Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Clinical Overview of Rubella | Rubella | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/rubella/hcp/clinical-overview/index.html

  Clinical diagnosis of rubella virus is unreliable. Up to half of infections may be subclinical. […] Many rubella infections are not recognized because the rash resembles many other rash illnesses. […] Healthcare providers should consider rubella in unvaccinated patients with febrile rash illness and other rubella symptoms, especially if the person recently traveled internationally or was exposed to a person with a confirmed rubella case. […] Collect nasopharyngeal swabs, throat swabs, or urine specimens for viral detection by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing and molecular typing, and blood for serology testing.

• #2 Rubella – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559040/

  Rubella is a mild viral disease that typically occurs in children and non-immune young adults. […] To avoid the high morbidity associated with this condition, healthcare providers should play an active role in the prevention and diagnosis of rubella. […] This article reviews the evaluation, management, and prevention of this condition. […] The clinical diagnosis of rubella is difficult because the manifestations can be mild and non-specific. Therefore, physicians must rely on serological testing to confirm rubella. […] The most common diagnostic test for recent postnatal infection is the detection of rubella-specific IgM antibodies by using an enzyme immunoassay. Rubella-specific IgM antibodies are usually detectable 4 days after the onset of rash. […] In addition, rubella infection and reinfection can be demonstrated by a four-fold or greater increase in rubella-specific IgG titers between acute and convalescent sera.

• #3 Rubella – German Measles | Choose the Right Test

  https://arupconsult.com/content/rubella-virus

  Rubella (also known as German measles) is a viral illness that primarily affects young children. […] Clinical diagnosis of rubella is considered unreliable because infection is often asymptomatic, and, when present, symptoms are nonspecific (e.g., rash and fever). Laboratory testing is required to diagnose rubella and determine past infection or immunization status. Nucleic acid amplification testing (NAAT) and serologic testing are used depending on the clinical scenario. […] Laboratory testing is especially important in pregnant individuals and newborns due to the potential health consequences of infection in utero. Pregnant individuals should be tested for both immunoglobulin M (IgM) and IgG antibodies. […] In cases of suspected rubella, infection can be identified with serology and NAAT.

• #4 Rubella – German Measles | Choose the Right Test

  https://arupconsult.com/content/rubella-virus

  Rubella (also known as German measles) is a viral illness that primarily affects young children. […] Clinical diagnosis of rubella is considered unreliable because infection is often asymptomatic, and, when present, symptoms are nonspecific (e.g., rash and fever). Laboratory testing is required to diagnose rubella and determine past infection or immunization status. Nucleic acid amplification testing (NAAT) and serologic testing are used depending on the clinical scenario. […] Laboratory testing is especially important in pregnant individuals and newborns due to the potential health consequences of infection in utero. Pregnant individuals should be tested for both immunoglobulin M (IgM) and IgG antibodies. […] In cases of suspected rubella, infection can be identified with serology and NAAT.

• #5 Rubella (German Measles) | Disease Outbreak Control Division

  https://health.hawaii.gov/docd/disease_listing/rubella-german-measles/

  Rubella, sometimes called German measles, is a contagious disease caused by a virus. […] Symptoms of rubella are often mild and non-specific, therefore, rubella must be diagnosed by laboratory testing. People with symptoms of rubella, especially if they have recently traveled internationally or were exposed to a person with a rash illness with fever, should contact a healthcare provider immediately.

• #6 Laboratory Testing for Rubella | Rubella | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/rubella/php/laboratories/index.html

  Laboratory testing is required to diagnose rubella and determine past infection or immunization status. […] Rubella IgG serology testing should be used for assessing rubella immunity. […] Detection of rubella RNA in a clinical sample can provide laboratory confirmation of infection. […] Rubella IgG serology testing should be used for assessing rubella immunity, including before, during, and after pregnancy. […] Rubella IgM testing should be limited to suspected rubella cases; it is not recommended for screening asymptomatic people. […] Methods of rubella RNA detection include RT-PCR and virus isolation. For acute rubella cases, viral specimens should be collected as soon after symptom onset as possible. […] CDC’s Infectious Disease Laboratories provide guidance on rubella specimen collection, storage, shipment, and points of contact for each test. […] The State Public Health Laboratory (SPHL) refers serum and/or viral samples to CDC for rubella testing, usually for confirmatory testing.

• #7 Rubella – German Measles | Choose the Right Test

  https://arupconsult.com/content/rubella-virus

  Immunoglobulin M (IgM) serology, preferably by enzyme immunoassay (EIA), can be used within the first several days of rash onset to detect a current or recent rubella infection. […] IgG serology to assess avidity or seroconversion may be useful in diagnosis as well. […] Pregnant individuals exposed to rubella should be tested for both IgM and IgG antibodies, regardless of whether they present with symptoms. […] NAAT, such as by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), can be used to detect rubella in a throat swab (preferred). […] Infants with suspected CRS can be diagnosed using the same methods as those used for typical cases of rubella (i.e., serology and NAAT). […] An individuals immune status can be determined with a single test for rubella-specific IgG antibodies. A positive result indicates protection against rubella.

• #8 Laboratory Diagnosis of Rubella Infection, Diagnosis of German Measles, Detection of Rubella Virus

  http://virology-online.com/viruses/Rubella5.htm

  Laboratory Diagnosis of Rubella Infections […] 1. Serological diagnosis of rubella infection – Serology is the mainstay of diagnosis of rubella infection. A recent rubella infection can be diagnosed by (1) detection of rubella-specific IgM, (2) rising titres of antibody in HAI and ELISA tests, and (3) seroconversion. […] A significant rise in HAI antibodies can often be demonstrated. However rubella-specific IgM is the test of choice for demonstrating current infection. […] Haemagglutination inhibition (HAI) assay remains the mainstay test for diagnosis of rubella infection. […] Before testing by HAI, sera must be treated to remove red cell agglutininins and serum lipoproteins. It is current practice to confirm a serological diagnosis by HI with testing for rubella IgM. […] Detection of rubella-specific IgM by EIA or RIA. The most sensitive and reliable techniques in use are tM – antibody capture ELISA and radioimmunoassay).

• #9 Rubella (German Measles): Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/what-is-rubella

  Rubella Diagnosis […] If your doctor thinks you have rubella, you may get blood tests and a virus culture to confirm the infection. The virus culture comes from a throat or nasal swab or from a urine sample. The blood test will show different types of antibodies in your blood. […] Rubella antibodies […] There are two types of rubella-specific antibodies that appear in your body after infection, including: […] Rubella IgM. This antibody appears soon after you are infected with rubella or vaccinated against it. It can last in your body for up to 3 months. […] Rubella IgG. Rubella IgG occurs about 4 days after you develop the rash that comes with rubella and peaks within 1 to 2 weeks afterward. This antibody can last for a lifetime in your body. […] The best time to test for the antibodies is within 5 days of having a fever or a rash, when more than 90% of cases of rubella are positive for rubella IgM.

• #10 Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR) Antibodies (IgG) Panel, Immune Status | Test Detail | Quest Diagnostics

  https://testdirectory.questdiagnostics.com/test/test-detail/5259/measles-mumps-and-rubella-mmr-antibodies-igg-panel-immune-status?p=r&cc=MASTER

  Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR) Antibodies (IgG) Panel, Immune Status – This panel provides presumptive evidence of immunity to measles, mumps, and rubella for purposes of routine vaccination, for students at post-high school educational institutions, and for international travelers. […] Includes Measles Antibody (IgG), Immune Status Mumps Virus Antibody (IgG), Immune Status Rubella Antibody (IgG), Immune Status […] Methodology Immunoassay (IA) […] Reference Range(s) See individual tests […] Alternative Name(s) Mumps Virus Antibody,IgG,Serum,Anti-Rubella Ab IgG,Measles,German,Anti-German Measles Ab IgG,Rubella Antibody Index,German Measles Antibody,Rubella Titer,Rubella IgG,Rubella Screen […] Preferred Specimen(s) 2 mL serum […] Minimum Volume 1 mL […] Transport Container Transport tube […] Transport Temperature Room temperature […] Specimen Stability Room temperature: 4 days Refrigerated: 7 days Frozen: 30 days […] Reject Criteria Gross hemolysis • Grossly lipemic • Icteric.

• #11 Rubella – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559040/

  Rubella is a mild viral disease that typically occurs in children and non-immune young adults. […] To avoid the high morbidity associated with this condition, healthcare providers should play an active role in the prevention and diagnosis of rubella. […] This article reviews the evaluation, management, and prevention of this condition. […] The clinical diagnosis of rubella is difficult because the manifestations can be mild and non-specific. Therefore, physicians must rely on serological testing to confirm rubella. […] The most common diagnostic test for recent postnatal infection is the detection of rubella-specific IgM antibodies by using an enzyme immunoassay. Rubella-specific IgM antibodies are usually detectable 4 days after the onset of rash. […] In addition, rubella infection and reinfection can be demonstrated by a four-fold or greater increase in rubella-specific IgG titers between acute and convalescent sera.

• #12 Rubella (German measles) revisited | HKMJ

  https://www.hkmj.org/abstracts/v25n2/134.htm

  Rubella should be suspected in a patient with fever, erythematous maculopapular (non-vesicular) rash spreading cephalocaudally from the face downwards, and retroauricular/suboccipital/posterior cervical lymphadenopathy, especially in the presence of arthralgia/arthritis. […] Generally, clinical diagnosis of rubella is unreliable because the clinical manifestations can be mild and non-specific especially in young children. In addition, there are many other viral infections having similar clinical features. Laboratory confirmation of rubella virus infection is therefore essential. The diagnosis of a recent postnatal rubella infection can be based on a positive serological test for rubella-specific immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibody in a single sample or a four-fold or greater increase in rubella-specific immunoglobulin (IgG) titres between acute and convalescent sera drawn 2 to 3 weeks apart.

