Rak gruczołu krokowego z przerzutami

Rak gruczołu krokowego z przerzutami
Etiologia i przyczyny

Rak gruczołu krokowego z przerzutami (stadium IV) charakteryzuje się rozprzestrzenianiem komórek nowotworowych poza prostatę, najczęściej do kości (85-90% przypadków) oraz węzłów chłonnych i rzadziej do odległych narządów, takich jak płuca, wątroba czy mózg. Etiologia jest wieloczynnikowa, obejmująca czynniki genetyczne (mutacje w genach BRCA1/2, HOXB13, genach naprawy DNA jak ATM, CHEK2, NBN, BRIP1 oraz mutacje p53 i RB1), rodzinne (ryzyko wzrasta dwukrotnie przy chorobie u ojca lub brata, a nawet pięciokrotnie przy dwóch krewnych pierwszego stopnia), wiek (ryzyko rośnie po 50. roku życia), pochodzenie etniczne (większe u Afroamerykanów, mniejsze u Azjatów), a także czynniki środowiskowe i styl życia, takie jak otyłość (BMI ≥30 zwiększa ryzyko agresywnego raka o 20%), dieta bogata w nasycone tłuszcze i wapń, palenie tytoniu, przewlekłe zapalenie prostaty oraz infekcje przenoszone drogą płciową. Hormonalne mechanizmy, zwłaszcza związane z androgenami i mutacjami w receptorze androgenowym, odgrywają kluczową rolę w progresji choroby i oporności na kastrację.

Etiologia raka gruczołu krokowego z przerzutami

Rak gruczołu krokowego z przerzutami (metastatyczny) to zaawansowana postać nowotworu prostaty, w której komórki nowotworowe rozprzestrzeniły się poza gruczoł krokowy do innych części ciała. Jest to stadium IV raka prostaty, charakteryzujące się obecnością zmian przerzutowych w węzłach chłonnych, kościach lub odległych narządach. Dokładna przyczyna rozwoju raka gruczołu krokowego z przerzutami pozostaje nie w pełni wyjaśniona, jednak naukowcy zidentyfikowali szereg czynników zwiększających ryzyko tego schorzenia.¹²³

Czynniki genetyczne i dziedziczne

Rak gruczołu krokowego charakteryzuje się wysokim stopniem dziedziczności – nawet do 60% ryzyka tego nowotworu może być związane z czynnikami dziedzicznymi. Ta odziedziczona predyspozycja składa się z ryzyka związanego z powszechnymi wariantami genetycznymi oraz ryzykiem wynikającym z patogennych wariantów w genach o umiarkowanym i wysokim ryzyku.¹²

Mutacje w konkretnych genach zwiększają ryzyko rozwoju raka prostaty, który może postępować do formy przerzutowej:

Mutacje w genach BRCA1 i BRCA2 – powszechnie kojarzone z rakiem piersi i jajnika, także zwiększają ryzyko raka prostaty, w tym jego agresywnych form¹²
Mutacje w genie HOXB13 powiązane są z wyższym ryzykiem rozwoju zagrażających życiu form raka prostaty¹
Zespół Lyncha – dziedziczne schorzenie związane z mutacjami w genach naprawy niesparowania DNA (MMR), które zwiększa ryzyko raka prostaty¹²
Mutacje w genach naprawy DNA, takich jak ATM, CHEK2, NBN i BRIP1 zwiększają podatność na raka prostaty¹

Przerzutowy rak prostaty charakteryzuje się większą liczbą mutacji genetycznych niż choroba zlokalizowana. Wiele z tych mutacji występuje w genach, które chronią przed uszkodzeniami DNA, takich jak p53 (zmutowany w ponad 27% guzów przerzutowych w porównaniu do 8% w guzach zlokalizowanych) i RB1 (ponad 5% w guzach przerzutowych w porównaniu do 1% w guzach zlokalizowanych). Podobnie mutacje w genach związanych z naprawą DNA, takich jak BRCA2 i ATM, są rzadkie w chorobie zlokalizowanej, ale występują w co najmniej 7% i 5% przypadków choroby przerzutowej.¹

Rodzinne występowanie raka prostaty

Wyniki wielu dużych badań kliniczno-kontrolnych i kohortowych wskazują, że historia rodzinna jest istotnym czynnikiem ryzyka raka prostaty:¹²³

Mężczyźni, których ojciec lub brat mieli raka prostaty, mają dwukrotnie wyższe ryzyko rozwoju tej choroby¹²
Ryzyko wzrasta jeszcze bardziej, jeśli krewny pierwszego stopnia zachorował na raka prostaty w młodym wieku (przed 55. rokiem życia)¹
Mężczyźni z dwoma krewnymi pierwszego stopnia chorymi na raka prostaty mają 5-krotnie wyższe ryzyko¹
Pacjenci z silną rodzinną historią raka prostaty zwykle zachorują w młodszym wieku (o 2,9 roku) i z bardziej zaawansowaną miejscowo chorobą¹

Badania wykazały również, że historia rodzinna raka prostaty może być związana z gorszymi wynikami klinicznymi, co może wskazywać na większe prawdopodobieństwo progresji do formy przerzutowej.¹²

Czynniki demograficzne i etniczne

Wiek jest jednym z najsilniejszych czynników ryzyka raka prostaty, w tym jego formy przerzutowej. Ryzyko znacząco wzrasta po 50. roku życia, a większość przypadków diagnozowana jest u mężczyzn powyżej 65. roku życia.¹²³

