virus – Medical Microbiology – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8200/

  Rubella occurs worldwide with a seasonal distribution. The peak incidence of infection is in late winter or early spring. There have been no major epidemics in the United States since vaccine licensure in 1969, and the incidence has decreased by 99 percent. Continued cases of congenital rubella are due to infection in unvaccinated, susceptible young women. […] Rubella occurs worldwide. There have been no major epidemics in the United States since the licensure of the live attenuated rubella vaccine in 1969. However, limited sporadic outbreaks of rubella continue to occur each year, particularly in settings (such as schools) where susceptible individuals come into close contact. The incidence of infection shows the same prominent seasonal pattern as for other respiratory diseases. The incidence increases in winter, peaks in spring, and then subsides to extremely low levels in summer and fall.

• #2 Rubella (German Measles) | Texas DSHS

  https://www.dshs.texas.gov/vaccine-preventable-diseases/rubella-german-measles

  Rubella is caused by a virus of the same name, which is in the family togaviridae. […] Rubella is spread from person to person via airborne transmission or droplets shed from the respiratory secretions of infected persons. Rubella may be transmitted by persons with subclinical infection or asymptomatic cases (up to 50% of all rubella virus infections). […] Complications, such as infection of the brain (encephalitis), can arise from rubella. Encephalitis from rubella is very rare but serious. […] For pregnant women, however, rubella can cause serious birth defects (known as CRS, Congenital Rubella Syndrome) in the fetus, including: […] There is at least a 20 percent chance of damage to the fetus if a woman is infected early in her pregnancy. […] Rubella is only moderately contagious. The disease is most contagious when the rash first appears, but virus may be shed from 7 days before rash to 57 days or more after rash onset.

• #3 Rubella – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubella

  Rubella occurs worldwide. The virus tends to peak during the spring in countries with temperate climates. Before the vaccine against rubella was introduced in 1969, widespread outbreaks usually occurred every 6-9 years in the United States and 3-5 years in Europe, mostly affecting children in the 5-9 year old age group. Since the introduction of vaccine, occurrences have become rare in those countries with high uptake rates. […] Vaccination has interrupted the transmission of rubella in the Americas: no endemic case has been observed since February 2009. Vaccination is still strongly recommended as the virus could be reintroduced from other continents should vaccination rates in the Americas drop. During the epidemic in the US between 1962 and 1965, rubella virus infections during pregnancy were estimated to have caused 30,000 stillbirths and 20,000 children to be born impaired or disabled as a result of CRS. Universal immunisation producing a high level of herd immunity is important in the control of epidemics of rubella.

• #4 Rubella (German measles) revisited | HKMJ

  https://www.hkmj.org/abstracts/v25n2/134.htm

  Universal childhood immunisation and vaccination of all susceptible patients with rubella vaccine to decrease circulation of the virus are cornerstones to prevention of rubella and, more importantly, congenital rubella syndrome. […] Epidemiology Humans are the only known reservoir for rubella infection. […] Postnatal rubella is transmitted primarily by inhalation of virus-laden airborne droplets or direct contact with infected nasopharyngeal secretions. […] Peak infection rates tend to occur in late winter and early spring. […] Prior to the introduction of the rubella vaccine, rubella was endemic worldwide, epidemics occurred at 6- to 9-year intervals, and major pandemics occurred every 10 to 30 years. […] Since the introduction of the live attenuated rubella vaccine in 1969, rubella has become increasingly rare in North America and many developed countries.

• #5 Rubella (German Measles): Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17798-rubella

  Rubella is a contagious illness you get from the RuV virus. It can cause serious illness in newborns of women who had rubella while pregnant. […] The U.S. eliminated rubella (meaning its no longer continuously spread) in 2004, but you can still get rubella in other parts of the world. […] There are about 26,000 cases of rubella worldwide each year. Its most common in Asia, Africa and the Middle East. There are only a few cases diagnosed each year in the U.S. since the diseases elimination. […] The most common and serious complications of rubella are pregnancy loss (miscarriage) and congenital rubella syndrome (CRS). CRS happens in babies born to someone who had rubella while pregnant. […] Before a vaccine was widely available, most people in the U.S. got rubella. The last major rubella epidemic in the U.S. was from 1964-1965. In those years, 12.5 million people got rubella, 20,000 babies were born with CRS, 11,000 miscarriages from rubella were reported and 2,100 newborns died. […] After vaccines for rubella went into widespread use (starting in 1969), cases of rubella drastically dropped in the U.S. There are now only a few cases each year. In recent years, all cases of rubella diagnosed in the U.S. were acquired when traveling or living overseas.

• #6 Pediatric Rubella: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/968523-overview

  During the 1962-1965 worldwide epidemic, an estimated 12.5 million rubella cases occurred in the United States, resulting in 20,000 cases of congenital rubella syndrome. […] Since the licensing of the live attenuated rubella vaccine in the United States in 1969, a substantial increase has been noted in the vaccination coverage among school-aged children and the population immunity. In 2004, the estimated vaccination coverage among school-aged children was about 95%, and the population immunity was about 91%. […] As a result of the progress made in vaccination against rubella, a remarkable drop has occurred in the number of cases of rubella and congenital rubella syndrome. […] An independent panel convened by the CDC in 2004 to assess progress towards elimination of rubella and congenital rubella syndrome in the United States concluded unanimously that rubella is no longer endemic in the United States.

• #7 Rubella – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/rubella

  Rubella is a vaccine-preventable viral illness that most often presents as a self-limiting illness in children but can have devastating effects on the fetus when acquired during pregnancy. […] The epidemiology, microbiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, clinical approach, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of rubella will be reviewed here. […] In 2004, rubella was officially declared eliminated from the United States; in 2015, rubella was eliminated from the Americas. […] The region of the Americas has sustained elimination of rubella and congenital rubella syndrome. […] By the end of 2021, 173 of 195 countries (89 percent) had introduced rubella-containing vaccines (RCV) into national childhood immunization programs, and 93 (48 percent) of countries verified eliminating transmission of rubella.

• #8 Rubella – PAHO/WHO | Pan American Health Organization

  https://www.paho.org/en/topics/rubella

  After a process of verification, the Americas were declared free of endemic rubella and congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) in 2015. […] To maintain the elimination of rubella/CRS, PAHO/WHO and the International Expert Committee for Measles and Rubella Elimination recommend that all countries in the Americas strengthen surveillance and maintain high population immunity through vaccination. […] Rubella continues to circulate in other regions of the world, and countries in the Americas report sporadic imported cases.

• #9

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/rubella

  Rubella is a contagious viral infection transmitted by airborne droplets that occurs most often in children and young adults. […] In 2022, there were an estimated 17 865 cases of rubella in 78 countries. […] There were an estimated 17 865 cases of rubella in 78 countries in 2022, despite the availability of a safe and cost-effective vaccine. […] The highest risk of CRS is in countries where women of childbearing age do not have immunity to the disease (either through vaccination or from having had rubella). […] WHO recommends that all countries that have not yet introduced rubella vaccine should consider doing so using existing, well-established measles immunization programmes. […] The number of countries using rubella vaccines in their national programme continues to steadily increase. […] Reported rubella cases declined 97%, from 670 894 cases in 102 countries in 2000 to 17 865 cases in 78 countries in 2022.

• #10 Rubella (German Measles): Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17798-rubella

  Rubella is a contagious illness you get from the RuV virus. It can cause serious illness in newborns of women who had rubella while pregnant. […] The U.S. eliminated rubella (meaning its no longer continuously spread) in 2004, but you can still get rubella in other parts of the world. […] There are about 26,000 cases of rubella worldwide each year. Its most common in Asia, Africa and the Middle East. There are only a few cases diagnosed each year in the U.S. since the diseases elimination. […] The most common and serious complications of rubella are pregnancy loss (miscarriage) and congenital rubella syndrome (CRS). CRS happens in babies born to someone who had rubella while pregnant. […] Before a vaccine was widely available, most people in the U.S. got rubella. The last major rubella epidemic in the U.S. was from 1964-1965. In those years, 12.5 million people got rubella, 20,000 babies were born with CRS, 11,000 miscarriages from rubella were reported and 2,100 newborns died. […] After vaccines for rubella went into widespread use (starting in 1969), cases of rubella drastically dropped in the U.S. There are now only a few cases each year. In recent years, all cases of rubella diagnosed in the U.S. were acquired when traveling or living overseas.

• #11 Rubella (German Measles) Vaccination – Immunize India

  https://immunizeindia.org/content/rubella-german-measles-vaccination/

  WHO estimates that 100,000 cases of CRS occur in developing countries alone. Comprehensive evidence about the true burden of CRS in India is not available. However, Ministry of Health estimates that around 30,000 abnormal children are being born annually because of Rubella. Many experts, however, say the accurate figure would be around 200,000. The 2008 estimates suggest that the highest CRS burden is in South East Asia (approximately 48%), India being a major contributor, and Africa (approximately 38%). Other developing countries have incidence rates of 0.6-4.1 per 1000 live births. In 2012 and 2013 (till 31st May) India reported 28 and 48 rubella outbreaks. Cost benefit studies in countries with routine immunization coverage 80% show that benefits of rubella vaccine outweigh the cost particularly when combined with measles vaccination.