• #13 Rubella – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559040/

  Rubella is a mild viral disease that typically occurs in children and non-immune young adults. […] To avoid the high morbidity associated with this condition, healthcare providers should play an active role in the prevention and diagnosis of rubella. […] This article reviews the evaluation, management, and prevention of this condition. […] The clinical diagnosis of rubella is difficult because the manifestations can be mild and non-specific. Therefore, physicians must rely on serological testing to confirm rubella. […] The most common diagnostic test for recent postnatal infection is the detection of rubella-specific IgM antibodies by using an enzyme immunoassay. Rubella-specific IgM antibodies are usually detectable 4 days after the onset of rash. […] In addition, rubella infection and reinfection can be demonstrated by a four-fold or greater increase in rubella-specific IgG titers between acute and convalescent sera.

• #14 Rubella (German Measles): Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/what-is-rubella

  Rubella Diagnosis […] If your doctor thinks you have rubella, you may get blood tests and a virus culture to confirm the infection. The virus culture comes from a throat or nasal swab or from a urine sample. The blood test will show different types of antibodies in your blood. […] Rubella antibodies […] There are two types of rubella-specific antibodies that appear in your body after infection, including: […] Rubella IgM. This antibody appears soon after you are infected with rubella or vaccinated against it. It can last in your body for up to 3 months. […] Rubella IgG. Rubella IgG occurs about 4 days after you develop the rash that comes with rubella and peaks within 1 to 2 weeks afterward. This antibody can last for a lifetime in your body. […] The best time to test for the antibodies is within 5 days of having a fever or a rash, when more than 90% of cases of rubella are positive for rubella IgM.

• #15 Rubella IGG Antibody Test: Purpose, Procedure, and Results

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/rubella-test-antibodies

  Rubella, also called German measles or 3-day measles, isn’t a problem for most people. […] But when you’re pregnant, rubella can be very serious. If you get it in the first 4 months, your baby could have eye, hearing, or heart problems or be born too soon. […] A rubella blood test checks to see if you have antibodies to the rubella virus. Antibodies are proteins your immune system makes to help fight infections and keep you from getting sick. […] Your doctor can tell a lot from the type of antibodies that you have in your blood. […] IgM is first on the scene after you get rubella. It sticks around for 7 to 10 days in adults and up to a year in newborns. You’ll get this test if your doctor thinks you may have rubella. […] You’ll need both tests if you’re pregnant and your doctor suspects you have rubella. And your baby will need both tests after birth, too.

• #16 Rubella IGG Antibody Test: Purpose, Procedure, and Results

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/rubella-test-antibodies

  Rubella, also called German measles or 3-day measles, isn’t a problem for most people. […] But when you’re pregnant, rubella can be very serious. If you get it in the first 4 months, your baby could have eye, hearing, or heart problems or be born too soon. […] A rubella blood test checks to see if you have antibodies to the rubella virus. Antibodies are proteins your immune system makes to help fight infections and keep you from getting sick. […] Your doctor can tell a lot from the type of antibodies that you have in your blood. […] IgM is first on the scene after you get rubella. It sticks around for 7 to 10 days in adults and up to a year in newborns. You’ll get this test if your doctor thinks you may have rubella. […] You’ll need both tests if you’re pregnant and your doctor suspects you have rubella. And your baby will need both tests after birth, too.

• #17 Rubella Test – Testing.com

  https://www.testing.com/tests/rubella-test/

  Rubella antibody tests measure the amount of rubella antibodies in a blood sample to help diagnose a current or recent rubella infection. […] IgM antibody testing is typically the first test used to diagnose rubella. […] IgG testing may be performed to help distinguish between recent infections and immunity due to past infection. […] Nucleic acid amplification testing (NAAT) identifies genetic material, called RNA, of the rubella virus in a nasal swab, throat swab, or a urine sample. […] Rubella testing may be ordered if you have symptoms of rubella and have recently traveled internationally or were exposed to someone with symptoms similar to rubella. […] If you are pregnant, your doctor will check for rubella immunity as part of your initial prenatal assessment. […] The results of your rubella test are typically available within a few days.

• #18 Rubella (German Measles): Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/what-is-rubella

  Rubella Diagnosis […] If your doctor thinks you have rubella, you may get blood tests and a virus culture to confirm the infection. The virus culture comes from a throat or nasal swab or from a urine sample. The blood test will show different types of antibodies in your blood. […] Rubella antibodies […] There are two types of rubella-specific antibodies that appear in your body after infection, including: […] Rubella IgM. This antibody appears soon after you are infected with rubella or vaccinated against it. It can last in your body for up to 3 months. […] Rubella IgG. Rubella IgG occurs about 4 days after you develop the rash that comes with rubella and peaks within 1 to 2 weeks afterward. This antibody can last for a lifetime in your body. […] The best time to test for the antibodies is within 5 days of having a fever or a rash, when more than 90% of cases of rubella are positive for rubella IgM.

• #19 Rubella (German Measles): Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/what-is-rubella

  Rubella Diagnosis […] If your doctor thinks you have rubella, you may get blood tests and a virus culture to confirm the infection. The virus culture comes from a throat or nasal swab or from a urine sample. The blood test will show different types of antibodies in your blood. […] Rubella antibodies […] There are two types of rubella-specific antibodies that appear in your body after infection, including: […] Rubella IgM. This antibody appears soon after you are infected with rubella or vaccinated against it. It can last in your body for up to 3 months. […] Rubella IgG. Rubella IgG occurs about 4 days after you develop the rash that comes with rubella and peaks within 1 to 2 weeks afterward. This antibody can last for a lifetime in your body. […] The best time to test for the antibodies is within 5 days of having a fever or a rash, when more than 90% of cases of rubella are positive for rubella IgM.

• #20 Rubella (German Measles): Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/what-is-rubella

  Rubella Diagnosis […] If your doctor thinks you have rubella, you may get blood tests and a virus culture to confirm the infection. The virus culture comes from a throat or nasal swab or from a urine sample. The blood test will show different types of antibodies in your blood. […] Rubella antibodies […] There are two types of rubella-specific antibodies that appear in your body after infection, including: […] Rubella IgM. This antibody appears soon after you are infected with rubella or vaccinated against it. It can last in your body for up to 3 months. […] Rubella IgG. Rubella IgG occurs about 4 days after you develop the rash that comes with rubella and peaks within 1 to 2 weeks afterward. This antibody can last for a lifetime in your body. […] The best time to test for the antibodies is within 5 days of having a fever or a rash, when more than 90% of cases of rubella are positive for rubella IgM.

• #21 Rubella (German Measles): Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/what-is-rubella

  Rubella Diagnosis […] If your doctor thinks you have rubella, you may get blood tests and a virus culture to confirm the infection. The virus culture comes from a throat or nasal swab or from a urine sample. The blood test will show different types of antibodies in your blood. […] Rubella antibodies […] There are two types of rubella-specific antibodies that appear in your body after infection, including: […] Rubella IgM. This antibody appears soon after you are infected with rubella or vaccinated against it. It can last in your body for up to 3 months. […] Rubella IgG. Rubella IgG occurs about 4 days after you develop the rash that comes with rubella and peaks within 1 to 2 weeks afterward. This antibody can last for a lifetime in your body. […] The best time to test for the antibodies is within 5 days of having a fever or a rash, when more than 90% of cases of rubella are positive for rubella IgM.

• #22 Rubella (German measles) revisited | HKMJ

  https://www.hkmj.org/abstracts/v25n2/134.htm

  Rubella should be suspected in a patient with fever, erythematous maculopapular (non-vesicular) rash spreading cephalocaudally from the face downwards, and retroauricular/suboccipital/posterior cervical lymphadenopathy, especially in the presence of arthralgia/arthritis. […] Generally, clinical diagnosis of rubella is unreliable because the clinical manifestations can be mild and non-specific especially in young children. In addition, there are many other viral infections having similar clinical features. Laboratory confirmation of rubella virus infection is therefore essential. The diagnosis of a recent postnatal rubella infection can be based on a positive serological test for rubella-specific immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibody in a single sample or a four-fold or greater increase in rubella-specific immunoglobulin (IgG) titres between acute and convalescent sera drawn 2 to 3 weeks apart.

• #23 Rubella – Pediatrics – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/common-viral-infections-in-infants-and-children/rubella

  Rubella is suspected in patients with characteristic adenopathy and rash. […] Laboratory diagnosis is necessary for pregnant women, patients with encephalitis, and neonates. Also, laboratory evaluation is strongly encouraged for all suspected cases of rubella for public health purposes. A 4-fold rise between acute and convalescent (4 to 8 weeks) antibody titers confirms the diagnosis, as can serum rubella IgM antibody testing. […] Detection of viral RNA by reverse transcriptionpolymerase chain reaction testing of throat, nasal, or urine specimens may also be done to confirm the diagnosis; genotype analysis is useful in epidemiologic investigations. […] Laboratory diagnosis is strongly encouraged for all suspected cases for public health purposes; serologic or reverse transcriptionpolymerase chain reaction testing can be done.