Pochodzenie etniczne również odgrywa istotną rolę w ryzyku rozwoju raka prostaty:

Mężczyźni pochodzenia afroamerykańskiego i karaibsko-afrykańskiego mają wyższą zapadalność i śmiertelność z powodu raka prostaty w porównaniu do mężczyzn innych ras¹²³
Mężczyźni pochodzenia afroamerykańskiego są 1,67 razy bardziej narażeni na diagnozę raka prostaty w porównaniu do osób rasy białej¹
Mężczyźni pochodzenia azjatyckiego mają najniższe ryzyko zachorowania na raka prostaty¹

Etiologia tej zmienności w ryzyku raka prostaty jest prawdopodobnie wieloczynnikowa i może wynikać z czynników biologicznych, dostępu do opieki zdrowotnej i innych społecznych determinantów zdrowia.¹²

Czynniki hormonalne

Wpływy hormonalne przyczyniają się do przebiegu gruczolakoraka prostaty, w tym jego formy przerzutowej:¹

Badania sprzed kilkudziesięciu lat opisywały ścisły związek testosteronu/androgenów ze wzrostem prostaty, co doprowadziło do antyandorgenowej terapii jako jednego z podstawowych elementów leczenia przerzutowego raka prostaty¹
Wykazano związek między wysokimi poziomami testosteronu a zwiększonym ryzykiem raka prostaty¹
W przypadku przerzutowego raka prostaty hormonowrażliwego (mHSPC), komórki nowotworowe wykorzystują hormon androgen do wzrostu¹

Przejście od raka prostaty wrażliwego na kastrację do opornego na kastrację wiąże się również z nabyciem różnych mutacji genowych. W chorobie opornej na kastrację ponad 70% guzów ma mutacje w szlaku sygnałowym receptora androgenowego – amplifikacje i mutacje funkcjonalne w samym genie receptora, amplifikację jego aktywatorów (np. FOXA1) lub inaktywujące mutacje w jego negatywnych regulatorach (np. ZBTB16 i NCOR1).¹

Czynniki środowiskowe i związane ze stylem życia

Otyłość i nadwaga to drugi po paleniu najważniejszy czynnik zwiększający ryzyko rozwoju nowotworów.¹ W kontekście raka prostaty:

Nadwaga i otyłość zwiększają ryzyko przerzutowego lub zaawansowanego raka prostaty¹²³
Według American Cancer Society, otyłość (wskaźnik masy ciała BMI 30 lub wyższy) zwiększa ryzyko agresywnego raka prostaty o około 20%¹
Osoby otyłe mają również większe prawdopodobieństwo szybciej rosnącego raka prostaty i nawrotu nowotworu po leczeniu¹

Dieta może odgrywać rolę w rozwoju raka prostaty i jego nawrotach:¹²

Diety bogate w nasycone tłuszcze i produkty mleczne wydają się zwiększać ryzyko raka¹²
Wysokie spożycie wapnia jest związane z zaawansowanym rakiem prostaty¹²
Mężczyźni, którzy jedzą dużo tłustych pokarmów, szczególnie z czerwonego mięsa i innych źródeł tłuszczu zwierzęcego gotowanych w wysokiej temperaturze, mogą być bardziej narażeni na zaawansowany rak prostaty w porównaniu do tych, którzy tego nie robią¹

Aktywność fizyczna ma znaczący wpływ na ryzyko raka prostaty. Liczne badania wykazały, że istnieje odwrotna zależność między aktywnością fizyczną a ryzykiem progresji i śmiertelności z powodu raka prostaty.¹

Palenie tytoniu zwiększa ryzyko zachorowania na raka prostaty, raka prostaty z przerzutami oraz nawrotu nowotworu po leczeniu.¹²³

Narażenie na substancje chemiczne jest również istotnym czynnikiem ryzyka. Badania wykazały związek między rakiem prostaty a narażeniem na określone substancje chemiczne, takie jak:¹²

Arsen¹
Agent Orange – herbicyd używany podczas wojny w Wietnamie¹²
Kadm¹²
Pestycydy¹

Zapalenie i infekcje

Przewlekłe zapalenie prostaty (prostatitis) może być czynnikiem zwiększającym ryzyko raka prostaty:¹²

Zapalenie może prowadzić do uszkodzenia DNA komórek, co mogłoby przyczyniać się do przekształcenia normalnej komórki w komórkę nowotworową¹
Wiele badań wykazało, że długotrwałe zapalenie prostaty zwiększa ryzyko rozwoju raka prostaty i sprawia, że rak prostaty rośnie i rozprzestrzenia się szybciej¹²

Infekcje przenoszone drogą płciową mogą również zwiększać ryzyko:¹

Zakażenia chlamydią, rzeżączką lub kiłą wydają się zwiększać ryzyko rozwoju raka prostaty¹
Osoby, które miały infekcje przenoszone drogą płciową, mają 1,4 razy większe prawdopodobieństwo rozwoju choroby w porównaniu do populacji ogólnej¹

Mechanizm powstawania przerzutów w raku prostaty

Przerzuty w raku prostaty powstają, gdy komórki nowotworowe odrywają się od pierwotnego guza w prostacie i rozprzestrzeniają się do innych obszarów ciała. Proces ten jest wynikiem złożonej kaskady wydarzeń biologicznych.¹²