• #12 Immunizations: Rubella (German Measles) | Wisconsin Department of Health Services

  https://www.dhs.wisconsin.gov/immunization/rubella.htm

  Rubella is a communicable disease. Health care providers must report cases of rubella. […] Rubella is a Wisconsin Disease Surveillance Category I disease. […] Report it right away to the patients local public health department. Call as soon as you identify a confirmed or suspected case. The health department then notifies the state epidemiologist. […] Within 24 hours, submit a case report through one of the following: Wisconsin Electronic Disease Surveillance System (WEDSS) […] Read more about required disease reporting in Wisconsin.

• #13 Rubella (German measles) | Australian Government Department of Health and Aged Care

  https://www.health.gov.au/diseases/rubella-german-measles

  Rubella is a nationally notifiable disease. […] We monitor cases through the National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System (NNDSS).

• #14 Factsheet – Health Protection Surveillance Centre

  https://www.hpsc.ie/a-z/vaccinepreventable/rubella/factsheet/

  Rubella was first described in German medical literature in 1814. […] The most serious consequences of rubella infection occur when a pregnant woman is infected in the early stages of pregnancy. […] Infection with rubella in early pregnancy can cause serious birth defects in the developing foetus, may lead to foetal death, spontaneous abortion, or premature delivery. […] The risk of congenital rubella syndrome developing when infection occurs during the first trimester is about 85% and during the second trimester about 10%-20%. […] The European Office of the World Health Organization has set a strategy to eliminate congenital rubella in Europe. […] Rubella, both acute infection in children and adults as well as congenital rubella infection is notifiable.

• #15 Disease factsheet about rubella

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/rubella/factsheet

  Routine immunisation has dramatically changed the epidemiology of rubella in Europe. […] Rubella is a notifiable disease (see the EU rubella case definition for the purpose of epidemiological surveillance). […] ECDC publishes monthly surveillance data on measles and rubella submitted by the 30 EU/EEA countries. […] ECDC also monitors European and worldwide rubella outbreaks through epidemic intelligence and reports on them on a monthly basis in the Communicable Disease Threat Reports (CDTR).

• #16 Disease factsheet about rubella

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/rubella/factsheet

  Rubella (German measles) is a worldwide, mild, exanthematous and highly infectious viral disease of children in unvaccinated populations. […] Immunisation with the safe and highly effective attenuated live vaccine started in Europe in 1970s and has had a profound impact on the epidemiology of rubella and CRS. […] The elimination of measles and rubella as well as the prevention of congenital rubella syndrome forms part of a global elimination goal. […] Progress towards elimination is being monitored on an annual basis through a European Regional Verification Commission for Measles and Rubella Elimination (RVC) established in 2011. […] Elimination of rubella requires sustained overall immunisation coverage of more than 95% and maintenance of low levels of susceptibility across all subgroups of a population.

• #17 RKI – National Verification Committee for Measles and Rubella Elimination in Germany

  https://www.rki.de/EN/Topics/Infectious-diseases/Immunisation/Elimination-programmes/National-Verification-Committee-for-Measles-and-Rubella-Elimination/national-verification-committee-for-measles-and-rubella-elimination-in-germany-node.html

  Member States of the WHO European Region share the goal of eliminating endemic transmission of measles and rubella viruses, which will also result in the elimination of congenital rubella syndrome. The German Action Plan for the Elimination of Measles and Rubella 20152020, which was released by the federal states and the German Federal Ministry of Health (BMG) in 2015, stipulates targets to attain these elimination goals. […] According to the WHO European Region guidance a National Verification Committee (NVC) should be established in every country to conduct annual reviews of progress towards or achievement or maintenance of elimination in a standardized way and provide the necessary documentation in support of their conclusion. […] In December 2012, the German Federal Ministry of Health (BMG) established the German NVC for measles and rubella elimination.

• #18 Clinical Overview of Rubella | Rubella | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/rubella/hcp/clinical-overview/index.html

  Rubella was declared eliminated (the absence of endemic transmission for 12 months or more) from the United States in 2004. […] However, it is still commonly transmitted in many parts of the world. As a result, less than 10 cases (primarily import-related) have been reported annually in the United States since elimination was declared. […] Because rubella continues to circulate in other parts of the world, an estimated 100,000 infants are born with congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) annually worldwide. […] Clinical diagnosis of rubella virus is unreliable and should not be considered in assessing immune status. Up to half of all infections may be subclinical or inapparent. […] Many rubella infections are not recognized because the rash resembles many other rash illnesses. […] Promptly isolate people suspected to have rubella and report them to the local health department.

• #19 Rubella (German Measles) Symptoms, Vaccine & Treatment | Ada

  https://ada.com/conditions/rubella/

  Rubella, also known as German measles, is a contagious virus that usually affects children, but can be caught by adults. […] Vaccination programs have had success in reducing the number of cases of rubella worldwide. According to The World Health Organization, several countries have eradicated rubella and congenital rubella syndrome altogether because of their vaccination programs. […] Rubella was eliminated in the United States in 2004. Now, approximately 10 cases of rubella are reported in the U.S. every year. These rare cases are caused by people coming into contact with the virus while traveling abroad. […] The main complication of rubella is that birth defects can occur when a pregnant person without immunity comes into contact with the virus. This is called congenital rubella syndrome (CRS).

• #20 Rubella – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/rubella/print

  Despite this progress, rubella cases continue to occur, with 10,194 cases occurring globally in 2020. […] Estimated coverage of infant rubella vaccine worldwide was 71 percent in 2023. […] Based on World Health Organization (WHO) estimates, approximately 100,000 infants are born annually with congenital rubella syndrome. […] Intermittent outbreaks of rubella may still occur in countries that have a national immunization program with good coverage if there is a substantial proportion of the population that remains susceptible. […] Rubella vaccination based on sex can lead to susceptible males who acquire infection later in life and drive outbreaks of rubella. […] Although the number of cases remained low from 2000 until 2010, the incidence of rubella subsequently increased rapidly, such that over 8500 cases were reported in the first five months of 2013. […] From 2012 to 2014, Japan reported over 12,000 cases with 45 cases of congenital rubella syndrome. […] A surge in rubella cases occurred again in 2018, with most cases reported in the Kanto region.

• #21 Rubella (German measles) revisited | HKMJ

  https://www.hkmj.org/abstracts/v25n2/134.htm

  The recent outbreak of rubella in Japan can be primarily attributed to susceptible men who were not included in the initial rubella immunisation schedule as the initial immunisation strategy provided rubella vaccine only to adolescent girls. […] In 2018, there were 2186 cases of rubella in Japan as of 29 November with more than 70% of cases reported in Tokyo and its surrounding prefectures. […] In children, rubella affects both sexes equally whereas in adults, rubella affects more women than men. […] Risk factors for rubella include partially vaccinated or unvaccinated individuals, travelling to endemic areas, exposure to household members with rubella, and immunodeficiency.

• #22 Measles and Rubella Monthly Surveillance Report (Aug 2024)

  https://www.nicd.ac.za/measles-and-rubella-monthly-surveillance-report-aug-2024/

  From epidemiological week 1 to week 33 of 2024, 178 laboratory-confirmed cases of measles and 2059 cases of rubella were reported in South Africa. […] Rubella virus infections increased in the Gauteng province in West Rand, City of Johannesburg and Ekurhuleni districts and continued to circulate in Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal in Uthugela district, Northern Cape in Francis Baart and circulation remain sustained in Western Cape province. […] From week 1 to week 33 of 2024, 2059 laboratory-confirmed rubella cases have been reported in South Africa. The Western Cape reported 763 cases, the Eastern Cape reported 513 cases, while the Northern Cape and Gauteng reported 214 and 371 cases, respectively. […] Rubella circulation had increased in Eastern Cape, Gauteng, Kwazulu-Natal and Northern Cape provinces in recent epidemiological weeks, with sustained circulation in Western Cape, Northern Cape and Eastern Cape provinces.

• #23 Disease factsheet about rubella

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/rubella/factsheet

  Routine immunisation has dramatically changed the epidemiology of rubella in Europe. […] Rubella is a notifiable disease (see the EU rubella case definition for the purpose of epidemiological surveillance). […] ECDC publishes monthly surveillance data on measles and rubella submitted by the 30 EU/EEA countries. […] ECDC also monitors European and worldwide rubella outbreaks through epidemic intelligence and reports on them on a monthly basis in the Communicable Disease Threat Reports (CDTR).

• #24 Immunizations: Rubella (German Measles) | Wisconsin Department of Health Services

  https://www.dhs.wisconsin.gov/immunization/rubella.htm

  Rubella is a communicable disease. Health care providers must report cases of rubella. […] Rubella is a Wisconsin Disease Surveillance Category I disease. […] Report it right away to the patients local public health department. Call as soon as you identify a confirmed or suspected case. The health department then notifies the state epidemiologist. […] Within 24 hours, submit a case report through one of the following: Wisconsin Electronic Disease Surveillance System (WEDSS) […] Read more about required disease reporting in Wisconsin.