• #24 Rubella – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559040/

  Recent primary rubella infections can also be confirmed by rubella-specific low avidity IgG. […] In those cases in which a pregnant woman has been exposed to a suspected rubella case, a specimen of blood should be tested as soon as possible for the measurement of rubella-specific IgG antibodies. […] Congenital rubella infection may be diagnosed prenatally either by a demonstration of specific IgM in fetal blood or by the detection rubella RNA in amniotic fluid, fetal blood, or chorionic villus biopsy using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). […] In the newborn period, the serologic diagnosis of congenital rubella is made by the detection of rubella-specific IgM within the first 6 months of life. […] Congenital rubella infection can also be confirmed by the increase or persistence of rubella-specific IgG in the infant after 6 to 12 months of age. […] Detection of the viral genome in nasopharyngeal swabs, urine, and oral fluid by RT-PCR provides laboratory evidence of CRS.

• #25 Rubella – German Measles | Choose the Right Test

  https://arupconsult.com/content/rubella-virus

  Immunoglobulin M (IgM) serology, preferably by enzyme immunoassay (EIA), can be used within the first several days of rash onset to detect a current or recent rubella infection. […] IgG serology to assess avidity or seroconversion may be useful in diagnosis as well. […] Pregnant individuals exposed to rubella should be tested for both IgM and IgG antibodies, regardless of whether they present with symptoms. […] NAAT, such as by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), can be used to detect rubella in a throat swab (preferred). […] Infants with suspected CRS can be diagnosed using the same methods as those used for typical cases of rubella (i.e., serology and NAAT). […] An individuals immune status can be determined with a single test for rubella-specific IgG antibodies. A positive result indicates protection against rubella.

• #26 Laboratory Testing for Rubella | Rubella | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/rubella/php/laboratories/index.html

  Laboratory testing is required to diagnose rubella and determine past infection or immunization status. […] Rubella IgG serology testing should be used for assessing rubella immunity. […] Detection of rubella RNA in a clinical sample can provide laboratory confirmation of infection. […] Rubella IgG serology testing should be used for assessing rubella immunity, including before, during, and after pregnancy. […] Rubella IgM testing should be limited to suspected rubella cases; it is not recommended for screening asymptomatic people. […] Methods of rubella RNA detection include RT-PCR and virus isolation. For acute rubella cases, viral specimens should be collected as soon after symptom onset as possible. […] CDC’s Infectious Disease Laboratories provide guidance on rubella specimen collection, storage, shipment, and points of contact for each test. […] The State Public Health Laboratory (SPHL) refers serum and/or viral samples to CDC for rubella testing, usually for confirmatory testing.

• #27 Rubella – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559040/

  Recent primary rubella infections can also be confirmed by rubella-specific low avidity IgG. […] In those cases in which a pregnant woman has been exposed to a suspected rubella case, a specimen of blood should be tested as soon as possible for the measurement of rubella-specific IgG antibodies. […] Congenital rubella infection may be diagnosed prenatally either by a demonstration of specific IgM in fetal blood or by the detection rubella RNA in amniotic fluid, fetal blood, or chorionic villus biopsy using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). […] In the newborn period, the serologic diagnosis of congenital rubella is made by the detection of rubella-specific IgM within the first 6 months of life. […] Congenital rubella infection can also be confirmed by the increase or persistence of rubella-specific IgG in the infant after 6 to 12 months of age. […] Detection of the viral genome in nasopharyngeal swabs, urine, and oral fluid by RT-PCR provides laboratory evidence of CRS.

• #28 Rubella – German Measles | Choose the Right Test

  https://arupconsult.com/content/rubella-virus

  Immunoglobulin M (IgM) serology, preferably by enzyme immunoassay (EIA), can be used within the first several days of rash onset to detect a current or recent rubella infection. […] IgG serology to assess avidity or seroconversion may be useful in diagnosis as well. […] Pregnant individuals exposed to rubella should be tested for both IgM and IgG antibodies, regardless of whether they present with symptoms. […] NAAT, such as by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), can be used to detect rubella in a throat swab (preferred). […] Infants with suspected CRS can be diagnosed using the same methods as those used for typical cases of rubella (i.e., serology and NAAT). […] An individuals immune status can be determined with a single test for rubella-specific IgG antibodies. A positive result indicates protection against rubella.

• #29 Rubella – Pediatrics – MSD Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/pediatrics/common-viral-infections-in-infants-and-children/rubella

  Rubella is suspected in patients with characteristic adenopathy and rash. […] Laboratory diagnosis is necessary for pregnant women, patients with encephalitis, and neonates. Also, laboratory evaluation is strongly encouraged for all suspected cases of rubella for public health purposes. A 4-fold rise between acute and convalescent (4 to 8 weeks) antibody titers confirms the diagnosis, as can serum rubella IgM antibody testing. […] Detection of viral RNA by reverse transcriptionpolymerase chain reaction testing of throat, nasal, or urine specimens may also be done to confirm the diagnosis; genotype analysis is useful in epidemiologic investigations. […] Laboratory diagnosis is strongly encouraged for all suspected cases for public health purposes; serologic or reverse transcriptionpolymerase chain reaction testing can be done.

• #30 Laboratory Testing for Rubella | Rubella | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/rubella/php/laboratories/index.html

  Laboratory testing is required to diagnose rubella and determine past infection or immunization status. […] Rubella IgG serology testing should be used for assessing rubella immunity. […] Detection of rubella RNA in a clinical sample can provide laboratory confirmation of infection. […] Rubella IgG serology testing should be used for assessing rubella immunity, including before, during, and after pregnancy. […] Rubella IgM testing should be limited to suspected rubella cases; it is not recommended for screening asymptomatic people. […] Methods of rubella RNA detection include RT-PCR and virus isolation. For acute rubella cases, viral specimens should be collected as soon after symptom onset as possible. […] CDC’s Infectious Disease Laboratories provide guidance on rubella specimen collection, storage, shipment, and points of contact for each test. […] The State Public Health Laboratory (SPHL) refers serum and/or viral samples to CDC for rubella testing, usually for confirmatory testing.

• #31 What Is the Difference Between Rubella and Rubeola?

  https://www.healthline.com/health/what-is-the-difference-between-rubella-and-rubeola

  Your doctor may be able to diagnose either of these conditions by reviewing your symptoms and looking at your rash. But laboratory testing is the only way to confirm a diagnosis of either rubella or rubeola. […] Your doctor may test for either virus using any of: throat swab, a blood or serum sample, sputum or a respiratory sample, nasopharyngeal swab, urine.

• #32 Laboratory Testing for Rubella | Rubella | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/rubella/php/laboratories/index.html

  Laboratory testing is required to diagnose rubella and determine past infection or immunization status. […] Rubella IgG serology testing should be used for assessing rubella immunity. […] Detection of rubella RNA in a clinical sample can provide laboratory confirmation of infection. […] Rubella IgG serology testing should be used for assessing rubella immunity, including before, during, and after pregnancy. […] Rubella IgM testing should be limited to suspected rubella cases; it is not recommended for screening asymptomatic people. […] Methods of rubella RNA detection include RT-PCR and virus isolation. For acute rubella cases, viral specimens should be collected as soon after symptom onset as possible. […] CDC’s Infectious Disease Laboratories provide guidance on rubella specimen collection, storage, shipment, and points of contact for each test. […] The State Public Health Laboratory (SPHL) refers serum and/or viral samples to CDC for rubella testing, usually for confirmatory testing.

• #33 Congenital Rubella Syndrome (CRS): Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/congenital-rubella-syndrome

  How is congenital rubella syndrome diagnosed? […] There are a few ways to get a congenital rubella syndrome diagnosis: […] Pregnancy screening: Tests that screen for rubella and other infections in early pregnancy are standard in the United States. If you have symptoms that resemble rubella during pregnancy, your healthcare provider will order tests to confirm it or rule it out. Theyll then discuss the likelihood that your baby will be born with CRS. […] Fetal diagnosis during pregnancy: If you get rubella during pregnancy, your provider may recommend certain tests to see if the virus passed on to the fetus. These tests include amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling, and fetal blood sampling. […] Diagnosis after birth: A blood test (using ELISA) can check for the presence of rubella virus antibodies in your baby after birth. Your babys provider may also take a sample of their pee (urine) or spit or swab the inside of their nose to check the sample for the rubella virus. Their provider may order these tests if you had a known rubella infection and/or if your baby has signs of CRS.

• #34 Rubella (German Measles): Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/what-is-rubella

  Rubella Diagnosis […] If your doctor thinks you have rubella, you may get blood tests and a virus culture to confirm the infection. The virus culture comes from a throat or nasal swab or from a urine sample. The blood test will show different types of antibodies in your blood. […] Rubella antibodies […] There are two types of rubella-specific antibodies that appear in your body after infection, including: […] Rubella IgM. This antibody appears soon after you are infected with rubella or vaccinated against it. It can last in your body for up to 3 months. […] Rubella IgG. Rubella IgG occurs about 4 days after you develop the rash that comes with rubella and peaks within 1 to 2 weeks afterward. This antibody can last for a lifetime in your body. […] The best time to test for the antibodies is within 5 days of having a fever or a rash, when more than 90% of cases of rubella are positive for rubella IgM.

• #35 Rubella (German Measles): Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/what-is-rubella

  Rubella Diagnosis […] If your doctor thinks you have rubella, you may get blood tests and a virus culture to confirm the infection. The virus culture comes from a throat or nasal swab or from a urine sample. The blood test will show different types of antibodies in your blood. […] Rubella antibodies […] There are two types of rubella-specific antibodies that appear in your body after infection, including: […] Rubella IgM. This antibody appears soon after you are infected with rubella or vaccinated against it. It can last in your body for up to 3 months. […] Rubella IgG. Rubella IgG occurs about 4 days after you develop the rash that comes with rubella and peaks within 1 to 2 weeks afterward. This antibody can last for a lifetime in your body. […] The best time to test for the antibodies is within 5 days of having a fever or a rash, when more than 90% of cases of rubella are positive for rubella IgM.