Proces przerzutowania

Rak gruczołu krokowego z przerzutami powstaje w wyniku następującego ciągu zdarzeń:¹²

Komórki nowotworowe gromadzą mutacje genetyczne w DNA, wpływające na geny zaangażowane we wzrost komórek, replikację, śmierć komórek i naprawę uszkodzeń DNA¹
W zaawansowanych guzach komórki mogą rozwinąć zdolność do oderwania się od pierwotnej lokalizacji tkanki i uniknięcia układu odpornościowego¹
Komórki te mogą rozprzestrzeniać się przez układ limfatyczny do pobliskich węzłów chłonnych lub przez krwiobieg do szpiku kostnego i (rzadziej) do innych miejsc w organizmie¹²
W nowych miejscach komórki nowotworowe zakłócają normalne funkcjonowanie organizmu i kontynuują wzrost¹

Typowe miejsca przerzutów

Rak prostaty najczęściej daje przerzuty do określonych tkanek i narządów:¹²

Kości – według Prostate Cancer Foundation, aż do 90% przerzutowych raków prostaty rozprzestrzenia się do kości. Przerzuty do kości są obserwowane w 85% do 90% przypadków przerzutowego raka prostaty¹²
Węzły chłonne – szczególnie te znajdujące się w pobliżu prostaty¹²
Odległe narządy – rzadziej niż do kości, rak prostaty może dawać przerzuty do płuc, wątroby i mózgu¹²

Kiedy rak prostaty rozprzestrzenia się poza prostatę do innego narządu, najczęściej rozprzestrzenia się do kości. Przerzuty do kości mogą powodować uwalnianie zbyt dużej ilości wapnia kostnego do krwi, prowadząc do hiperkalcemii.¹²

Czynniki wpływające na przerzutowanie

Na prawdopodobieństwo wystąpienia przerzutów w raku prostaty wpływa kilka czynników:¹

Agresywność nowotworu – określana przez wynik Gleasona lub Grupę Gradingową¹
Moment rozpoczęcia leczenia – wczesne wykrycie i leczenie może zmniejszyć ryzyko przerzutów¹
Odpowiedź na leczenie hormonalne – terapia deprywacji androgenowej (ADT) może opóźnić progresję choroby, ale rozwój oporności na kastrację zwiększa ryzyko przerzutów¹²

Badania przesiewowe PSA (Prostate-Specific Antigen) mogą pomóc zmniejszyć ryzyko rozwoju przerzutowego raka prostaty. Badania sugerują, że badania przesiewowe PSA spowodowały 72% spadek diagnoz przerzutowego raka prostaty.¹

Implikacje kliniczne i wnioski

Rak prostaty z przerzutami stanowi poważne wyzwanie kliniczne ze względu na złożoną etiologię i ograniczone możliwości leczenia. Zrozumienie czynników ryzyka i mechanizmów powstawania przerzutów jest kluczowe dla opracowania skutecznych strategii profilaktyki i leczenia.¹²

Chociaż istnieje wiele potencjalnych czynników ryzyka raka prostaty, poza pochodzeniem etnicznym i wiekiem, nie ma jednoznacznie potwierdzonego czynnika etiologicznego. Etiologia raka prostaty z przerzutami pozostaje wieloczynnikowa i nadal dość zagadkowa, z licznymi modyfikowalnymi i niemodyfikowalnymi czynnikami ryzyka związanymi z jego rozwojem.¹²

Zaawansowany (przerzutowy) rak prostaty może nie być uleczalny. Jednak dostępne leczenie może pomóc spowolnić postęp choroby i złagodzić objawy. Metody leczenia przerzutowego raka prostaty obejmują leczenie hormonalne, chemioterapię, terapię celowaną, immunoterapię i leczenie ukierunkowane na kości.¹²³

Według American Cancer Society, 5-letni względny wskaźnik przeżycia dla odległego (przerzutowego) raka prostaty wynosi około 34%. Postępy w terapiach, takich jak terapia hormonalna, chemioterapia, immunoterapia i leki celowane, nadal poprawiają wyniki i jakość życia mężczyzn z zaawansowanym rakiem prostaty.¹