• #25 Rubella – German Measles | Choose the Right Test

  https://arupconsult.com/content/rubella-virus

  Rubella (also known as German measles) is a viral illness that primarily affects young children. Although it was declared eliminated in the United States in 2004, infection is still possible due to international travel, and unvaccinated individuals are at risk of contracting the disease. […] According to the CDC, testing for rubella is indicated when exposure is suspected in the following populations: Pregnant individuals, regardless of whether they present with symptoms; Newborns and infants (i.e., exposed in utero); Unvaccinated, symptomatic adults and children, especially after international travel. […] Laboratory testing is especially important in pregnant individuals and newborns due to the potential health consequences of infection in utero. […] Currently, universal screening for rubella in pregnant individuals is not recommended. In regions where rubella has been eliminated, false-positive serologic results are more likely to occur due to cross-reactivity with more common pathogens.

• #26 Rubella / German Measles 2025 Case Definition | CDC

  https://ndc.services.cdc.gov/case-definitions/rubella-2/

  Acquired rubella, also known as German measles, is an acute viral illness that may be characterized by low-grade fever and mild maculopapular erythematous rash; about 2550% of rubella infections are asymptomatic. Transmission occurs primarily via droplets or direct contact with nasal secretions of infected persons. The average incubation period of rubella virus is 17 days, with a range of 12 to 23 days. Persons with rubella are most infectious when rash is erupting, but they can shed virus from 7 days before to 7 days after rash onset. […] Epidemiologic Linkage: Contact with a laboratory-confirmed rubella or congenital rubella case during the cases likely infectious period, OR Close contact (e.g., household contact) with a laboratory-confirmed rubella or congenital rubella case during the cases likely infectious period, OR International travel in the 23 days prior to rash onset, OR Gave birth to an infant with confirmed congenital rubella. […] Laboratory-confirmed case is a case that meets confirmatory laboratory evidence.

• #27 Rubella / German Measles 2025 Case Definition | CDC

  https://ndc.services.cdc.gov/case-definitions/rubella-2/

  Acquired rubella, also known as German measles, is an acute viral illness that may be characterized by low-grade fever and mild maculopapular erythematous rash; about 2550% of rubella infections are asymptomatic. Transmission occurs primarily via droplets or direct contact with nasal secretions of infected persons. The average incubation period of rubella virus is 17 days, with a range of 12 to 23 days. Persons with rubella are most infectious when rash is erupting, but they can shed virus from 7 days before to 7 days after rash onset. […] Epidemiologic Linkage: Contact with a laboratory-confirmed rubella or congenital rubella case during the cases likely infectious period, OR Close contact (e.g., household contact) with a laboratory-confirmed rubella or congenital rubella case during the cases likely infectious period, OR International travel in the 23 days prior to rash onset, OR Gave birth to an infant with confirmed congenital rubella. […] Laboratory-confirmed case is a case that meets confirmatory laboratory evidence.

• #28 Rubella (German measles) revisited | HKMJ

  https://www.hkmj.org/abstracts/v25n2/134.htm

  Rubella is generally a mild and self-limited disease in children. […] During pregnancy, rubella can have potentially devastating effects on the developing fetus. […] Postnatal rubella is transmitted primarily by inhalation of virus-laden airborne droplets or direct contact with infected nasopharyngeal secretions. […] Maternal rubella, especially during early pregnancy, may lead to miscarriage, intrauterine fetal death, premature labour, intrauterine growth retardation, and congenital rubella syndrome. […] Laboratory confirmation of rubella virus infection can be based on a positive serological test for rubella-specific immunoglobulin M antibody; a four-fold or greater increase in rubella-specific immunoglobulin G titres between acute and convalescent sera; or detection of rubella virus RNA by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction.

• #29 Rubella – German Measles | Choose the Right Test

  https://arupconsult.com/content/rubella-virus

  Pregnant individuals exposed to rubella should be tested, regardless of whether they present with symptoms. […] Laboratory testing for rubella may be appropriate in unvaccinated, symptomatic adults and children, especially after recent international travel or exposure to a person with symptoms suggestive of rubella. […] In cases of suspected rubella, infection can be identified with serology and NAAT. […] Following diagnosis, molecular typing is recommended for epidemiologic purposes. […] Following diagnosis, molecular typing is recommended for epidemiologic purposes.

• #30 Rubella – German Measles | Choose the Right Test

  https://arupconsult.com/content/rubella-virus

  Rubella (also known as German measles) is a viral illness that primarily affects young children. Although it was declared eliminated in the United States in 2004, infection is still possible due to international travel, and unvaccinated individuals are at risk of contracting the disease. […] According to the CDC, testing for rubella is indicated when exposure is suspected in the following populations: Pregnant individuals, regardless of whether they present with symptoms; Newborns and infants (i.e., exposed in utero); Unvaccinated, symptomatic adults and children, especially after international travel. […] Laboratory testing is especially important in pregnant individuals and newborns due to the potential health consequences of infection in utero. […] Currently, universal screening for rubella in pregnant individuals is not recommended. In regions where rubella has been eliminated, false-positive serologic results are more likely to occur due to cross-reactivity with more common pathogens.

• #31 Rubella (German Measles) – MN Dept. of Health

  https://www.health.state.mn.us/diseases/rubella/index.html

  Rubella (German measles) is a rash illness caused by a virus. […] The rubella vaccine is the best protection against the disease. […] Information on rubella for health professionals, including clinical features and epidemiology, how to report cases, vaccine information, and official recommendations. […] Incidence of rubella disease in Minnesota.

• #32 Disease factsheet about rubella

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/rubella/factsheet

  Routine immunisation has dramatically changed the epidemiology of rubella in Europe. […] Rubella is a notifiable disease (see the EU rubella case definition for the purpose of epidemiological surveillance). […] ECDC publishes monthly surveillance data on measles and rubella submitted by the 30 EU/EEA countries. […] ECDC also monitors European and worldwide rubella outbreaks through epidemic intelligence and reports on them on a monthly basis in the Communicable Disease Threat Reports (CDTR).

• #33 Rubella surveillance and epidemiology – Public Health Wales

  https://phw.nhs.wales/topics/immunisation-and-vaccines/immunisation-surveillance/rubella-surveillance-and-epidemiology/

  Rubella is one of a number of notifiable diseases. Doctors in Wales have a statutory duty to notify a 'Proper Officer’ of the Local Authority of suspected cases of rubella based on clinical symptoms, usually before diagnosis has been confirmed by laboratory testing. […] Oral fluid samples are requested from all patients in Wales (and England) with suspected rubella if confirmation hasn’t been obtained by other means. Samples are sent to UKHSA in Colindale for confirmation of rubella infection. […] Rubella can be prevented by a highly effective and safe vaccine. This is part of the measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) immunisation with a first dose at around 13 months and a second dose (booster) around three and a half years. Young adults and teenagers who have missed out on MMR vaccination as children are also encouraged to get immunised.

• #34 Epidemiological surveillance of measles and Germán measles (rubella) within the context of the elimination plan

  http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S0124-00642012000100001&lng=es&nrm=is&tlng=en

  Results 28,732 suspicious cases were notified during the study period (66.15 % concerned measles and 33.8 % German measles). […] Confirmed measles cases amounted to 495 (1995-2002) and German measles to 946 (for the whole period). […] Conclusions According to the information compiled regarding epidemiological surveillance, Colombia complied with 4 of the 7 proposed indicators for quality evaluation; these showed active surveillance having suitable indicator performance regarding laboratory and notification rate. They demonstrated interrupted endemic circulation of measles and German measles in Colombia. […] Palabras clave : Epidemiology surveillance; rubella; measles; evaluation.

• #35 Epidemiological surveillance of measles and Germán measles (rubella) within the context of the elimination plan

  http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S0124-00642012000100001&lng=es&nrm=is&tlng=en

  Results 28,732 suspicious cases were notified during the study period (66.15 % concerned measles and 33.8 % German measles). […] Confirmed measles cases amounted to 495 (1995-2002) and German measles to 946 (for the whole period). […] Conclusions According to the information compiled regarding epidemiological surveillance, Colombia complied with 4 of the 7 proposed indicators for quality evaluation; these showed active surveillance having suitable indicator performance regarding laboratory and notification rate. They demonstrated interrupted endemic circulation of measles and German measles in Colombia. […] Palabras clave : Epidemiology surveillance; rubella; measles; evaluation.

• #36 Rubella / German Measles 2025 Case Definition | CDC

  https://ndc.services.cdc.gov/case-definitions/rubella-2/

  Acquired rubella, also known as German measles, is an acute viral illness that may be characterized by low-grade fever and mild maculopapular erythematous rash; about 2550% of rubella infections are asymptomatic. Transmission occurs primarily via droplets or direct contact with nasal secretions of infected persons. The average incubation period of rubella virus is 17 days, with a range of 12 to 23 days. Persons with rubella are most infectious when rash is erupting, but they can shed virus from 7 days before to 7 days after rash onset. […] Epidemiologic Linkage: Contact with a laboratory-confirmed rubella or congenital rubella case during the cases likely infectious period, OR Close contact (e.g., household contact) with a laboratory-confirmed rubella or congenital rubella case during the cases likely infectious period, OR International travel in the 23 days prior to rash onset, OR Gave birth to an infant with confirmed congenital rubella. […] Laboratory-confirmed case is a case that meets confirmatory laboratory evidence.