• #36 Laboratory Testing for Rubella | Rubella | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/rubella/php/laboratories/index.html

  Laboratory testing is required to diagnose rubella and determine past infection or immunization status. […] Rubella IgG serology testing should be used for assessing rubella immunity. […] Detection of rubella RNA in a clinical sample can provide laboratory confirmation of infection. […] Rubella IgG serology testing should be used for assessing rubella immunity, including before, during, and after pregnancy. […] Rubella IgM testing should be limited to suspected rubella cases; it is not recommended for screening asymptomatic people. […] Methods of rubella RNA detection include RT-PCR and virus isolation. For acute rubella cases, viral specimens should be collected as soon after symptom onset as possible. […] CDC’s Infectious Disease Laboratories provide guidance on rubella specimen collection, storage, shipment, and points of contact for each test. […] The State Public Health Laboratory (SPHL) refers serum and/or viral samples to CDC for rubella testing, usually for confirmatory testing.

• #37 Rubella (German measles) revisited | HKMJ

  https://www.hkmj.org/abstracts/v25n2/134.htm

  Rubella should be suspected in a patient with fever, erythematous maculopapular (non-vesicular) rash spreading cephalocaudally from the face downwards, and retroauricular/suboccipital/posterior cervical lymphadenopathy, especially in the presence of arthralgia/arthritis. […] Generally, clinical diagnosis of rubella is unreliable because the clinical manifestations can be mild and non-specific especially in young children. In addition, there are many other viral infections having similar clinical features. Laboratory confirmation of rubella virus infection is therefore essential. The diagnosis of a recent postnatal rubella infection can be based on a positive serological test for rubella-specific immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibody in a single sample or a four-fold or greater increase in rubella-specific immunoglobulin (IgG) titres between acute and convalescent sera drawn 2 to 3 weeks apart.

• #38 Rubella (german measles)

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/rubella/

  Rubella (german measles) is a rare illness that causes a spotty rash. It usually gets better in about a week, but it can be serious if you get it when you’re pregnant. […] The main symptom of rubella is a spotty rash that starts on the face or behind the ears and spreads to the neck and body. […] The rash takes 2 to 3 weeks to appear after getting rubella. […] It’s very unlikely to be rubella if you have had both doses of the MMR vaccine or had rubella before. […] Call a GP if you or your child have symptoms of rubella. […] Rubella usually gets better in about a week. […] Rubella spreads in coughs and sneezes. Its infectious from 1 week before the symptoms start and for 5 days after the rash first appears. […] Rubella is very rare in pregnancy. But if you get it when you’re pregnant, rubella could harm your baby. […] The risk is highest if you get rubella early in pregnancy. […] Urgent advice: Call your midwife, maternity unit, or GP immediately if you’re pregnant and either you have a new rash or you’ve been in close contact with someone who has rubella. […] The MMR vaccine can prevent rubella.

• #39 Rubella (German Measles) Symptoms, Vaccine & Treatment | Ada

  https://ada.com/conditions/rubella/

  If a pregnant person comes into contact with a person with rubella or develops symptoms, they should contact their doctor immediately. The pregnant persons IgG antibody levels will be checked for immunity. […] If congenital rubella infection is suspected, ultrasound scans will be offered to look for signs of developmental problems in the fetus.

• #40 Rubella – German Measles | Choose the Right Test

  https://arupconsult.com/content/rubella-virus

  Immunoglobulin M (IgM) serology, preferably by enzyme immunoassay (EIA), can be used within the first several days of rash onset to detect a current or recent rubella infection. […] IgG serology to assess avidity or seroconversion may be useful in diagnosis as well. […] Pregnant individuals exposed to rubella should be tested for both IgM and IgG antibodies, regardless of whether they present with symptoms. […] NAAT, such as by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), can be used to detect rubella in a throat swab (preferred). […] Infants with suspected CRS can be diagnosed using the same methods as those used for typical cases of rubella (i.e., serology and NAAT). […] An individuals immune status can be determined with a single test for rubella-specific IgG antibodies. A positive result indicates protection against rubella.

• #41 Rubella (German Measles) Symptoms, Vaccine & Treatment | Ada

  https://ada.com/conditions/rubella/

  If a pregnant person comes into contact with a person with rubella or develops symptoms, they should contact their doctor immediately. The pregnant persons IgG antibody levels will be checked for immunity. […] If congenital rubella infection is suspected, ultrasound scans will be offered to look for signs of developmental problems in the fetus.

• #42 Rubella Test – Testing.com

  https://www.testing.com/tests/rubella-test/

  Rubella testing is used to diagnose current or prior infection with the virus. Testing can also be performed to determine prior vaccination against rubella. Testing may be performed on a sample of blood or urine, or on a swab taken from the nose or throat. […] The purpose of a rubella test is to detect a rubella infection or assess immunity to the virus. Testing may be ordered for diagnosis, prenatal screening, or to find evidence of immunity. […] Rubella testing is used to diagnose or rule out this condition in patients with symptoms that are suggestive of rubella. […] Rubella testing is routinely ordered as part of a prenatal panel, which is a group of tests used to find infections and other problems early in pregnancy. […] Rubella testing looks for evidence of exposure to the rubella virus. Different tests are available that look for antibodies to the rubella virus or genetic material from the virus.

• #43 German Measles (Rubella): Causes, Symptoms, and Treatments

  https://www.healthline.com/health/rubella

  German measles is typically a mild infection that goes away within one week, even without treatment. […] Its important to get treatment right away if youre pregnant and suspect you have German measles. […] Since German measles appears similar to other viruses that cause rashes, your doctor will confirm your diagnosis with a blood test. This can check for the presence of different types of rubella antibodies in your blood. Antibodies are proteins that recognize and destroy harmful substances, such as viruses and bacteria. The test results can indicate whether you currently have the virus or are immune to it. […] To avoid complications during pregnancy, many women who become pregnant are given a blood test to confirm immunity to rubella. […] Women of childbearing age should have their immunity to rubella tested before becoming pregnant. If a vaccine is needed, its important to get it at least 28 days before trying to conceive.

• #44 Rubella (German Measles) Symptoms, Vaccine & Treatment | Ada

  https://ada.com/conditions/rubella/

  Symptoms such as a rash and swollen glands may indicate rubella, but a blood or saliva test is the only way to definitively diagnose infection. The blood test is sometimes referred to as an antibody titer test, which is a way of measuring antibodies in a blood sample. […] Blood and saliva tests for rubella check for antibody levels in the body. There are two types of antibody that indicate rubella: […] If rubella is suspected, always contact the doctor before visiting the surgery. Rubella is contagious, and the doctor will likely want to prepare for the visit to limit the risk of infecting others. […] A blood or saliva test can confirm whether or not there are antibodies in the blood that can provide immunity against rubella or if an infection has happened recently. […] The CDC recommends testing for rubella-related antibodies before getting pregnant. If there are not enough antibodies present, the MMR vaccine should be administered.

• #45 Congenital Rubella Syndrome (CRS): Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/congenital-rubella-syndrome

  How is congenital rubella syndrome diagnosed? […] There are a few ways to get a congenital rubella syndrome diagnosis: […] Pregnancy screening: Tests that screen for rubella and other infections in early pregnancy are standard in the United States. If you have symptoms that resemble rubella during pregnancy, your healthcare provider will order tests to confirm it or rule it out. Theyll then discuss the likelihood that your baby will be born with CRS. […] Fetal diagnosis during pregnancy: If you get rubella during pregnancy, your provider may recommend certain tests to see if the virus passed on to the fetus. These tests include amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling, and fetal blood sampling. […] Diagnosis after birth: A blood test (using ELISA) can check for the presence of rubella virus antibodies in your baby after birth. Your babys provider may also take a sample of their pee (urine) or spit or swab the inside of their nose to check the sample for the rubella virus. Their provider may order these tests if you had a known rubella infection and/or if your baby has signs of CRS.

• #46 Rubella – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559040/

  Recent primary rubella infections can also be confirmed by rubella-specific low avidity IgG. […] In those cases in which a pregnant woman has been exposed to a suspected rubella case, a specimen of blood should be tested as soon as possible for the measurement of rubella-specific IgG antibodies. […] Congenital rubella infection may be diagnosed prenatally either by a demonstration of specific IgM in fetal blood or by the detection rubella RNA in amniotic fluid, fetal blood, or chorionic villus biopsy using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). […] In the newborn period, the serologic diagnosis of congenital rubella is made by the detection of rubella-specific IgM within the first 6 months of life. […] Congenital rubella infection can also be confirmed by the increase or persistence of rubella-specific IgG in the infant after 6 to 12 months of age. […] Detection of the viral genome in nasopharyngeal swabs, urine, and oral fluid by RT-PCR provides laboratory evidence of CRS.

• #47 Congenital Rubella Syndrome (CRS): Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/congenital-rubella-syndrome

  How is congenital rubella syndrome diagnosed? […] There are a few ways to get a congenital rubella syndrome diagnosis: […] Pregnancy screening: Tests that screen for rubella and other infections in early pregnancy are standard in the United States. If you have symptoms that resemble rubella during pregnancy, your healthcare provider will order tests to confirm it or rule it out. Theyll then discuss the likelihood that your baby will be born with CRS. […] Fetal diagnosis during pregnancy: If you get rubella during pregnancy, your provider may recommend certain tests to see if the virus passed on to the fetus. These tests include amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling, and fetal blood sampling. […] Diagnosis after birth: A blood test (using ELISA) can check for the presence of rubella virus antibodies in your baby after birth. Your babys provider may also take a sample of their pee (urine) or spit or swab the inside of their nose to check the sample for the rubella virus. Their provider may order these tests if you had a known rubella infection and/or if your baby has signs of CRS.