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Materiały źródłowe

#1 The Etiology of Prostate Cancer – Prostate Cancer – NCBI Bookshelf
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK571322/
While the exact etiology of prostate cancer remains elusive, various modifiable and unmodifiable risk factors have been suggested as contributing factors. These include age, ethnicity, family history, genetics, obesity, diet, hormones, smoking, alcohol, and certain medications; however, none of these, perhaps with the exception of ethnicity and age, has been conclusively proven to be a definite etiological factor for prostate cancer. […] The etiology of prostate cancer is multifactorial and remain quite baffling, with numerous modifiable and unmodifiable risk factors associated with its development. Some well-established risk factors include advanced age, positive family history, and African ancestry. […] Prostate cancer has an increased heritability. Men with a brother or father diagnosed with prostate cancer have a two to four-fold risk of developing prostate cancer; the risk is higher if a brother is diagnosed.
#1 Genetics of Prostate Cancer (PDQÂ®) – NCI
https://www.cancer.gov/types/prostate/hp/prostate-genetics-pdq
Prostate cancer is highly heritable. Up to 60% of prostate cancer risk is caused by inherited factors. This inherited risk is comprised of risk from common genetic variants and risk from pathogenic variants in moderate-risk and high-risk genes. […] The etiology of this variation in prostate cancer risk is likely multifactorial and may be due to biological factors, access to health care, and other social determinants of health. […] Results from several large case-control studies and cohort studies representing various populations suggest that family history is a major risk factor in prostate cancer. […] A family history of a brother or father with prostate cancer increases the risk of prostate cancer, and the risk is inversely related to the age of the affected relative. […] There are multiple germline pathogenic variants and single nucleotide variants that are associated with prostate cancer risk.
#1 Prostate cancer: MedlinePlus GeneticsLock
https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/prostate-cancer/
Inherited variants in particular genes, such as BRCA1, BRCA2, and HOXB13, account for some cases of hereditary prostate cancer. Men with variants in these genes have a high risk of developing prostate cancer and, in some cases, other cancers during their lifetimes. In addition, men with BRCA2 or HOXB13 gene variants may have a higher risk of developing life-threatening forms of prostate cancer. […] In addition to genetic changes, researchers have identified many personal and environmental factors that may contribute to a person’s risk of developing prostate cancer. These factors include a high-fat diet that includes an excess of meat and dairy and not enough vegetables, a largely inactive (sedentary) lifestyle, obesity, excessive alcohol use, or exposure to certain toxic chemicals. A history of prostate cancer in closely related family members is also an important risk factor, particularly if the cancer occurred at an early age.
#1 Genetics of Prostate Cancer (PDQÂ®) – NCI
https://www.cancer.gov/types/prostate/hp/prostate-genetics-pdq
The first quantitative study described nine cases of prostate cancer occurring in a population-based cohort of 106 Norwegian male carriers of MMR gene pathogenic variants or obligate carriers. […] Although the risk of prostate cancer appears to be elevated in families with Lynch syndrome, strategies for germline testing for MMR gene pathogenic variants in index prostate cancer patients remain to be determined. […] A systematic review and meta-analysis that included 23 studies reported an association of prostate cancer with Lynch syndrome. […] A study of 1,133 primary prostate adenocarcinomas and 43 neuroendocrine prostate cancers conducted screening by MSH2 immunohistochemistry with confirmation by NGS. […] Pathogenic variants in MSH2 are associated with Lynch syndrome and an increase in prostate cancer risk. […] The metastatic prostate cancer setting is also contributing insights into the germline pathogenic variant spectrum of prostate cancer.
#1 Prostate Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470550/
Over 100 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and other genes have been linked to an increased risk of prostate cancer, including hereditary prostate cancer gene 1, various androgen and Vitamin D receptor genes, HPC1, HPC2, HPCX, CAPB, mutL homolog 1 (MLH1), mutS homologs 2 and 6 (MSH2 and MSH6), postmeiotic segregation increased 2 (PMS2), homeobox B13 (HOXB13), checkpoint kinase 2 (CHEK2), nibrin (NBN), BRCA1-interacting protein C-terminal helicase 1 (BRIP1), ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM), and the TMPRSS2-ETS gene family, such as TMPRSS2-ERG and TMPRSS2-ETV1/4, all of which tend to promote cancer cell growth. […] Prostate cancer is generally linked to the typical Western diet. […] High calcium intake is associated with advanced prostate cancer. […] Diets high in saturated fat and dairy products seem to increase the cancer risk.
#1 Prostate cancer – Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostate_cancer
Metastatic prostate cancer tends to have more genetic mutations than localized disease. Many of these mutations are in genes that protect from DNA damage, such as p53 (mutated in 8% of localized tumors, more than 27% of metastatic ones) and RB1 (1% of localized tumors, more than 5% of metastatic ones). Similarly mutations in the DNA repair-related genes BRCA2 and ATM are rare in localized disease but found in at least 7% and 5% of metastatic disease cases respectively. […] The transition from castrate-sensitive to castrate-resistant prostate cancer is also accompanied by the acquisition of various gene mutations. In castrate-resistant disease, more than 70% of tumors have mutations in the androgen receptor signaling pathway amplifications and gain-of-function mutations in the receptor gene itself, amplification of its activators (for example, FOXA1), or inactivating mutations in its negative regulators (for example, ZBTB16 and NCOR1). These androgen receptor disruptions are only found in up to 6% of biopsies of castrate-sensitive metastatic disease. Similarly, deletions of the tumor suppressor PTEN are harbored by 12-17% of castrate-sensitive tumors, but over 40% of castrate-resistant tumors.
#1 Prostate Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470550/