• #37 Rubella (German measles) – Epidemiology

  https://www.vdh.virginia.gov/epidemiology/epidemiology-fact-sheets/rubella-german-measles/

  Rubella occurs more often in persons who have never been vaccinated against rubella. […] Although eliminated in the United States, rubella is still common in other countries. […] The virus can be brought into the U.S. at any time by visitors who have rubella. […] Also, unvaccinated U.S. residents traveling abroad can become infected and unknowingly bring the disease back home with them. […] Persons with rubella are most infectious when the rash is erupting, but they can shed virus from seven days before to seven days after rash onset. […] Rubella may be transmitted by persons with mild or no symptoms (up to 50% of all rubella virus infections). […] Immunization of as many individuals as possible is the best way to prevent rubella cases and outbreaks. […] One dose of rubella vaccine is recommended for all children. […] Rubella vaccine is included in the MMR vaccine, a combination vaccine that also protects against measles and mumps. […] Special emphasis should be placed on ensuring immunity of females of child bearing age and healthcare providers.

• #38 Rubella / German Measles 2025 Case Definition | CDC

  https://ndc.services.cdc.gov/case-definitions/rubella-2/

  Acquired rubella, also known as German measles, is an acute viral illness that may be characterized by low-grade fever and mild maculopapular erythematous rash; about 2550% of rubella infections are asymptomatic. Transmission occurs primarily via droplets or direct contact with nasal secretions of infected persons. The average incubation period of rubella virus is 17 days, with a range of 12 to 23 days. Persons with rubella are most infectious when rash is erupting, but they can shed virus from 7 days before to 7 days after rash onset. […] Epidemiologic Linkage: Contact with a laboratory-confirmed rubella or congenital rubella case during the cases likely infectious period, OR Close contact (e.g., household contact) with a laboratory-confirmed rubella or congenital rubella case during the cases likely infectious period, OR International travel in the 23 days prior to rash onset, OR Gave birth to an infant with confirmed congenital rubella. […] Laboratory-confirmed case is a case that meets confirmatory laboratory evidence.

• #39 Rubella (German measles)

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/rubella-german-measles

  Rubella spreads through direct contact or in respiratory droplets that spread through the air. The likelihood of transmission ranges from 10% to 30%, but this can vary depending on the immunisation rate within a population. […] Surveillance and monitoring […] Monthly measles and rubella monitoring report – March 2025 […] Surveillance and monitoring […] Archived monthly measles and rubella reports […] Surveillance report […] Monthly measles and rubella monitoring report – April 2020 […] Surveillance and monitoring […] Communicable disease threats report, 8-14 March 2020, week 11 […] Surveillance report […] Monthly measles and rubella monitoring report, February 2020 […] Number of rubella cases, January 2024 […] Notification rate of rubella per million population by country, January 2023 – December 2023 […] Number of rubella cases by country, December 2023 […] Notification rate of rubella per million population by country, December 2022 – November 2023.

• #40 Rubella (German measles) – Epidemiology

  https://www.vdh.virginia.gov/epidemiology/epidemiology-fact-sheets/rubella-german-measles/

  Rubella occurs more often in persons who have never been vaccinated against rubella. […] Although eliminated in the United States, rubella is still common in other countries. […] The virus can be brought into the U.S. at any time by visitors who have rubella. […] Also, unvaccinated U.S. residents traveling abroad can become infected and unknowingly bring the disease back home with them. […] Persons with rubella are most infectious when the rash is erupting, but they can shed virus from seven days before to seven days after rash onset. […] Rubella may be transmitted by persons with mild or no symptoms (up to 50% of all rubella virus infections). […] Immunization of as many individuals as possible is the best way to prevent rubella cases and outbreaks. […] One dose of rubella vaccine is recommended for all children. […] Rubella vaccine is included in the MMR vaccine, a combination vaccine that also protects against measles and mumps. […] Special emphasis should be placed on ensuring immunity of females of child bearing age and healthcare providers.

• #41 Rubella (German Measles) | Texas DSHS

  https://www.dshs.texas.gov/vaccine-preventable-diseases/rubella-german-measles

  Rubella is caused by a virus of the same name, which is in the family togaviridae. […] Rubella is spread from person to person via airborne transmission or droplets shed from the respiratory secretions of infected persons. Rubella may be transmitted by persons with subclinical infection or asymptomatic cases (up to 50% of all rubella virus infections). […] Complications, such as infection of the brain (encephalitis), can arise from rubella. Encephalitis from rubella is very rare but serious. […] For pregnant women, however, rubella can cause serious birth defects (known as CRS, Congenital Rubella Syndrome) in the fetus, including: […] There is at least a 20 percent chance of damage to the fetus if a woman is infected early in her pregnancy. […] Rubella is only moderately contagious. The disease is most contagious when the rash first appears, but virus may be shed from 7 days before rash to 57 days or more after rash onset.

• #42 Rubella – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559040/

  Rubella affects both sexes equally in children, whereas in adults, rubella affects more women than men. […] Risk factors for rubella include under-vaccinated or unvaccinated individuals, traveling to endemic areas, exposure to household members with rubella, and immunodeficiency. […] In countries where rubella is endemic, it is estimated to occur at a rate of 1.30/100,000 in the general population. […] Suspected cases of rubella should be notified immediately to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). […] Once the diagnosis of rubella is confirmed, the patient should be promptly isolated for at least 7 days after onset of the rash.

• #43 Rubella – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559040/

  Rubella affects both sexes equally in children, whereas in adults, rubella affects more women than men. […] Risk factors for rubella include under-vaccinated or unvaccinated individuals, traveling to endemic areas, exposure to household members with rubella, and immunodeficiency. […] In countries where rubella is endemic, it is estimated to occur at a rate of 1.30/100,000 in the general population. […] Suspected cases of rubella should be notified immediately to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). […] Once the diagnosis of rubella is confirmed, the patient should be promptly isolated for at least 7 days after onset of the rash.

• #44

  https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/factsheets/Pages/rubella-german-measles.aspx

  Rubella is a contagious disease caused by a virus. […] Rubella, also known as German measles, is an infectious viral disease that causes a skin rash, sore throat, joint pain and other symptoms. […] Rubella can spread from an infected person by droplets from the nose or mouth or from mother to unborn baby. […] Symptoms start usually between 14 to 21 days after exposure. […] The following groups are most at risk if they have not been vaccinated or previously infected (as they are not immune): Pregnant women and their unborn babies, Childcare and healthcare workers, Travellers to regions with low rubella vaccination rates. […] A pregnant woman can spread rubella to her unborn baby. […] Congenital rubella syndrome happens to 90 per cent of babies born to women who are infected with rubella during the first ten weeks of their pregnancy.

• #45 Rubella – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubella

  In the UK, there remains a large population of men susceptible to rubella who have not been vaccinated. Outbreaks of rubella occurred amongst many young men in the UK in 1993 and in 1996 the infection was transmitted to pregnant women, many of whom were immigrants and were susceptible. Outbreaks still arise, usually in developing countries where the vaccine is not as accessible. The complications encountered in pregnancy from rubella infection (miscarriage, fetal death, congenital rubella syndrome) are more common in Africa and Southeast Asia at a rate of 121 per 100,000 live births compared to 2 per 100,000 live births in the Americas and Europe. […] In Japan, 15,000 cases of rubella and 43 cases of congenital rubella syndrome were reported to the National Epidemiological Surveillance of Infectious Diseases between October 15, 2012, and March 2, 2014, during the 2012-13 rubella outbreak in Japan. They mainly occurred in men aged 31-51 and young adults aged 24-34.

• #46 Rubella (German measles) – Epidemiology

  https://www.vdh.virginia.gov/epidemiology/epidemiology-fact-sheets/rubella-german-measles/

  Rubella occurs more often in persons who have never been vaccinated against rubella. […] Although eliminated in the United States, rubella is still common in other countries. […] The virus can be brought into the U.S. at any time by visitors who have rubella. […] Also, unvaccinated U.S. residents traveling abroad can become infected and unknowingly bring the disease back home with them. […] Persons with rubella are most infectious when the rash is erupting, but they can shed virus from seven days before to seven days after rash onset. […] Rubella may be transmitted by persons with mild or no symptoms (up to 50% of all rubella virus infections). […] Immunization of as many individuals as possible is the best way to prevent rubella cases and outbreaks. […] One dose of rubella vaccine is recommended for all children. […] Rubella vaccine is included in the MMR vaccine, a combination vaccine that also protects against measles and mumps. […] Special emphasis should be placed on ensuring immunity of females of child bearing age and healthcare providers.