• #48 Laboratory Diagnosis of Rubella Infection, Diagnosis of German Measles, Detection of Rubella Virus

  http://virology-online.com/viruses/Rubella5.htm

  5. Prenatal diagnosis of Congenital rubella infection – Prenatal diagnosis of congenital infection may be of value when maternal infection occurred after the first trimester, in cases of maternal reinfection and in cases where equivocal serology results from the mother were obtained. […] Virus may be isolated from amniotic fluid but the reliability of this technique has not been demonstrated.

• #49 Congenital Rubella Syndrome (CRS): Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/congenital-rubella-syndrome

  How is congenital rubella syndrome diagnosed? […] There are a few ways to get a congenital rubella syndrome diagnosis: […] Pregnancy screening: Tests that screen for rubella and other infections in early pregnancy are standard in the United States. If you have symptoms that resemble rubella during pregnancy, your healthcare provider will order tests to confirm it or rule it out. Theyll then discuss the likelihood that your baby will be born with CRS. […] Fetal diagnosis during pregnancy: If you get rubella during pregnancy, your provider may recommend certain tests to see if the virus passed on to the fetus. These tests include amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling, and fetal blood sampling. […] Diagnosis after birth: A blood test (using ELISA) can check for the presence of rubella virus antibodies in your baby after birth. Your babys provider may also take a sample of their pee (urine) or spit or swab the inside of their nose to check the sample for the rubella virus. Their provider may order these tests if you had a known rubella infection and/or if your baby has signs of CRS.

• #50 Rubella (German Measles) Symptoms, Vaccine & Treatment | Ada

  https://ada.com/conditions/rubella/

  If a pregnant person comes into contact with a person with rubella or develops symptoms, they should contact their doctor immediately. The pregnant persons IgG antibody levels will be checked for immunity. […] If congenital rubella infection is suspected, ultrasound scans will be offered to look for signs of developmental problems in the fetus.

• #51 Rubella – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559040/

  Recent primary rubella infections can also be confirmed by rubella-specific low avidity IgG. […] In those cases in which a pregnant woman has been exposed to a suspected rubella case, a specimen of blood should be tested as soon as possible for the measurement of rubella-specific IgG antibodies. […] Congenital rubella infection may be diagnosed prenatally either by a demonstration of specific IgM in fetal blood or by the detection rubella RNA in amniotic fluid, fetal blood, or chorionic villus biopsy using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). […] In the newborn period, the serologic diagnosis of congenital rubella is made by the detection of rubella-specific IgM within the first 6 months of life. […] Congenital rubella infection can also be confirmed by the increase or persistence of rubella-specific IgG in the infant after 6 to 12 months of age. […] Detection of the viral genome in nasopharyngeal swabs, urine, and oral fluid by RT-PCR provides laboratory evidence of CRS.

• #52 Congenital Rubella Syndrome (CRS): Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/congenital-rubella-syndrome

  How is congenital rubella syndrome diagnosed? […] There are a few ways to get a congenital rubella syndrome diagnosis: […] Pregnancy screening: Tests that screen for rubella and other infections in early pregnancy are standard in the United States. If you have symptoms that resemble rubella during pregnancy, your healthcare provider will order tests to confirm it or rule it out. Theyll then discuss the likelihood that your baby will be born with CRS. […] Fetal diagnosis during pregnancy: If you get rubella during pregnancy, your provider may recommend certain tests to see if the virus passed on to the fetus. These tests include amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling, and fetal blood sampling. […] Diagnosis after birth: A blood test (using ELISA) can check for the presence of rubella virus antibodies in your baby after birth. Your babys provider may also take a sample of their pee (urine) or spit or swab the inside of their nose to check the sample for the rubella virus. Their provider may order these tests if you had a known rubella infection and/or if your baby has signs of CRS.

• #53 Rubella – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559040/

  Recent primary rubella infections can also be confirmed by rubella-specific low avidity IgG. […] In those cases in which a pregnant woman has been exposed to a suspected rubella case, a specimen of blood should be tested as soon as possible for the measurement of rubella-specific IgG antibodies. […] Congenital rubella infection may be diagnosed prenatally either by a demonstration of specific IgM in fetal blood or by the detection rubella RNA in amniotic fluid, fetal blood, or chorionic villus biopsy using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). […] In the newborn period, the serologic diagnosis of congenital rubella is made by the detection of rubella-specific IgM within the first 6 months of life. […] Congenital rubella infection can also be confirmed by the increase or persistence of rubella-specific IgG in the infant after 6 to 12 months of age. […] Detection of the viral genome in nasopharyngeal swabs, urine, and oral fluid by RT-PCR provides laboratory evidence of CRS.

• #54 Rubella (German measles) revisited | HKMJ

  https://www.hkmj.org/abstracts/v25n2/134.htm

  Among all the serologic tests available, enzyme linked immunoassays (ELISA) are most commonly used to measure rubella-specific IgG and IgM because they are very sensitive, highly specific, technically easy to perform, rapid, and relatively inexpensive. […] The diagnosis of congenital rubella syndrome can be confirmed by the detection of rubella-specific IgM antibody in the cord blood or in the neonatal serum collected within the first 6 months of life. […] Detection of rubella virus RNA by RT-PCR in nasopharyngeal swab or urine provides laboratory evidence of congenital rubella syndrome.

• #55 Rubella – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559040/

  Recent primary rubella infections can also be confirmed by rubella-specific low avidity IgG. […] In those cases in which a pregnant woman has been exposed to a suspected rubella case, a specimen of blood should be tested as soon as possible for the measurement of rubella-specific IgG antibodies. […] Congenital rubella infection may be diagnosed prenatally either by a demonstration of specific IgM in fetal blood or by the detection rubella RNA in amniotic fluid, fetal blood, or chorionic villus biopsy using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). […] In the newborn period, the serologic diagnosis of congenital rubella is made by the detection of rubella-specific IgM within the first 6 months of life. […] Congenital rubella infection can also be confirmed by the increase or persistence of rubella-specific IgG in the infant after 6 to 12 months of age. […] Detection of the viral genome in nasopharyngeal swabs, urine, and oral fluid by RT-PCR provides laboratory evidence of CRS.

• #56 Rubella (German measles) revisited | HKMJ

  https://www.hkmj.org/abstracts/v25n2/134.htm

  Among all the serologic tests available, enzyme linked immunoassays (ELISA) are most commonly used to measure rubella-specific IgG and IgM because they are very sensitive, highly specific, technically easy to perform, rapid, and relatively inexpensive. […] The diagnosis of congenital rubella syndrome can be confirmed by the detection of rubella-specific IgM antibody in the cord blood or in the neonatal serum collected within the first 6 months of life. […] Detection of rubella virus RNA by RT-PCR in nasopharyngeal swab or urine provides laboratory evidence of congenital rubella syndrome.

• #57 Rubella – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559040/

  Recent primary rubella infections can also be confirmed by rubella-specific low avidity IgG. […] In those cases in which a pregnant woman has been exposed to a suspected rubella case, a specimen of blood should be tested as soon as possible for the measurement of rubella-specific IgG antibodies. […] Congenital rubella infection may be diagnosed prenatally either by a demonstration of specific IgM in fetal blood or by the detection rubella RNA in amniotic fluid, fetal blood, or chorionic villus biopsy using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). […] In the newborn period, the serologic diagnosis of congenital rubella is made by the detection of rubella-specific IgM within the first 6 months of life. […] Congenital rubella infection can also be confirmed by the increase or persistence of rubella-specific IgG in the infant after 6 to 12 months of age. […] Detection of the viral genome in nasopharyngeal swabs, urine, and oral fluid by RT-PCR provides laboratory evidence of CRS.

• #58 Togaviruses: Rubella Virus – Medical Microbiology – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8200/

  Rubella is suggested by typical rash and lymphadenopathy. This diagnosis is confirmed by virus isolation and serologic studies. […] The occurrence of the typical rash and lymphadenopathy may suggest the diagnosis of rubella. Laboratory diagnosis of rubella is typically made by using serologic studies (i.e., detection of IgM and/or fourfold antibody rises). The presence of specific IgM antibodies indicates recent rubella infection. […] Congenital rubella in the neonate is diagnosed by virus isolation or serologic testing. The affected neonate has circulating antibodies, including transplacentally acquired maternal IgG antibody and actively produced fetal and neonatal IgM antibody. Maternal IgG antibody is detectable in the neonate and wanes during the first 6 months of life. Therefore, the persistence of IgG antibody beyond 6 months or the demonstration of IgM antibody is diagnostic for congenital rubella infection.

• #59 Rubella Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment – Cura4U

  https://cura4u.com/conditions/rubella

  Many cases of rubella may be asymptomatic, and the rash resembles a lot of viral infections. Therefore laboratory investigations for the diagnosis of rubella are of prime importance. These include: […] Serology testing is done by measuring IgM or IgG antibody levels. The presence of IgM and a four-fold increase in the levels of IgG antibodies against rubella is confirmatory for diagnosis. […] Viral culture from urine or nasal samples can also be done, but it is an expensive and time-consuming method. […] Congenital rubella can be detected by serologic testing of placental blood for antibodies. […] Other methods for diagnosis of congenital rubella are placental biopsy and then PCR for detection of the virus. […] In some babies with congenital rubella, the virus can persist after birth for up to one year and be detected through serologic testing. […] Complete blood count may indicate leukopenia and thrombocytopenia. […] Liver function tests such as bilirubin, ALT, ALP, etc., are also raised.