Men with a first-degree relative (father or brother) with prostate cancer have twice the risk of the general population. […] The risk increases further if the first-degree relative had early-onset (55 years) disease. […] Men with 2 first-degree relatives affected have a 5-fold greater risk. […] Patients with a strong family history of prostate cancer tend to present with cancer at a younger age (2.9 years) and with more locally advanced disease. […] In the United States, Black men are more commonly affected compared to White or Hispanic men, and it is more deadly in Blacks. […] No single gene is responsible for prostate cancer, although many genes have now been implicated. […] Mutations in breast cancer 1 (BRCA1), and particularly BRCA2, are associated with breast and prostate cancer.
#1 Genetics of Prostate Cancer (PDQÂ®) – NCI
https://www.cancer.gov/types/prostate/hp/prostate-genetics-pdq
Prostate cancer heritability (when considering low, moderate, and high-penetrant genetic factors) can be as high 57%. […] Genetic variants that contribute to this risk are continuously being identified. […] The risk of developing prostate cancer is dramatically higher in Black American individuals, who predominantly have West African ancestry when compared with other racial and ethnic groups in the United States. […] Evidence shows that a family history of prostate cancer can be associated with inferior clinical outcomes. […] A systematic review and meta-analysis found that BRCA1 and BRCA2 showed differences in prostate cancer aggressiveness. […] The risk of prostate cancer in carriers of BRCA pathogenic variants has been studied in various settings. […] The association between prostate cancer and pathogenic variants in BRCA1 and BRCA2 has also been studied in other populations.
#1 Prostate Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470550/
The major known risk factors for prostate cancer include age, ethnicity, obesity, and family history. The overall incidence increases as people get older; however, the aggressiveness of the cancer tends to decrease as individuals get older. […] Additional risk factors for prostate cancer include male gender, older age, positive family history, increased height, obesity, hypertension, lack of exercise, persistently elevated testosterone levels, exposure to Agent Orange, and ethnicity. […] Although the exact cause of prostate cancer remains unclear, genetics play a significant role. Genetic background, ethnicity, and family history are all known to contribute to prostate cancer risk. […] A family history of hereditary breast and ovarian cancer or Lynch syndrome increases the risk of prostate cancer, indicating a genetic connection.
#1 Prostate Cancer: Causes and Risk Factors
https://www.webmd.com/prostate-cancer/what-causes-prostate-cancer
In the U.S., there are racial disparities for many cancers. This is especially true for prostate cancer. Black men are 1.67 times more likely to get a diagnosis of prostate cancer compared to white people. […] There’s no clear cause to explain why some people get prostate cancer and others don’t. But many factors can influence your risk, including genes you carry, your exposures, your lifestyle, and other factors.
#1 Risk and causes of prostate cancer | Cancer Research UK
https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/prostate-cancer/risks-causes
Prostate cancer is not clearly linked to any preventable causes. Your risk of developing it depends on many things. These include age and ethnicity. […] Prostate cancer is more common in Black men than in White men. It is least common in Asian men. […] Your risk of prostate cancer is higher if you have a close relative who has had prostate cancer. […] Most cancers are not linked to inherited faulty genes. But some inherited faulty genes can increase your risk of prostate cancer. […] People who inherit faulty versions of BRCA 2 genes have an increased risk of developing different types of cancer. This includes prostate cancer. […] Obesity and overweight is the second biggest preventable cause of cancer after smoking. […] Being overweight or obese increases your risk of metastatic or advanced prostate cancer. Metastatic prostate cancer is a cancer that began in the prostate and has spread to another part of the body. […] Research has found that the risk of developing prostate cancer is higher in people exposed to high levels of pesticides. […] Some factors might increase the risk of prostate cancer but there is not enough evidence to be sure.
#1 Prostate Cancer – Genitourinary Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/genitourinary-disorders/genitourinary-cancers/prostate-cancer
Adenocarcinoma of the prostate is the most common nondermatologic cancer in men 50 in the United States. […] Genetic risk factors include BRCA1/2 mutations, Lynch syndrome, and family history of some hereditary breast and ovarian cancers. […] Hormonal influences contribute to the course of adenocarcinoma but almost certainly not to other types of prostate cancer. […] The effect of testosterone supplements on the risk of prostate cancer remains controversial. […] Data suggest that testosterone supplements for treatment of symptomatic hypogonadism do not increase the risk of prostate cancer. […] Hormonal therapy is effective in metastatic prostate cancer for a limited amount of time. […] Cancer that progresses (indicated by an increasing PSA level) despite a testosterone level consistent with castration is classified as castrate-resistant prostate cancer.
#1 The Etiology of Prostate Cancer – Prostate Cancer – NCBI Bookshelf
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK571322/
There are ethnic and geographic variations in the incidence of prostate cancer. There is a higher incidence, severity, and mortality rates amongst men of black African descent. […] Among the modifiable risk factors for prostate cancer, smoking has been shown to have an association with prostate cancer incidence and mortality. […] Obesity and increased body mass index have been associated with numerous cancers including prostate cancer, with increased adiposity leading to increased mortality risk of prostate cancer. […] Numerous studies have shown that there is an inverse relationship between physical activity and risk of progression and mortality from prostate cancer. […] Diet and nutrition have been implicated in many cancers including prostate cancer. […] Initial studies decades ago, described the close relationship of testosterone/androgens to prostate growth, and has led to anti-androgen treatment as one of the corner stone of metastatic prostate cancer treatment.
#1 Prostate cancer | Causes, Symptoms & Treatments | Cancer Council
https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/types-of-cancer/prostate-cancer