• #47 Rubella (German Measles) | Texas DSHS

  https://www.dshs.texas.gov/vaccine-preventable-diseases/rubella-german-measles

  There is no treatment for rubella, however it can be prevented by the measles mumps rubella (MMR) vaccine. […] According to the Texas Administrative Code (TAC), specifically Rule 97.7 for schools and Rule 746.3603 for childcare, children in school and childcare settings shall be excluded for seven days after onset of rash. In an outbreak, unvaccinated children and pregnant women should be excluded for at least three weeks after the onset of the last rash. […] In 2015, two cases of rubella were reported in Texas, both imported from other countries. In 2017 there was one case of rubella indigenous to Texas. In 2018 there were two cases of rubella, both imported from other countries. Prior to 2015, Texas had not had any reported cases of rubella since 2004 and in 2019, Texas resumed its zero case status.

• #48 Rubella – PAHO/WHO | Pan American Health Organization

  https://www.paho.org/en/topics/rubella

  After a process of verification, the Americas were declared free of endemic rubella and congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) in 2015. […] To maintain the elimination of rubella/CRS, PAHO/WHO and the International Expert Committee for Measles and Rubella Elimination recommend that all countries in the Americas strengthen surveillance and maintain high population immunity through vaccination. […] Rubella continues to circulate in other regions of the world, and countries in the Americas report sporadic imported cases.

• #49

  https://dph.illinois.gov/topics-services/diseases-and-conditions/diseases-a-z-list/rubella.html

  Rubella and congenital rubella syndrome, a condition that affects newborn infants when the mother transfers rubella to the baby, became nationally reportable diseases in 1966. […] Following vaccine licensure in 1969, no further large epidemics have occurred, and the number of U.S. cases has dropped annually from 58 per 100,000 in the pre-vaccine era to 0.5 per 100,000 by 1983. […] The decrease in rubella cases has paralleled increased efforts to vaccinate susceptible adolescents and young adults, especially women. […] Outbreaks continue to occur among groups of susceptible persons who congregate in locations that increase their exposure, such as workplaces, and among persons with religious and philosophic exemption to vaccination. […] In fact, in 1996, two-thirds of reported cases were among Hispanics.

• #50 Rubella – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubella

  In the UK, there remains a large population of men susceptible to rubella who have not been vaccinated. Outbreaks of rubella occurred amongst many young men in the UK in 1993 and in 1996 the infection was transmitted to pregnant women, many of whom were immigrants and were susceptible. Outbreaks still arise, usually in developing countries where the vaccine is not as accessible. The complications encountered in pregnancy from rubella infection (miscarriage, fetal death, congenital rubella syndrome) are more common in Africa and Southeast Asia at a rate of 121 per 100,000 live births compared to 2 per 100,000 live births in the Americas and Europe. […] In Japan, 15,000 cases of rubella and 43 cases of congenital rubella syndrome were reported to the National Epidemiological Surveillance of Infectious Diseases between October 15, 2012, and March 2, 2014, during the 2012-13 rubella outbreak in Japan. They mainly occurred in men aged 31-51 and young adults aged 24-34.

• #51

  https://dph.illinois.gov/topics-services/diseases-and-conditions/diseases-a-z-list/rubella.html

  Rubella and congenital rubella syndrome, a condition that affects newborn infants when the mother transfers rubella to the baby, became nationally reportable diseases in 1966. […] Following vaccine licensure in 1969, no further large epidemics have occurred, and the number of U.S. cases has dropped annually from 58 per 100,000 in the pre-vaccine era to 0.5 per 100,000 by 1983. […] The decrease in rubella cases has paralleled increased efforts to vaccinate susceptible adolescents and young adults, especially women. […] Outbreaks continue to occur among groups of susceptible persons who congregate in locations that increase their exposure, such as workplaces, and among persons with religious and philosophic exemption to vaccination. […] In fact, in 1996, two-thirds of reported cases were among Hispanics.

• #52

  https://www.who.int/westernpacific/health-topics/measles

  Rubella is a contagious viral infection that occurs most often in children and young adults. […] Over the past decade, measles and rubella cases have decreased dramatically in the Region, as millions of babies and young children have been reached with measles- and rubella-containing vaccines. […] In 2017, the Regional Committee endorsed the new Regional Strategy and Plan of Action for Measles and Rubella Elimination in the Western Pacific, and urged Member States to eliminate rubella as soon as possible, and for each Member State to set individual target dates for rubella elimination. […] Measles cases went up 255% from 2022 to 2023 in the World Health Organization (WHO) Western Pacific Region, an increase caused by gaps in vaccination coverage and disease surveillance and travel of people from countries experiencing outbreaks.

• #53

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/rubella

  Rubella is a contagious viral infection transmitted by airborne droplets that occurs most often in children and young adults. […] In 2022, there were an estimated 17 865 cases of rubella in 78 countries. […] There were an estimated 17 865 cases of rubella in 78 countries in 2022, despite the availability of a safe and cost-effective vaccine. […] The highest risk of CRS is in countries where women of childbearing age do not have immunity to the disease (either through vaccination or from having had rubella). […] WHO recommends that all countries that have not yet introduced rubella vaccine should consider doing so using existing, well-established measles immunization programmes. […] The number of countries using rubella vaccines in their national programme continues to steadily increase. […] Reported rubella cases declined 97%, from 670 894 cases in 102 countries in 2000 to 17 865 cases in 78 countries in 2022.

• #54 Rubella – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/rubella

  Despite this progress, rubella cases continue to occur, with 10,194 cases occurring globally in 2020. […] Based on World Health Organization (WHO) estimates, approximately 100,000 infants are born annually with congenital rubella syndrome. […] Intermittent outbreaks of rubella may still occur in countries that have a national immunization program with good coverage if there is a substantial proportion of the population that remains susceptible. […] Rubella vaccination based on sex can lead to susceptible males who acquire infection later in life and drive outbreaks of rubella. […] Although the number of cases remained low from 2000 until 2010, the incidence of rubella subsequently increased rapidly, such that over 8500 cases were reported in the first five months of 2013. […] From 2012 to 2014, Japan reported over 12,000 cases with 45 cases of congenital rubella syndrome. […] A surge in rubella cases occurred again in 2018, with most cases reported in the Kanto region.

• #55

  https://www.who.int/westernpacific/health-topics/measles

  Rubella is a contagious viral infection that occurs most often in children and young adults. […] Over the past decade, measles and rubella cases have decreased dramatically in the Region, as millions of babies and young children have been reached with measles- and rubella-containing vaccines. […] In 2017, the Regional Committee endorsed the new Regional Strategy and Plan of Action for Measles and Rubella Elimination in the Western Pacific, and urged Member States to eliminate rubella as soon as possible, and for each Member State to set individual target dates for rubella elimination. […] Measles cases went up 255% from 2022 to 2023 in the World Health Organization (WHO) Western Pacific Region, an increase caused by gaps in vaccination coverage and disease surveillance and travel of people from countries experiencing outbreaks.

• #56 Rubella – PAHO/WHO | Pan American Health Organization

  https://www.paho.org/en/topics/rubella

  Rubella is a contagious viral disease, which occurs most often in children. […] Infection during early pregnancy may cause fetal death or congenital rubella syndrome (CRS), which is characterized by multiple defects, particularly to the brain, heart, eyes and ears. […] Before wide-scale rubella vaccination, an estimated 16,000 to more than 20,000 children were born with CRS each year in Latin America and the Caribbean. […] In April 2015, an international expert committee reviewed epidemiological evidence presented by member countries of the Pan American Health Organization/World Health Organization (PAHO/WHO) and determined that the region had eliminated endemic transmission of rubella and congenital rubella syndrome (CRS). […] The countries of the Region of the Americas established the goal of interrupting endemic measles transmission by the year 2000 and rubella transmission by 2010.

• #57 Rubella – PAHO/WHO | Pan American Health Organization

  https://www.paho.org/en/topics/rubella

  After a process of verification, the Americas were declared free of endemic rubella and congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) in 2015. […] To maintain the elimination of rubella/CRS, PAHO/WHO and the International Expert Committee for Measles and Rubella Elimination recommend that all countries in the Americas strengthen surveillance and maintain high population immunity through vaccination. […] Rubella continues to circulate in other regions of the world, and countries in the Americas report sporadic imported cases.

• #58 Factsheet – Health Protection Surveillance Centre

  https://www.hpsc.ie/a-z/vaccinepreventable/rubella/factsheet/

  Rubella was first described in German medical literature in 1814. […] The most serious consequences of rubella infection occur when a pregnant woman is infected in the early stages of pregnancy. […] Infection with rubella in early pregnancy can cause serious birth defects in the developing foetus, may lead to foetal death, spontaneous abortion, or premature delivery. […] The risk of congenital rubella syndrome developing when infection occurs during the first trimester is about 85% and during the second trimester about 10%-20%. […] The European Office of the World Health Organization has set a strategy to eliminate congenital rubella in Europe. […] Rubella, both acute infection in children and adults as well as congenital rubella infection is notifiable.