• #60 Rubella (german measles)

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/rubella

  Because rubella is usually mild and self-limiting, diagnosis in healthy children is based on the characteristic history and physical examination. […] Diagnosis of rubella in adults, particularly women of childbearing age, should be confirmed with laboratory testing, as one based on clinical presentation alone is unreliable. The most common test is IgG and IgM serology. Rubella virus can be isolated from throat swabs, blood, urine and spinal fluid by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing and molecular typing. […] Other tests include CBC, to detect thrombocytopenia and leucopenia, and LFT, to detect viral hepatitis.

• #61 Rubella Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment – Cura4U

  https://cura4u.com/conditions/rubella

  Many cases of rubella may be asymptomatic, and the rash resembles a lot of viral infections. Therefore laboratory investigations for the diagnosis of rubella are of prime importance. These include: […] Serology testing is done by measuring IgM or IgG antibody levels. The presence of IgM and a four-fold increase in the levels of IgG antibodies against rubella is confirmatory for diagnosis. […] Viral culture from urine or nasal samples can also be done, but it is an expensive and time-consuming method. […] Congenital rubella can be detected by serologic testing of placental blood for antibodies. […] Other methods for diagnosis of congenital rubella are placental biopsy and then PCR for detection of the virus. […] In some babies with congenital rubella, the virus can persist after birth for up to one year and be detected through serologic testing. […] Complete blood count may indicate leukopenia and thrombocytopenia. […] Liver function tests such as bilirubin, ALT, ALP, etc., are also raised.

• #62 Rubella (german measles)

  https://dermnetnz.org/topics/rubella

  Because rubella is usually mild and self-limiting, diagnosis in healthy children is based on the characteristic history and physical examination. […] Diagnosis of rubella in adults, particularly women of childbearing age, should be confirmed with laboratory testing, as one based on clinical presentation alone is unreliable. The most common test is IgG and IgM serology. Rubella virus can be isolated from throat swabs, blood, urine and spinal fluid by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing and molecular typing. […] Other tests include CBC, to detect thrombocytopenia and leucopenia, and LFT, to detect viral hepatitis.

• #63 Rubella Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment – Cura4U

  https://cura4u.com/conditions/rubella

  Many cases of rubella may be asymptomatic, and the rash resembles a lot of viral infections. Therefore laboratory investigations for the diagnosis of rubella are of prime importance. These include: […] Serology testing is done by measuring IgM or IgG antibody levels. The presence of IgM and a four-fold increase in the levels of IgG antibodies against rubella is confirmatory for diagnosis. […] Viral culture from urine or nasal samples can also be done, but it is an expensive and time-consuming method. […] Congenital rubella can be detected by serologic testing of placental blood for antibodies. […] Other methods for diagnosis of congenital rubella are placental biopsy and then PCR for detection of the virus. […] In some babies with congenital rubella, the virus can persist after birth for up to one year and be detected through serologic testing. […] Complete blood count may indicate leukopenia and thrombocytopenia. […] Liver function tests such as bilirubin, ALT, ALP, etc., are also raised.

• #64 Rubella Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment – Cura4U

  https://cura4u.com/conditions/rubella

  Many cases of rubella may be asymptomatic, and the rash resembles a lot of viral infections. Therefore laboratory investigations for the diagnosis of rubella are of prime importance. These include: […] Serology testing is done by measuring IgM or IgG antibody levels. The presence of IgM and a four-fold increase in the levels of IgG antibodies against rubella is confirmatory for diagnosis. […] Viral culture from urine or nasal samples can also be done, but it is an expensive and time-consuming method. […] Congenital rubella can be detected by serologic testing of placental blood for antibodies. […] Other methods for diagnosis of congenital rubella are placental biopsy and then PCR for detection of the virus. […] In some babies with congenital rubella, the virus can persist after birth for up to one year and be detected through serologic testing. […] Complete blood count may indicate leukopenia and thrombocytopenia. […] Liver function tests such as bilirubin, ALT, ALP, etc., are also raised.

• #65 Rubella (German measles) – including symptoms, treatment and prevention | SA Health

  https://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/public+content/sa+health+internet/conditions/infectious+diseases/rubella/rubella+german+measles+-+including+symptoms+treatment+and+prevention

  Rubella is diagnosed by a blood test. Clinical diagnosis based on the appearance of the rash is unreliable. […] Rubella is a notifiable condition.

• #66 Rubella (German measles) | Australian Government Department of Health and Aged Care

  https://www.health.gov.au/diseases/rubella-german-measles

  Rubella (German measles) […] For information about symptoms, diagnosis and treatment, see healthdirect’s rubella page. […] Rubella is a nationally notifiable disease. […] We monitor cases through the National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System (NNDSS).

• #67

  https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/rubella-german-measles-guidance-data-and-analysis

  The Immunisation and Diagnosis Unit (IDU) provides diagnostic and reference services for measles, mumps and rubella (MMR). […] Rubella is a notifiable disease in England and Wales. […] Immunisation is the most effective way to protect against rubella. Children should receive 2 doses of measles, mumps and rubella (MMR) vaccinations before the age of 5 years.

• #68 Rubella – Diagnosis & treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/rubella/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20377315

  The rubella rash can look like many other viral rashes. So health care providers usually confirm rubella with the help of lab tests. You may have a virus culture or a blood test, which can detect the presence of different types of rubella antibodies in your blood. These antibodies show whether you’ve had a recent or past infection or a rubella vaccine. […] When you check in for the appointment, be sure to tell the check-in desk that you suspect an infectious disease. You and your child may be asked to wear a face mask or shown to an exam room immediately.

• #69 Rubella (German Measles) Symptoms, Vaccine & Treatment | Ada

  https://ada.com/conditions/rubella/

  Symptoms such as a rash and swollen glands may indicate rubella, but a blood or saliva test is the only way to definitively diagnose infection. The blood test is sometimes referred to as an antibody titer test, which is a way of measuring antibodies in a blood sample. […] Blood and saliva tests for rubella check for antibody levels in the body. There are two types of antibody that indicate rubella: […] If rubella is suspected, always contact the doctor before visiting the surgery. Rubella is contagious, and the doctor will likely want to prepare for the visit to limit the risk of infecting others. […] A blood or saliva test can confirm whether or not there are antibodies in the blood that can provide immunity against rubella or if an infection has happened recently. […] The CDC recommends testing for rubella-related antibodies before getting pregnant. If there are not enough antibodies present, the MMR vaccine should be administered.

• #70 Measles and Rubella Diagnostic and Classification Challenges in Near- and Post-Elimination Countries

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/12/6/697

  Measles and rubella are vaccine-preventable viral diseases and can be prevented by safe, highly effective vaccination with measles- and rubella-containing vaccines. Given the myriad causes of febrile exanthems, laboratory surveillance for both measles and rubella is important to document the incidence of these diseases and to track the progress and maintenance of elimination in near- and post-elimination settings. Diagnostic challenges can hinder effective surveillance and classification challenges can hinder efforts to demonstrate achievement or maintenance of elimination. In this report, we review diagnostic and classification challenges for measles and rubella in near- and post-elimination settings. […] Diagnostic challenges can hinder effective surveillance efforts for measles and rubella, particularly accurate and effective contact investigations, which are key components of achieving and maintaining elimination. The classification of cases is also an integral part of achieving and demonstrating the ongoing elimination of measles and rubella at a national and subnational level. Case classification addressed in this discussion includes laboratory confirmation of a measles or rubella case (or the discarding of a suspected case); the differentiation of primary or secondary vaccine failure cases when measles or rubella occurs among those with pre-existing immunity; the determination of vaccine-associated reactions which can mimic measles or rubella; and the classification of measles or rubella cases by source of infection (i.e., imported, import-associated, endemic, or unknown).

• #71 Disease factsheet about rubella

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/rubella/factsheet

  Rubella is typically a mild disease with few complications, and infections go unrecognised or are asymptomatic. […] Clinically, rubella is indistinguishable from febrile rash illnesses caused by measles, parvovirus B19, human herpes virus 6 (HHV6), Coxsackie virus, ECHO virus, adenovirus and dengue virus, and laboratory confirmation is required for diagnosis unless there is an epidemiological link to a confirmed case. […] There are three standard tests for laboratory confirmation of a suspect rubella case: isolation of rubella virus from a clinical specimen; detection of rubella virus nucleic acid in a clinical specimen; rubella virus specific IgG antibody response in serum or saliva. […] A specific IgM antibody response indicates a probable acute infection. […] Suspected rubella infection among contacts of a pregnant woman should be laboratory confirmed as a matter of urgency wherever possible.

• #72 Measles – Diagnosis & treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/measles/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20374862

  Measles may be diagnosed by a healthcare professional based on the disease’s rash as well as tiny white spots inside the mouth, called Koplik spots. The healthcare team may ask whether you or your child has had the measles vaccine, traveled to places where measles is spreading or been around anyone with a rash or fever. […] Lab tests can confirm that a person has measles. These tests may look for genetic evidence of the virus or proteins used in the body’s response to the virus. To test for measles, your healthcare professional may use a swab to collect a sample from your nose or throat. You also may be asked to give a urine or blood sample.

• #73 Disease factsheet about rubella

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/rubella/factsheet

  Rubella is typically a mild disease with few complications, and infections go unrecognised or are asymptomatic. […] Clinically, rubella is indistinguishable from febrile rash illnesses caused by measles, parvovirus B19, human herpes virus 6 (HHV6), Coxsackie virus, ECHO virus, adenovirus and dengue virus, and laboratory confirmation is required for diagnosis unless there is an epidemiological link to a confirmed case. […] There are three standard tests for laboratory confirmation of a suspect rubella case: isolation of rubella virus from a clinical specimen; detection of rubella virus nucleic acid in a clinical specimen; rubella virus specific IgG antibody response in serum or saliva. […] A specific IgM antibody response indicates a probable acute infection. […] Suspected rubella infection among contacts of a pregnant woman should be laboratory confirmed as a matter of urgency wherever possible.