Some factors that can increase your risk of prostate cancer include: […] There is an association with high testosterone levels.
#1 What Is Metastatic Prostate Cancer?
https://www.webmd.com/prostate-cancer/metastatic-prostate-cancer
If your prostate cancer spreads to other parts of your body, your doctor may tell you that it’s „metastatic” or that your cancer has „metastasized.” […] About 50% of people diagnosed with local prostate cancer will get metastatic cancer during their lifetime. Finding cancer early and treating it can lower that rate. […] Metastatic hormone-sensitive prostate cancer (mHSPC) is a type of metastatic prostate cancer where the cancer cells use the hormone androgen to grow. […] Metastatic prostate cancer is a stage of prostate cancer where the cancer cells have spread from the prostate to distant parts of the body. It is also called stage IV cancer.
#1 Prostate Cancer: Causes, Symptoms, & Care – BuzzRx
https://www.buzzrx.com/blog/prostate-cancer
While the exact cause of prostate cancer is unknown, scientists have found that cancer cells develop due to a change in the DNA (genetic material) of healthy cells or normal cells. These genetic mutations cause uncontrolled cell growth, leading to tumor formation. The tumor can invade surrounding tissues, and cancer cells can break away and spread to other parts of the bodythis is called metastatic prostate cancer. […] Researchers have found that certain lifestyle factors can increase the risk of prostate cancer, such as: […] According to the American Cancer Society, obesity (body mass index or BMI of 30 or higher) increases the risk of aggressive prostate cancer by approximately 20%. Obese people are also more likely to have faster-growing prostate cancer and recurrence of the cancer after treatment.
#1 Prostate Cancer: Causes and Risk Factors
https://www.webmd.com/prostate-cancer/what-causes-prostate-cancer
Some genetic changes that lead to cancer can be passed down, or are inherited, from your parents. […] Up to 10% of prostate cancer cases may be related to genes that are inherited. […] If you have prostate cancer, there’s no way to say your diet is the reason. But experts generally agree that diet may add to the risk of prostate cancer. […] Men who eat a lot of fatty foods particularly from red meat and other sources of animal fat cooked at high heat may be more likely to get advanced prostate cancer compared to those who don’t. […] There’s some evidence obesity makes it more likely you’ll die of prostate cancer. […] But obesity doesn’t cause prostate cancer or make you more likely to have it. […] Men with a family history of prostate cancer are more likely to develop prostate cancer than the general population.
#1 Prostate cancer: Symptoms, treatment, and causes
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/150086
While more research is necessary to confirm their involvement, other factors that may influence prostate cancer risk include: obesity, smoking, alcohol consumption, exposure to chemicals, such as the herbicide Agent Orange, inflammation of the prostate, sexually transmitted infections. […] Medical professionals often refer to cancer as either non-metastatic or metastatic. Non-metastatic cancer is only present in its original growth area, which doctors may call localized. Metastatic cancer is that which spreads to another part of the body from the site of origin.
#1 Prostate Cancer Risk Factors | Risk Factors for Prostate Cancer | American Cancer Society
https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/prostate-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html
Prostate cancer seems to run in some families, which suggests that in some cases there may be an inherited or genetic factor. Still, most prostate cancers occur in men without a family history of it. […] Certain gene changes (known as variants or mutations) that are inherited from a parent can raise prostate cancer risk, although these probably account for only a small percentage of prostate cancers overall. […] Some studies have suggested that exposure to some chemicals might increase prostate cancer risk. For example: Some studies have suggested a link between exposure to arsenic and a higher risk of prostate cancer. […] Some studies have suggested that prostatitis (inflammation of the prostate gland) may be linked to an increased risk of prostate cancer, but other studies have not found such a link.
#1 Metastatic Prostate Cancer | Cancer Care & Oncology | Bon Secours
https://www.bonsecours.com/health-care-services/cancer-care-oncology/conditions/metastatic-prostate-cancer
Prostate cancer spreads when cancer cells leave the prostate and quickly grow and metastasize to nearby tissue. […] Several factors may influence the risk of getting metastatic prostate cancer. These include: Age, Exposure to chemicals, such as Agent Orange, Family history of prostate cancer, Genetics and hereditary conditions, such as inherited mutations of the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes or men with Lynch syndrome, Obesity, Prostatitis, inflammation of the prostate gland, Race – prostate cancer develops more often in African-American men, Smoking. […] Cancer that spreads to the bone is seen in 85% to 90% of metastatic prostate cancer cases.
#1 Prostate Cancer: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment
https://patient.info/cancer/prostate-cancer
Prostate cancer causes […] Although the exact cause is unclear, certain risk factors increase the chance that prostate cancer may develop. These include: […] Ageing. Most cases occur in older men. […] Family history and genetic factors. If your father or brother had prostate cancer at a relatively early age (before the age of 60 years) then you have an increased risk. Also, if the type of breast cancer which is linked to a faulty gene runs in your female relatives then you are at increased risk of prostate cancer. These factors point towards a faulty gene which may occur in some men. […] Ethnic group. Prostate cancer is more common in African-Caribbean men and less common in Asian men. […] Obesity is a risk factor for advanced prostate cancer. […] Diet is possibly a risk factor. As with other cancers, a diet high in fats and low in fruit and vegetables may increase the risk. […] Exposure to the metal cadmium may be a risk.
#1 The Etiology of Prostate Cancer – Prostate Cancer – NCBI Bookshelf
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK571322/
Chronic inflammation is often a result of numerous exogenous stimuli like infections, radiation, hormones, chemicals, and other noxious stimuli. Following on from this, cancers can often be a subsequent chain of events related chronic inflammation. […] In summary, although there are many putative risk factors for prostate cancer, apart from ethnicity and age, there is no confirmative etiological factor.