• #59 Disease factsheet about rubella

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/rubella/factsheet

  Rubella (German measles) is a worldwide, mild, exanthematous and highly infectious viral disease of children in unvaccinated populations. […] Immunisation with the safe and highly effective attenuated live vaccine started in Europe in 1970s and has had a profound impact on the epidemiology of rubella and CRS. […] The elimination of measles and rubella as well as the prevention of congenital rubella syndrome forms part of a global elimination goal. […] Progress towards elimination is being monitored on an annual basis through a European Regional Verification Commission for Measles and Rubella Elimination (RVC) established in 2011. […] Elimination of rubella requires sustained overall immunisation coverage of more than 95% and maintenance of low levels of susceptibility across all subgroups of a population.

• #60 RKI – National Verification Committee for Measles and Rubella Elimination in Germany

  https://www.rki.de/EN/Topics/Infectious-diseases/Immunisation/Elimination-programmes/National-Verification-Committee-for-Measles-and-Rubella-Elimination/national-verification-committee-for-measles-and-rubella-elimination-in-germany-node.html

  Member States of the WHO European Region share the goal of eliminating endemic transmission of measles and rubella viruses, which will also result in the elimination of congenital rubella syndrome. The German Action Plan for the Elimination of Measles and Rubella 20152020, which was released by the federal states and the German Federal Ministry of Health (BMG) in 2015, stipulates targets to attain these elimination goals. […] According to the WHO European Region guidance a National Verification Committee (NVC) should be established in every country to conduct annual reviews of progress towards or achievement or maintenance of elimination in a standardized way and provide the necessary documentation in support of their conclusion. […] In December 2012, the German Federal Ministry of Health (BMG) established the German NVC for measles and rubella elimination.

• #61 RKI – National Verification Committee for Measles and Rubella Elimination in Germany

  https://www.rki.de/EN/Topics/Infectious-diseases/Immunisation/Elimination-programmes/National-Verification-Committee-for-Measles-and-Rubella-Elimination/national-verification-committee-for-measles-and-rubella-elimination-in-germany-node.html

  The committee meets regularly once a year to analyze and discuss data concerning the epidemiology of measles and rubella in Germany and data on vaccination coverage and the immunity of the German population against measles and rubella. The aim is to assess the progress achieved with regard to elimination goals. […] In 2020, Germany received the rubella elimination status by the WHO European Region.

• #62

  https://www.who.int/westernpacific/health-topics/measles

  Rubella vaccines are available either in monovalent formulation (a vaccine directed at only one pathogen) or more commonly in combinations with other vaccines such as with vaccines against measles (MR), measles and mumps (MMR), or measles, mumps and varicella (MMRV). […] Routine measles and rubella vaccination for children, combined with mass immunization campaigns in countries with low routine coverage, are key public health strategies to eliminate measles and rubella.

• #63 Disease factsheet about rubella

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/rubella/factsheet

  Rubella (German measles) is a worldwide, mild, exanthematous and highly infectious viral disease of children in unvaccinated populations. […] Immunisation with the safe and highly effective attenuated live vaccine started in Europe in 1970s and has had a profound impact on the epidemiology of rubella and CRS. […] The elimination of measles and rubella as well as the prevention of congenital rubella syndrome forms part of a global elimination goal. […] Progress towards elimination is being monitored on an annual basis through a European Regional Verification Commission for Measles and Rubella Elimination (RVC) established in 2011. […] Elimination of rubella requires sustained overall immunisation coverage of more than 95% and maintenance of low levels of susceptibility across all subgroups of a population.

• #64 Rubella (German Measles) – Clinical Tree

  https://clinicalpub.com/rubella-german-measles/

  Unfortunately, global plans to eliminate rubella in 5 of 6 World Health Organization regions by 2020 failed, and about 50% of babies worldwide do not have access to rubella-containing vaccines. […] Rubella outbreaks have continued to occur related to partial vaccination strategies, lack of political commitment, disruption due to war and conflict, and the costs of elimination programs. […] Herd immunity thresholds, which have varied by geographic region, have generally ranged from 70 to 90%, given a basic reproductive rate that is estimated to be 3 to 8 in Western settings but as high as 12 in crowded developing settings.

• #65 Rubella (German measles) – Epidemiology

  https://www.vdh.virginia.gov/epidemiology/epidemiology-fact-sheets/rubella-german-measles/

  Rubella occurs more often in persons who have never been vaccinated against rubella. […] Although eliminated in the United States, rubella is still common in other countries. […] The virus can be brought into the U.S. at any time by visitors who have rubella. […] Also, unvaccinated U.S. residents traveling abroad can become infected and unknowingly bring the disease back home with them. […] Persons with rubella are most infectious when the rash is erupting, but they can shed virus from seven days before to seven days after rash onset. […] Rubella may be transmitted by persons with mild or no symptoms (up to 50% of all rubella virus infections). […] Immunization of as many individuals as possible is the best way to prevent rubella cases and outbreaks. […] One dose of rubella vaccine is recommended for all children. […] Rubella vaccine is included in the MMR vaccine, a combination vaccine that also protects against measles and mumps. […] Special emphasis should be placed on ensuring immunity of females of child bearing age and healthcare providers.

• #66 Rubella (German Measles) – Clinical Tree

  https://clinicalpub.com/rubella-german-measles/

  Unfortunately, global plans to eliminate rubella in 5 of 6 World Health Organization regions by 2020 failed, and about 50% of babies worldwide do not have access to rubella-containing vaccines. […] Rubella outbreaks have continued to occur related to partial vaccination strategies, lack of political commitment, disruption due to war and conflict, and the costs of elimination programs. […] Herd immunity thresholds, which have varied by geographic region, have generally ranged from 70 to 90%, given a basic reproductive rate that is estimated to be 3 to 8 in Western settings but as high as 12 in crowded developing settings.

• #67 Rubella (German Measles) – Clinical Tree

  https://clinicalpub.com/rubella-german-measles/

  Unfortunately, global plans to eliminate rubella in 5 of 6 World Health Organization regions by 2020 failed, and about 50% of babies worldwide do not have access to rubella-containing vaccines. […] Rubella outbreaks have continued to occur related to partial vaccination strategies, lack of political commitment, disruption due to war and conflict, and the costs of elimination programs. […] Herd immunity thresholds, which have varied by geographic region, have generally ranged from 70 to 90%, given a basic reproductive rate that is estimated to be 3 to 8 in Western settings but as high as 12 in crowded developing settings.

• #68 Rubella (German Measles) Vaccination – Immunize India

  https://immunizeindia.org/content/rubella-german-measles-vaccination/

  Rubella is dangerous for a pregnant woman. If she gets rubella, she can have a miscarriage, or her baby could be born with certain birth defects. […] Infection during pregnancy can cause miscarriage, or birth defects like deafness, blindness, intellectual disability, and heart defects. As many as 85 out of 100 babies born to mothers who had rubella in the first 3 months of pregnancy will have a birth defect. Hence the objective of vaccination against rubella is protection against congenital rubella syndrome (CRS). Developed countries have remarkably reduced the burden of CRS by universal immunization against rubella. […] It is essential that when immunization against rubella is instituted more than 80% coverage is achieved. Indiscriminate use of rubella vaccine (monovalent or as a constituent of MMR) in young children through public health measure with sub-optimal coverage of the target population may be counter-productive as it may shift the epidemiology of rubella to the right with more clinical cases occurring in young adults leading to paradoxical increase in cases of CRS. This has been shown to occur using mathematical models. Direct evidence from some Latin American countries and Greece also corroborates these concerns.

• #69 Rubella (German Measles) | Disease Outbreak Control Division

  https://health.hawaii.gov/docd/disease_listing/rubella-german-measles/

  Rubella, sometimes called German measles, is a contagious disease caused by a virus. […] Although eliminated from the United States in 2004, rubella remains a problem in other parts of the world and can still be brought into the U.S. by people who get infected in other countries. […] Rubella spreads when an infected person coughs or sneezes. Also, if a woman is infected with rubella while she is pregnant, she can pass the virus to her developing baby and cause serious harm. […] Hawaii State Law requires persons infected with rubella to stay home from school, work, or other public places for 7 days after appearance of the rash. Contacts of infected persons without documentation of immunity must be excluded from school, workplace and other group settings from the 14th through the 23rd day after exposure. […] Rubella can be prevented with rubella-containing vaccine. One dose of the Measles-Mumps-Rubella (MMR) vaccine is about 97% effective at preventing rubella.

• #70 Factsheet – Health Protection Surveillance Centre

  https://www.hpsc.ie/a-z/vaccinepreventable/rubella/factsheet/

  Rubella was first described in German medical literature in 1814. […] The most serious consequences of rubella infection occur when a pregnant woman is infected in the early stages of pregnancy. […] Infection with rubella in early pregnancy can cause serious birth defects in the developing foetus, may lead to foetal death, spontaneous abortion, or premature delivery. […] The risk of congenital rubella syndrome developing when infection occurs during the first trimester is about 85% and during the second trimester about 10%-20%. […] The European Office of the World Health Organization has set a strategy to eliminate congenital rubella in Europe. […] Rubella, both acute infection in children and adults as well as congenital rubella infection is notifiable.