• #74 Disease factsheet about rubella

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/rubella/factsheet

  Rubella is typically a mild disease with few complications, and infections go unrecognised or are asymptomatic. […] Clinically, rubella is indistinguishable from febrile rash illnesses caused by measles, parvovirus B19, human herpes virus 6 (HHV6), Coxsackie virus, ECHO virus, adenovirus and dengue virus, and laboratory confirmation is required for diagnosis unless there is an epidemiological link to a confirmed case. […] There are three standard tests for laboratory confirmation of a suspect rubella case: isolation of rubella virus from a clinical specimen; detection of rubella virus nucleic acid in a clinical specimen; rubella virus specific IgG antibody response in serum or saliva. […] A specific IgM antibody response indicates a probable acute infection. […] Suspected rubella infection among contacts of a pregnant woman should be laboratory confirmed as a matter of urgency wherever possible.

• #75 Disease factsheet about rubella

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/rubella/factsheet

  Rubella is typically a mild disease with few complications, and infections go unrecognised or are asymptomatic. […] Clinically, rubella is indistinguishable from febrile rash illnesses caused by measles, parvovirus B19, human herpes virus 6 (HHV6), Coxsackie virus, ECHO virus, adenovirus and dengue virus, and laboratory confirmation is required for diagnosis unless there is an epidemiological link to a confirmed case. […] There are three standard tests for laboratory confirmation of a suspect rubella case: isolation of rubella virus from a clinical specimen; detection of rubella virus nucleic acid in a clinical specimen; rubella virus specific IgG antibody response in serum or saliva. […] A specific IgM antibody response indicates a probable acute infection. […] Suspected rubella infection among contacts of a pregnant woman should be laboratory confirmed as a matter of urgency wherever possible.

• #76 Disease factsheet about rubella

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/rubella/factsheet

  Rubella is typically a mild disease with few complications, and infections go unrecognised or are asymptomatic. […] Clinically, rubella is indistinguishable from febrile rash illnesses caused by measles, parvovirus B19, human herpes virus 6 (HHV6), Coxsackie virus, ECHO virus, adenovirus and dengue virus, and laboratory confirmation is required for diagnosis unless there is an epidemiological link to a confirmed case. […] There are three standard tests for laboratory confirmation of a suspect rubella case: isolation of rubella virus from a clinical specimen; detection of rubella virus nucleic acid in a clinical specimen; rubella virus specific IgG antibody response in serum or saliva. […] A specific IgM antibody response indicates a probable acute infection. […] Suspected rubella infection among contacts of a pregnant woman should be laboratory confirmed as a matter of urgency wherever possible.

• #77 Rubella (German measles) | informedhealth.org

  https://www.informedhealth.org/rubella-german-measles.html

  Rubella is sometimes mistaken for other diseases such as measles or scarlet fever. So in order to find out for sure whether it’s rubella, a throat swab or urine sample has to be taken and tested for the virus. A blood test for antibodies can be done too, but only provides reliable results several days after the rash appears. […] If a doctor suspects that you have rubella, they have to inform the relevant health authorities immediately even if the diagnosis hasn’t yet been confirmed.

• #78 Disease factsheet about rubella

  https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/rubella/factsheet

  Rubella is typically a mild disease with few complications, and infections go unrecognised or are asymptomatic. […] Clinically, rubella is indistinguishable from febrile rash illnesses caused by measles, parvovirus B19, human herpes virus 6 (HHV6), Coxsackie virus, ECHO virus, adenovirus and dengue virus, and laboratory confirmation is required for diagnosis unless there is an epidemiological link to a confirmed case. […] There are three standard tests for laboratory confirmation of a suspect rubella case: isolation of rubella virus from a clinical specimen; detection of rubella virus nucleic acid in a clinical specimen; rubella virus specific IgG antibody response in serum or saliva. […] A specific IgM antibody response indicates a probable acute infection. […] Suspected rubella infection among contacts of a pregnant woman should be laboratory confirmed as a matter of urgency wherever possible.

• #79 Measles and Rubella Diagnostic and Classification Challenges in Near- and Post-Elimination Countries

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/12/6/697

  Measles and rubella are vaccine-preventable viral diseases and can be prevented by safe, highly effective vaccination with measles- and rubella-containing vaccines. Given the myriad causes of febrile exanthems, laboratory surveillance for both measles and rubella is important to document the incidence of these diseases and to track the progress and maintenance of elimination in near- and post-elimination settings. Diagnostic challenges can hinder effective surveillance and classification challenges can hinder efforts to demonstrate achievement or maintenance of elimination. In this report, we review diagnostic and classification challenges for measles and rubella in near- and post-elimination settings. […] Diagnostic challenges can hinder effective surveillance efforts for measles and rubella, particularly accurate and effective contact investigations, which are key components of achieving and maintaining elimination. The classification of cases is also an integral part of achieving and demonstrating the ongoing elimination of measles and rubella at a national and subnational level. Case classification addressed in this discussion includes laboratory confirmation of a measles or rubella case (or the discarding of a suspected case); the differentiation of primary or secondary vaccine failure cases when measles or rubella occurs among those with pre-existing immunity; the determination of vaccine-associated reactions which can mimic measles or rubella; and the classification of measles or rubella cases by source of infection (i.e., imported, import-associated, endemic, or unknown).

• #80 Rubella (German Measles or Three-Day Measles)

  https://www.health.ny.gov/diseases/communicable/rubella/fact_sheet.htm

  Rubella vaccine is given in combination measles, mumps, rubella (MMR) vaccine and is recommended for anyone born on or after January 1, 1957 who does not have laboratory evidence of rubella immunity. Birth before 1957 is not acceptable evidence of rubella immunity for women who could become pregnant; women of childbearing age should have their immunity checked and receive rubella vaccine if needed. […] In New York State, rubella vaccine is required of all children enrolled in all pre-kindergarten programs and schools. Healthcare personnel and college students are also required to demonstrate immunity against rubella. […] Maintaining high levels of rubella immunization in the community is critical to controlling the spread. Control of the spread of rubella is needed primarily to prevent the birth defects caused by CRS. Therefore, women of childbearing age should have their immunity checked and receive rubella vaccine if needed. Infected individuals should be excluded from work or school during their infectious period.

• #81 Use of Measles and Rubella Rapid Diagnostic Tests to Improve Case Detection and Targeting of Vaccinations

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/12/8/823

  Efforts to control and eliminate measles and rubella are aided by high-quality surveillance data—supported by laboratory confirmation—to guide decision-making on routine immunization strategies and locations for conducting preventive supplementary immunization activities (SIAs) and outbreak response. […] Important developments in rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) for measles and rubella present new opportunities for the global measles and rubella surveillance program to greatly improve the ability to rapidly detect and respond to outbreaks. […] Here, we review the status of RDTs for measles and rubella Immunoglobulin M (IgM) testing, as well as ongoing questions and challenges regarding the operational use and deployment of RDTs as part of global measles and rubella surveillance. […] Accurate and timely surveillance data incorporating laboratory testing results for both measles and rubella can also help monitor the quality of routine immunization services.

• #82 Use of Measles and Rubella Rapid Diagnostic Tests to Improve Case Detection and Targeting of Vaccinations

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/12/8/823

  Efforts to control and eliminate measles and rubella are aided by high-quality surveillance data—supported by laboratory confirmation—to guide decision-making on routine immunization strategies and locations for conducting preventive supplementary immunization activities (SIAs) and outbreak response. […] Important developments in rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) for measles and rubella present new opportunities for the global measles and rubella surveillance program to greatly improve the ability to rapidly detect and respond to outbreaks. […] Here, we review the status of RDTs for measles and rubella Immunoglobulin M (IgM) testing, as well as ongoing questions and challenges regarding the operational use and deployment of RDTs as part of global measles and rubella surveillance. […] Accurate and timely surveillance data incorporating laboratory testing results for both measles and rubella can also help monitor the quality of routine immunization services.

• #83 Measles and Rubella Diagnostic and Classification Challenges in Near- and Post-Elimination Countries

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/12/6/697

  The achievement and maintenance of measles and rubella elimination requires intensive case- and laboratory-based surveillance. Diagnostic and classification challenges persist in near- and post-elimination settings. Integrating epidemiologic and laboratory findings, including results from both serologic and molecular modalities, can help alleviate some diagnostic and classification challenges in these settings.

• #84 Rubella (German Measles or Three-Day Measles)

  https://www.health.ny.gov/diseases/communicable/rubella/fact_sheet.htm

  Rubella vaccine is given in combination measles, mumps, rubella (MMR) vaccine and is recommended for anyone born on or after January 1, 1957 who does not have laboratory evidence of rubella immunity. Birth before 1957 is not acceptable evidence of rubella immunity for women who could become pregnant; women of childbearing age should have their immunity checked and receive rubella vaccine if needed. […] In New York State, rubella vaccine is required of all children enrolled in all pre-kindergarten programs and schools. Healthcare personnel and college students are also required to demonstrate immunity against rubella. […] Maintaining high levels of rubella immunization in the community is critical to controlling the spread. Control of the spread of rubella is needed primarily to prevent the birth defects caused by CRS. Therefore, women of childbearing age should have their immunity checked and receive rubella vaccine if needed. Infected individuals should be excluded from work or school during their infectious period.