#1 What Causes Prostate Cancer?| Causes of Prostate Cancer | American Cancer Society
https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/prostate-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/what-causes.html
In general, the more quickly prostate cells grow and divide, the more chances there are for mutations to occur. Therefore, anything that speeds up this process might make prostate cancer more likely. […] As mentioned in Prostate Cancer Risk Factors, some studies have found that inflammation in the prostate might be linked to prostate cancer. One theory is that inflammation might lead to cell DNA damage, which could contribute to a normal cell becoming a cancer cell. More research is needed in this area.
#1 Risks for prostate cancer | Canadian Cancer Society
https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/prostate/risks
Some inherited gene mutations may increase the chance of developing prostate cancer. Only a very small number of prostate cancer cases are linked with inherited gene mutations. […] There is some evidence that diets high in dairy products and calcium may increase the risk for prostate cancer. […] Some research shows that men who have low levels of vitamin E or selenium in their blood may have a higher risk of developing prostate cancer. […] Some evidence suggests that contact with the following chemicals may increase the risk for prostate cancer. […] Inflammation of the prostate is called prostatitis. Many studies, but not all, show that long-term prostatitis increases the risk of developing prostate cancer. It also makes prostate cancer grow and spread more quickly. […] Smoking tobacco may increase the risk for prostate cancer. Some studies also show that smoking may increase the risk of being diagnosed with fast-growing (aggressive) or advanced prostate cancer.
#1 Prostate Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470550/
Prostate cancer is associated with certain medications, surgical procedures, and medical conditions. […] The use of statins, metformin, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), especially those with anti-COX-2 activity, may decrease prostate cancer risk. […] Infections with chlamydia, gonorrhea, or syphilis seem to increase the risk of developing prostate cancer. […] Although human papillomavirus (HPV) has been proposed to have a role in prostate cancer incidence, the evidence remains inconclusive. […] There was once a belief that there was a link between vasectomy and prostate cancer, but larger follow-up studies have failed to confirm this association.
#1 Early Signs of Prostate Cancer: Stages, Survival Rate, Treatment & Causes
https://www.emedicinehealth.com/prostate_cancer/article_em.htm
The specific cause of prostate cancer remains unknown. Hormonal, genetic, environmental, and dietary factors are thought to play roles. Yet, the only well-established risk factors for prostate cancer are age, ethnicity, and heredity. […] In the U.S., African American men are more likely than Caucasian men to develop prostate cancer. They are also more likely to die from this disease as compared to Caucasian men of a similar age. […] Recent evidence has suggested the role of sexually transmitted infections as one of the causative factors for prostate cancer. People who have had sexually transmitted infections are reported as having 1.4 times greater chance of developing the disease compared to the general population. […] Exposure to chemicals such as cadmium may be implicated in the development of prostate cancer.
#1 Prostate cancer – Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostate_cancer
Prostate cancer is caused by the accumulation of genetic mutations to the DNA of cells in the prostate. These mutations affect genes involved in cell growth, replication, cell death, and DNA damage repair. With these processes dysregulated, some cells replicate abnormally, forming a clump of cells called a tumor. As the tumor grows, its cells accumulate more mutations, allowing it to stimulate the growth of new blood vessels to support further growth. Eventually, a tumor can grow large enough to invade nearby organs such as the seminal vesicles or bladder. In advanced tumors, cells can develop the ability to detach from their original tissue site, and evade the immune system. These cells can spread through the lymphatic system to nearby lymph nodes, or through the bloodstream to the bone marrow and (more rarely) other body sites. At these new sites, the cancer cells disrupt normal body function and continue to grow. Metastases cause most of the discomfort associated with prostate cancer, and can eventually kill the affected person.
#1 Metastatic Prostate Cancer: Treatment Options & Prognosis | ZERO Prostate Cancer
https://zerocancer.org/stages-and-grades/metastatic-prostate-cancer
Metastatic prostate cancer means that the cancer has spread beyond the prostate to distant lymph nodes or organs, often to bones. […] Metastatic prostate cancer or stage IV (4) prostate cancer generally refer to cancer that has spread beyond the lymph nodes and tissues immediately surrounding the prostate. […] Several factors influence the likelihood of metastasis in prostate cancer, including the cancers aggressiveness, indicated by its Gleason score or Grade Group, and the point at which treatment begins. […] Prostate cancer most commonly spreads to the bones, followed by the lymph nodes, lungs, liver, and brain. […] More than 60% of men with advanced prostate cancer will eventually develop bone metastases. […] When prostate cancer spreads beyond the prostate to another organ, most frequently it spreads to the bone.
#1 What is Metastatic Prostate Cancer?
https://www.healthline.com/health/advanced-prostate-cancer/metastatic-prostate-cancer
Metastatic prostate cancer is when prostate cancer spreads beyond your prostate gland. This is considered an advanced form of prostate cancer. […] Sometimes, prostate cancer could spread outside of the prostate gland to other parts of your body, such as nearby tissue, lymph nodes, bones, and distant organs. […] According to the Prostate Cancer Foundation, up to 90% of metastatic prostate cancers spread to the bones. Prostate cancer may also affect distant organs, such as your lungs, liver, or brain. […] Prostate cancer is uncommon for people younger than 45 years old. However, the risk increases as you get older. […] Other risk factors for developing prostate cancer include being African American and having close relatives who have had prostate, breast, or ovarian cancer. […] Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) screening can help reduce your risk of developing metastatic prostate cancer. Research suggests that PSA screening has resulted in a 72% decrease in metastatic prostate cancer diagnoses. […] If prostate cancer metastasizes, it most commonly spreads to the bones or nearby lymph nodes. […] Advanced metastatic prostate cancer may not be cured. However, treatments could help slow the progression of the disease and relieve symptoms.