• #71 Factsheet – Health Protection Surveillance Centre

  https://www.hpsc.ie/a-z/vaccinepreventable/rubella/factsheet/

  Rubella was first described in German medical literature in 1814. […] The most serious consequences of rubella infection occur when a pregnant woman is infected in the early stages of pregnancy. […] Infection with rubella in early pregnancy can cause serious birth defects in the developing foetus, may lead to foetal death, spontaneous abortion, or premature delivery. […] The risk of congenital rubella syndrome developing when infection occurs during the first trimester is about 85% and during the second trimester about 10%-20%. […] The European Office of the World Health Organization has set a strategy to eliminate congenital rubella in Europe. […] Rubella, both acute infection in children and adults as well as congenital rubella infection is notifiable.

• #72 Rubella (German Measles) | Texas DSHS

  https://www.dshs.texas.gov/vaccine-preventable-diseases/rubella-german-measles

  Rubella is caused by a virus of the same name, which is in the family togaviridae. […] Rubella is spread from person to person via airborne transmission or droplets shed from the respiratory secretions of infected persons. Rubella may be transmitted by persons with subclinical infection or asymptomatic cases (up to 50% of all rubella virus infections). […] Complications, such as infection of the brain (encephalitis), can arise from rubella. Encephalitis from rubella is very rare but serious. […] For pregnant women, however, rubella can cause serious birth defects (known as CRS, Congenital Rubella Syndrome) in the fetus, including: […] There is at least a 20 percent chance of damage to the fetus if a woman is infected early in her pregnancy. […] Rubella is only moderately contagious. The disease is most contagious when the rash first appears, but virus may be shed from 7 days before rash to 57 days or more after rash onset.

• #73 Rubella (German Measles) | Texas DSHS

  https://www.dshs.texas.gov/vaccine-preventable-diseases/rubella-german-measles

  Rubella is caused by a virus of the same name, which is in the family togaviridae. […] Rubella is spread from person to person via airborne transmission or droplets shed from the respiratory secretions of infected persons. Rubella may be transmitted by persons with subclinical infection or asymptomatic cases (up to 50% of all rubella virus infections). […] Complications, such as infection of the brain (encephalitis), can arise from rubella. Encephalitis from rubella is very rare but serious. […] For pregnant women, however, rubella can cause serious birth defects (known as CRS, Congenital Rubella Syndrome) in the fetus, including: […] There is at least a 20 percent chance of damage to the fetus if a woman is infected early in her pregnancy. […] Rubella is only moderately contagious. The disease is most contagious when the rash first appears, but virus may be shed from 7 days before rash to 57 days or more after rash onset.

• #74 Rubella (German Measles) Symptoms, Vaccine & Treatment | Ada

  https://ada.com/conditions/rubella/

  The CDC recommends testing for rubella-related antibodies before getting pregnant. If there are not enough antibodies present, the MMR vaccine should be administered. […] Congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) occurs when someone in the first 20 weeks of pregnancy and without protective immunity against rubella, is exposed to the virus. Congenital rubella syndrome affects the fetus as it develops in the womb. […] CRS is very rare in the United States because of widespread immunization. Between 2005 and 2015, just eight babies in the U.S. were born with CRS. […] The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control states that in 20 percent of cases where someone who is pregnant has rubella, they will miscarry, or the baby will die shortly after birth.

• #75 Rubella – PAHO/WHO | Pan American Health Organization

  https://www.paho.org/en/topics/rubella

  Rubella is a contagious viral disease, which occurs most often in children. […] Infection during early pregnancy may cause fetal death or congenital rubella syndrome (CRS), which is characterized by multiple defects, particularly to the brain, heart, eyes and ears. […] Before wide-scale rubella vaccination, an estimated 16,000 to more than 20,000 children were born with CRS each year in Latin America and the Caribbean. […] In April 2015, an international expert committee reviewed epidemiological evidence presented by member countries of the Pan American Health Organization/World Health Organization (PAHO/WHO) and determined that the region had eliminated endemic transmission of rubella and congenital rubella syndrome (CRS). […] The countries of the Region of the Americas established the goal of interrupting endemic measles transmission by the year 2000 and rubella transmission by 2010.

• #76 Rubella (German Measles): Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17798-rubella

  Rubella is a contagious illness you get from the RuV virus. It can cause serious illness in newborns of women who had rubella while pregnant. […] The U.S. eliminated rubella (meaning its no longer continuously spread) in 2004, but you can still get rubella in other parts of the world. […] There are about 26,000 cases of rubella worldwide each year. Its most common in Asia, Africa and the Middle East. There are only a few cases diagnosed each year in the U.S. since the diseases elimination. […] The most common and serious complications of rubella are pregnancy loss (miscarriage) and congenital rubella syndrome (CRS). CRS happens in babies born to someone who had rubella while pregnant. […] Before a vaccine was widely available, most people in the U.S. got rubella. The last major rubella epidemic in the U.S. was from 1964-1965. In those years, 12.5 million people got rubella, 20,000 babies were born with CRS, 11,000 miscarriages from rubella were reported and 2,100 newborns died. […] After vaccines for rubella went into widespread use (starting in 1969), cases of rubella drastically dropped in the U.S. There are now only a few cases each year. In recent years, all cases of rubella diagnosed in the U.S. were acquired when traveling or living overseas.

• #77 Togaviruses: Rubella Virus – Medical Microbiology – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8200/

  An average of 39 cases per year of congenital rubella were reported to the Centers for Disease Control between 1969 and 1979, falling rather dramatically to an average of only 7 cases per year between 1979 and 1988. A slight resurgence of rubella and congenital rubella was noted in 1989 to 1991. However, subsequently the reported numbers of cases have been the lowest ever recorded. In infants with congenital rubella, the virus commonly persists during the first year of life and occasionally even longer. Such infants thus can serve as reservoirs of infection for health care personnel and other contacts.

• #78 Rubella (German Measles) Symptoms, Vaccine & Treatment | Ada

  https://ada.com/conditions/rubella/

  The CDC recommends testing for rubella-related antibodies before getting pregnant. If there are not enough antibodies present, the MMR vaccine should be administered. […] Congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) occurs when someone in the first 20 weeks of pregnancy and without protective immunity against rubella, is exposed to the virus. Congenital rubella syndrome affects the fetus as it develops in the womb. […] CRS is very rare in the United States because of widespread immunization. Between 2005 and 2015, just eight babies in the U.S. were born with CRS. […] The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control states that in 20 percent of cases where someone who is pregnant has rubella, they will miscarry, or the baby will die shortly after birth.

• #79 Clinical Overview of Rubella | Rubella | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/rubella/hcp/clinical-overview/index.html

  Rubella was declared eliminated (the absence of endemic transmission for 12 months or more) from the United States in 2004. […] However, it is still commonly transmitted in many parts of the world. As a result, less than 10 cases (primarily import-related) have been reported annually in the United States since elimination was declared. […] Because rubella continues to circulate in other parts of the world, an estimated 100,000 infants are born with congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) annually worldwide. […] Clinical diagnosis of rubella virus is unreliable and should not be considered in assessing immune status. Up to half of all infections may be subclinical or inapparent. […] Many rubella infections are not recognized because the rash resembles many other rash illnesses. […] Promptly isolate people suspected to have rubella and report them to the local health department.

• #80 Rubella (German Measles) Symptoms, Vaccine & Treatment | Ada

  https://ada.com/conditions/rubella/

  Rubella is very rare in countries where immunization against the virus is routine. However, according to the CDC and WHO, approximately 100,000 babies are born around the world each year with congenital rubella syndrome, with the vast majority of cases reported in Africa and Southeast Asia. […] The rubella virus is still present in large areas of Africa, South and Southeast Asia, and the Middle East. […] The CDC recommends that anyone over the age of one should be vaccinated with MMR before travelling. Women in the first 20 weeks of pregnancy, who do not have immunity to rubella, should not travel to areas where rubella is present. […] The health risks posed by rubella are most severe if the affected person is in the first 20 weeks of pregnancy, as the virus can cause serious birth defects and health problems to the baby. This is known as congenital rubella syndrome (CRS).

• #81 Rubella | Health & Human Services

  https://hhs.iowa.gov/center-acute-disease-epidemiology/epi-manual/reportable-diseases/rubella

  Rubella occurs worldwide. In the temperate zones, peak incidence is in late winter and early spring. Before the widespread use of rubella vaccine, which was licensed in 1969, peaks of rubella incidence occurred in the United States every 6-9 years, and most cases occurred in children. […] Now that children are well immunized, most cases have occurred in young, unvaccinated adults in college and occupational settings. Recent serologic surveys indicate that about 10% of young adults are susceptible to rubella. […] In recent years in the U.S. and Iowa, outbreaks have occurred among immigrant populations due to lack of rubella vaccination programs in their countries of origin. Outbreaks occur predominately in workplaces and communities at large. CRS disproportionately affects infants born to foreign-born women. The last case of Rubella reported in Iowa was in 2001.