• #85 German Measles (Rubella): Causes, Symptoms, and Treatments

  https://www.healthline.com/health/rubella

  German measles is typically a mild infection that goes away within one week, even without treatment. […] Its important to get treatment right away if youre pregnant and suspect you have German measles. […] Since German measles appears similar to other viruses that cause rashes, your doctor will confirm your diagnosis with a blood test. This can check for the presence of different types of rubella antibodies in your blood. Antibodies are proteins that recognize and destroy harmful substances, such as viruses and bacteria. The test results can indicate whether you currently have the virus or are immune to it. […] To avoid complications during pregnancy, many women who become pregnant are given a blood test to confirm immunity to rubella. […] Women of childbearing age should have their immunity to rubella tested before becoming pregnant. If a vaccine is needed, its important to get it at least 28 days before trying to conceive.

• #86 Use of Measles and Rubella Rapid Diagnostic Tests to Improve Case Detection and Targeting of Vaccinations

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/12/8/823

  Efforts to control and eliminate measles and rubella are aided by high-quality surveillance data—supported by laboratory confirmation—to guide decision-making on routine immunization strategies and locations for conducting preventive supplementary immunization activities (SIAs) and outbreak response. […] Important developments in rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) for measles and rubella present new opportunities for the global measles and rubella surveillance program to greatly improve the ability to rapidly detect and respond to outbreaks. […] Here, we review the status of RDTs for measles and rubella Immunoglobulin M (IgM) testing, as well as ongoing questions and challenges regarding the operational use and deployment of RDTs as part of global measles and rubella surveillance. […] Accurate and timely surveillance data incorporating laboratory testing results for both measles and rubella can also help monitor the quality of routine immunization services.

• #87 Use of Measles and Rubella Rapid Diagnostic Tests to Improve Case Detection and Targeting of Vaccinations

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/12/8/823

  Rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) based on lateral flow technology are increasingly used for the diagnosis of infections by detection of antibodies or antigens. […] In contrast to measles IgM RDTs, multiple rubella IgM RDTs are already commercially available, although none have yet been validated by the GMRLN or the WHO. […] Accurate measles and rubella IgM RDTs could eventually create a range of options for more decentralized testing for measles and rubella. […] To realize the potential benefits of measles and rubella IgM RDTs to make measles and rubella surveillance in low- and middle-income countries more effective and efficient, such RDTs would need to be deployed at scale in those countries. […] Validation of diagnostic tests, i.e., evaluation by an independent organization of the accuracy and reliability of a diagnostic test, is essential to indicate to international organizations, national governments, and others involved in diagnostic test procurement which tests are worth procuring and deploying.

• #88 Use of Measles and Rubella Rapid Diagnostic Tests to Improve Case Detection and Targeting of Vaccinations

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/12/8/823

  Rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) based on lateral flow technology are increasingly used for the diagnosis of infections by detection of antibodies or antigens. […] In contrast to measles IgM RDTs, multiple rubella IgM RDTs are already commercially available, although none have yet been validated by the GMRLN or the WHO. […] Accurate measles and rubella IgM RDTs could eventually create a range of options for more decentralized testing for measles and rubella. […] To realize the potential benefits of measles and rubella IgM RDTs to make measles and rubella surveillance in low- and middle-income countries more effective and efficient, such RDTs would need to be deployed at scale in those countries. […] Validation of diagnostic tests, i.e., evaluation by an independent organization of the accuracy and reliability of a diagnostic test, is essential to indicate to international organizations, national governments, and others involved in diagnostic test procurement which tests are worth procuring and deploying.

• #89 Use of Measles and Rubella Rapid Diagnostic Tests to Improve Case Detection and Targeting of Vaccinations

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/12/8/823

  Laboratory-based enzyme immunoassay (EIA) testing of sera for measles and rubella immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibodies is currently the mainstay of testing for both diseases. […] Over recent years, quantitative real-time reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) has been used increasingly to complement IgM detection for case confirmation. […] The World Health Organization (WHO) Global Measles and Rubella Laboratory Network (GMRLN), a network of over 700 laboratories operating in 191 countries, has played a key role in supporting laboratory testing worldwide, including evaluating commercially available measles and rubella EIA test kits. […] Despite these achievements, challenges related to timely and accurate laboratory testing persist, primarily due to limited laboratory and staff capacity and the availability of EIA test kits.

• #90 Use of Measles and Rubella Rapid Diagnostic Tests to Improve Case Detection and Targeting of Vaccinations

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/12/8/823

  Laboratory-based enzyme immunoassay (EIA) testing of sera for measles and rubella immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibodies is currently the mainstay of testing for both diseases. […] Over recent years, quantitative real-time reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) has been used increasingly to complement IgM detection for case confirmation. […] The World Health Organization (WHO) Global Measles and Rubella Laboratory Network (GMRLN), a network of over 700 laboratories operating in 191 countries, has played a key role in supporting laboratory testing worldwide, including evaluating commercially available measles and rubella EIA test kits. […] Despite these achievements, challenges related to timely and accurate laboratory testing persist, primarily due to limited laboratory and staff capacity and the availability of EIA test kits.

• #91 Use of Measles and Rubella Rapid Diagnostic Tests to Improve Case Detection and Targeting of Vaccinations

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/12/8/823

  The GMRLN is positioned to play a similar role for measles and rubella IgM RDTs, helping to guide international organizations, including GAVI, on whether specific RDTs warrant scaling up. […] Measles and rubella IgM RDTs have the potential to markedly improve testing and surveillance for measles and rubella, especially for rapid detection and response to measles and rubella outbreaks.

• #92 Rubella (German Measles): Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17798-rubella

  Rubella usually causes mild illness and goes away on its own. Since it can be contagious for up to two weeks, you should avoid being around other people as much as possible while you have symptoms and for a week after your rash appears. […] If you or your child have symptoms of rubella, contact your healthcare provider. If you plan on getting pregnant, talk to your provider about protecting yourself against rubella before getting pregnant.

• #93 Rubella (German Measles): Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17798-rubella

  Rubella usually causes mild illness and goes away on its own. Since it can be contagious for up to two weeks, you should avoid being around other people as much as possible while you have symptoms and for a week after your rash appears. […] If you or your child have symptoms of rubella, contact your healthcare provider. If you plan on getting pregnant, talk to your provider about protecting yourself against rubella before getting pregnant.

• #94 Diagnosing and treating German measles (rubella)

  https://www.mymed.com/diseases-conditions/german-measles-rubella/diagnosing-and-treating-german-measles-rubella

  Pregnant women who suspect, for any reason, that they may have the infection must see their physician as soon as possible. […] As with any other suspected case, a blood, and / or saliva test will be done to determine the presence of an infection or not. If the rubella virus is present, a pregnant woman will likely be referred to her gynaecologist (obstetrician) who specialises in conditions that affect an unborn baby.

• #95 Rubella Test – Testing.com

  https://www.testing.com/tests/rubella-test/

  The results of rubella antibody testing may be reported as follows: Detected, positive, or immune: Sufficient antibodies are present in the sample to indicate current infection, prior infection, or vaccination and subsequent immunity. […] If you have questions about your antibody test and what the results mean for your health, it is important to speak with your health care provider. […] The results of rubella testing are generally considered accurate, though no test is perfect. […] Typically, no follow-up testing is necessary after a test to check for rubella immunity or diagnose rubella infection in adults. […] To confirm a diagnosis of rubella in an infant, testing is conducted after birth and before the age of one. Testing may include rubella antibody tests and rubella NAAT.

• #96 Rubella Test – Testing.com

  https://www.testing.com/tests/rubella-test/

  The results of rubella antibody testing may be reported as follows: Detected, positive, or immune: Sufficient antibodies are present in the sample to indicate current infection, prior infection, or vaccination and subsequent immunity. […] If you have questions about your antibody test and what the results mean for your health, it is important to speak with your health care provider. […] The results of rubella testing are generally considered accurate, though no test is perfect. […] Typically, no follow-up testing is necessary after a test to check for rubella immunity or diagnose rubella infection in adults. […] To confirm a diagnosis of rubella in an infant, testing is conducted after birth and before the age of one. Testing may include rubella antibody tests and rubella NAAT.

• #97 Measles and Rubella Diagnostic and Classification Challenges in Near- and Post-Elimination Countries

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/12/6/697

  Despite the availability of robust molecular and serologic laboratory tests for the confirmation of measles and rubella infection, diagnostic challenges for measles and rubella persist in near- and post-elimination settings. As highlighted in these scenarios, many diagnostic challenges can be addressed by the combined use of serology and molecular diagnostics, which can provide complementary information. Although rRT-PCR has high sensitivity and specificity during the optimal timeframe for collection (i.e., within 3 days after rash onset), serology maintains utility for cases where there is a delayed recognition of measles or rubella, in cases where presence of measles virus may be short-lived (e.g., in those with pre-existing immunity), and in documentation of prior immunity and classification of vaccine failure where appropriate. However, it is important to note that laboratory testing results alone cannot substitute for thorough epidemiologic investigation of all cases, since case confirmation and classification is based on the evaluation of laboratory and epidemiologic data.

• #98 Measles and Rubella Diagnostic and Classification Challenges in Near- and Post-Elimination Countries

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/12/6/697

  The achievement and maintenance of measles and rubella elimination requires intensive case- and laboratory-based surveillance. Diagnostic and classification challenges persist in near- and post-elimination settings. Integrating epidemiologic and laboratory findings, including results from both serologic and molecular modalities, can help alleviate some diagnostic and classification challenges in these settings.

Zobacz więcej