• #82 German Measles (Third Disease, Rubella) | 5-Minute Pediatric Consult

  https://peds.unboundmedicine.com/pedscentral/view/5-Minute-Pediatric-Consult/617294/1.2/German_Measles__Third_Disease_Rubella_

  Spread person to person via airborne transmission; worldwide infection. […] Infection most contagious when rash is erupting. However, virus may be shed beginning 7 days before rash to 14 days after. […] In temperate regions, peaks in late winter and early spring. […] In prevaccine era, annual incidence of infection in the United States was 58 per 100,000 population. […] 2004: no longer endemic in the United States. […] 2004 to 2012: 79 reported cases, mostly in unvaccinated individuals born overseas. […] 2004 to 2012: total of 6 cases reported to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), only 1 with mother born in the United States.

• #83 Rubella (German Measles) Symptoms, Vaccine & Treatment | Ada

  https://ada.com/conditions/rubella/

  Rubella is very rare in countries where immunization against the virus is routine. However, according to the CDC and WHO, approximately 100,000 babies are born around the world each year with congenital rubella syndrome, with the vast majority of cases reported in Africa and Southeast Asia. […] The rubella virus is still present in large areas of Africa, South and Southeast Asia, and the Middle East. […] The CDC recommends that anyone over the age of one should be vaccinated with MMR before travelling. Women in the first 20 weeks of pregnancy, who do not have immunity to rubella, should not travel to areas where rubella is present. […] The health risks posed by rubella are most severe if the affected person is in the first 20 weeks of pregnancy, as the virus can cause serious birth defects and health problems to the baby. This is known as congenital rubella syndrome (CRS).

• #84 Rubella (German Measles) | Mass.gov

  https://www.mass.gov/info-details/rubella-german-measles

  Healthcare workers who are not immune to rubella can inhale the virus, become infected, and spread the virus to their coworkers and patients. […] That is why it is required that all health care workers who are exposed to rubella and have no record of rubella vaccination or whose blood tests show that they are not immune stay out of work from the 7th day through the 21st day after being exposed to the disease.

• #85 Rubella (German Measles) | Mass.gov

  https://www.mass.gov/info-details/rubella-german-measles

  Healthcare workers who are not immune to rubella can inhale the virus, become infected, and spread the virus to their coworkers and patients. […] That is why it is required that all health care workers who are exposed to rubella and have no record of rubella vaccination or whose blood tests show that they are not immune stay out of work from the 7th day through the 21st day after being exposed to the disease.

• #86 Rubella (German measles) – Epidemiology

  https://www.vdh.virginia.gov/epidemiology/epidemiology-fact-sheets/rubella-german-measles/

  Rubella occurs more often in persons who have never been vaccinated against rubella. […] Although eliminated in the United States, rubella is still common in other countries. […] The virus can be brought into the U.S. at any time by visitors who have rubella. […] Also, unvaccinated U.S. residents traveling abroad can become infected and unknowingly bring the disease back home with them. […] Persons with rubella are most infectious when the rash is erupting, but they can shed virus from seven days before to seven days after rash onset. […] Rubella may be transmitted by persons with mild or no symptoms (up to 50% of all rubella virus infections). […] Immunization of as many individuals as possible is the best way to prevent rubella cases and outbreaks. […] One dose of rubella vaccine is recommended for all children. […] Rubella vaccine is included in the MMR vaccine, a combination vaccine that also protects against measles and mumps. […] Special emphasis should be placed on ensuring immunity of females of child bearing age and healthcare providers.

• #87

  https://www.who.int/westernpacific/health-topics/measles

  Rubella vaccines are available either in monovalent formulation (a vaccine directed at only one pathogen) or more commonly in combinations with other vaccines such as with vaccines against measles (MR), measles and mumps (MMR), or measles, mumps and varicella (MMRV). […] Routine measles and rubella vaccination for children, combined with mass immunization campaigns in countries with low routine coverage, are key public health strategies to eliminate measles and rubella.

• #88 Disease factsheet about rubella

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/rubella/factsheet

  Rubella (German measles) is a worldwide, mild, exanthematous and highly infectious viral disease of children in unvaccinated populations. […] Immunisation with the safe and highly effective attenuated live vaccine started in Europe in 1970s and has had a profound impact on the epidemiology of rubella and CRS. […] The elimination of measles and rubella as well as the prevention of congenital rubella syndrome forms part of a global elimination goal. […] Progress towards elimination is being monitored on an annual basis through a European Regional Verification Commission for Measles and Rubella Elimination (RVC) established in 2011. […] Elimination of rubella requires sustained overall immunisation coverage of more than 95% and maintenance of low levels of susceptibility across all subgroups of a population.

• #89

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/rubella

  Rubella is a contagious viral infection transmitted by airborne droplets that occurs most often in children and young adults. […] In 2022, there were an estimated 17 865 cases of rubella in 78 countries. […] There were an estimated 17 865 cases of rubella in 78 countries in 2022, despite the availability of a safe and cost-effective vaccine. […] The highest risk of CRS is in countries where women of childbearing age do not have immunity to the disease (either through vaccination or from having had rubella). […] WHO recommends that all countries that have not yet introduced rubella vaccine should consider doing so using existing, well-established measles immunization programmes. […] The number of countries using rubella vaccines in their national programme continues to steadily increase. […] Reported rubella cases declined 97%, from 670 894 cases in 102 countries in 2000 to 17 865 cases in 78 countries in 2022.

• #90 Rubella (German Measles) – Clinical Tree

  https://clinicalpub.com/rubella-german-measles/

  Unfortunately, global plans to eliminate rubella in 5 of 6 World Health Organization regions by 2020 failed, and about 50% of babies worldwide do not have access to rubella-containing vaccines. […] Rubella outbreaks have continued to occur related to partial vaccination strategies, lack of political commitment, disruption due to war and conflict, and the costs of elimination programs. […] Herd immunity thresholds, which have varied by geographic region, have generally ranged from 70 to 90%, given a basic reproductive rate that is estimated to be 3 to 8 in Western settings but as high as 12 in crowded developing settings.

• #91 Disease factsheet about rubella

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/rubella/factsheet

  Routine immunisation has dramatically changed the epidemiology of rubella in Europe. […] Rubella is a notifiable disease (see the EU rubella case definition for the purpose of epidemiological surveillance). […] ECDC publishes monthly surveillance data on measles and rubella submitted by the 30 EU/EEA countries. […] ECDC also monitors European and worldwide rubella outbreaks through epidemic intelligence and reports on them on a monthly basis in the Communicable Disease Threat Reports (CDTR).

• #92 Rubella – PAHO/WHO | Pan American Health Organization

  https://www.paho.org/en/topics/rubella

  After a process of verification, the Americas were declared free of endemic rubella and congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) in 2015. […] To maintain the elimination of rubella/CRS, PAHO/WHO and the International Expert Committee for Measles and Rubella Elimination recommend that all countries in the Americas strengthen surveillance and maintain high population immunity through vaccination. […] Rubella continues to circulate in other regions of the world, and countries in the Americas report sporadic imported cases.

• #93

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/rubella

  Rubella is a contagious viral infection transmitted by airborne droplets that occurs most often in children and young adults. […] In 2022, there were an estimated 17 865 cases of rubella in 78 countries. […] There were an estimated 17 865 cases of rubella in 78 countries in 2022, despite the availability of a safe and cost-effective vaccine. […] The highest risk of CRS is in countries where women of childbearing age do not have immunity to the disease (either through vaccination or from having had rubella). […] WHO recommends that all countries that have not yet introduced rubella vaccine should consider doing so using existing, well-established measles immunization programmes. […] The number of countries using rubella vaccines in their national programme continues to steadily increase. […] Reported rubella cases declined 97%, from 670 894 cases in 102 countries in 2000 to 17 865 cases in 78 countries in 2022.

• #94 Disease factsheet about rubella

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/rubella/factsheet

  Rubella (German measles) is a worldwide, mild, exanthematous and highly infectious viral disease of children in unvaccinated populations. […] Immunisation with the safe and highly effective attenuated live vaccine started in Europe in 1970s and has had a profound impact on the epidemiology of rubella and CRS. […] The elimination of measles and rubella as well as the prevention of congenital rubella syndrome forms part of a global elimination goal. […] Progress towards elimination is being monitored on an annual basis through a European Regional Verification Commission for Measles and Rubella Elimination (RVC) established in 2011. […] Elimination of rubella requires sustained overall immunisation coverage of more than 95% and maintenance of low levels of susceptibility across all subgroups of a population.

• #95

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/rubella

  Rubella is a contagious viral infection transmitted by airborne droplets that occurs most often in children and young adults. […] In 2022, there were an estimated 17 865 cases of rubella in 78 countries. […] There were an estimated 17 865 cases of rubella in 78 countries in 2022, despite the availability of a safe and cost-effective vaccine. […] The highest risk of CRS is in countries where women of childbearing age do not have immunity to the disease (either through vaccination or from having had rubella). […] WHO recommends that all countries that have not yet introduced rubella vaccine should consider doing so using existing, well-established measles immunization programmes. […] The number of countries using rubella vaccines in their national programme continues to steadily increase. […] Reported rubella cases declined 97%, from 670 894 cases in 102 countries in 2000 to 17 865 cases in 78 countries in 2022.

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