#1 Metastatic Prostate Cancer: Treatment Options & Prognosis | ZERO Prostate Cancer
https://zerocancer.org/stages-and-grades/metastatic-prostate-cancer
Testosterone, the male sex hormone, fuels the growth of prostate cancer but it also is crucial to bone health. […] Without testosterone, bones can become weak and break more easily. […] Bone strength can also be decreased as a result of radiation and chemotherapy used to treat prostate cancer. […] Factors that impact metastatic prostate cancer prognosis include: […] The number and location of metastatic sites can affect prognosis. […] Patients with fewer metastases or metastases confined to the bones may have a better prognosis than those with widespread metastases or visceral involvement (such as liver or lung metastases). […] How well a patient responds to hormone therapy, chemotherapy, and other treatments can significantly affect their prognosis and survival. […] According to the American Cancer Society, the 5-year relative survival rate for distant (metastatic) prostate cancer is about 34%. […] Advances in therapies like hormone therapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and targeted agents continue to improve outcomes and quality of life for men with advanced prostate cancer.
#2 Prostate cancer – Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostate_cancer
Prostate cancer is caused by the accumulation of genetic mutations to the DNA of cells in the prostate. These mutations affect genes involved in cell growth, replication, cell death, and DNA damage repair. With these processes dysregulated, some cells replicate abnormally, forming a clump of cells called a tumor. As the tumor grows, its cells accumulate more mutations, allowing it to stimulate the growth of new blood vessels to support further growth. Eventually, a tumor can grow large enough to invade nearby organs such as the seminal vesicles or bladder. In advanced tumors, cells can develop the ability to detach from their original tissue site, and evade the immune system. These cells can spread through the lymphatic system to nearby lymph nodes, or through the bloodstream to the bone marrow and (more rarely) other body sites. At these new sites, the cancer cells disrupt normal body function and continue to grow. Metastases cause most of the discomfort associated with prostate cancer, and can eventually kill the affected person.
#2 Prostate cancer – Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostate_cancer
Metastatic prostate cancer tends to have more genetic mutations than localized disease. Many of these mutations are in genes that protect from DNA damage, such as p53 (mutated in 8% of localized tumors, more than 27% of metastatic ones) and RB1 (1% of localized tumors, more than 5% of metastatic ones). Similarly mutations in the DNA repair-related genes BRCA2 and ATM are rare in localized disease but found in at least 7% and 5% of metastatic disease cases respectively. […] The transition from castrate-sensitive to castrate-resistant prostate cancer is also accompanied by the acquisition of various gene mutations. In castrate-resistant disease, more than 70% of tumors have mutations in the androgen receptor signaling pathway amplifications and gain-of-function mutations in the receptor gene itself, amplification of its activators (for example, FOXA1), or inactivating mutations in its negative regulators (for example, ZBTB16 and NCOR1). These androgen receptor disruptions are only found in up to 6% of biopsies of castrate-sensitive metastatic disease. Similarly, deletions of the tumor suppressor PTEN are harbored by 12-17% of castrate-sensitive tumors, but over 40% of castrate-resistant tumors.
#2 Prostate Cancer: Causes, Symptoms, & Care – BuzzRx
https://www.buzzrx.com/blog/prostate-cancer
Studies show mixed results, but smoking may increase the risk of developing prostate cancer, metastatic prostate cancer, and recurrent cancer after treatment. […] There are potential links between prostate cancer and exposure to certain chemicals such as arsenic, Agent Orange, and chemicals used in firefighting. […] Other possible risk factors for developing prostate cancer that are still being studied include eating a dairy and calcium-rich diet, prostatitis (inflammation of the prostate gland), sexually transmitted infections like gonorrhea and chlamydia, and vasectomy surgery. […] Having a first-degree relative with prostate cancer is linked to an increased risk of prostate cancer. […] Having certain gene changes such as BRCA1 and BRCA2 is linked to an increased prostate cancer risk (in women, these genes increase the risk of breast cancer and ovarian cancer). […] An inherited condition called Lynch syndrome can increase the risk of different cancers, including a mans risk of prostate cancer and other cancers such as colon cancer.
#2 Prostate Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470550/
The major known risk factors for prostate cancer include age, ethnicity, obesity, and family history. The overall incidence increases as people get older; however, the aggressiveness of the cancer tends to decrease as individuals get older. […] Additional risk factors for prostate cancer include male gender, older age, positive family history, increased height, obesity, hypertension, lack of exercise, persistently elevated testosterone levels, exposure to Agent Orange, and ethnicity. […] Although the exact cause of prostate cancer remains unclear, genetics play a significant role. Genetic background, ethnicity, and family history are all known to contribute to prostate cancer risk. […] A family history of hereditary breast and ovarian cancer or Lynch syndrome increases the risk of prostate cancer, indicating a genetic connection.
#2 Prostate Cancer: Causes and Risk Factors
https://www.webmd.com/prostate-cancer/what-causes-prostate-cancer
Some genetic changes that lead to cancer can be passed down, or are inherited, from your parents. […] Up to 10% of prostate cancer cases may be related to genes that are inherited. […] If you have prostate cancer, there’s no way to say your diet is the reason. But experts generally agree that diet may add to the risk of prostate cancer. […] Men who eat a lot of fatty foods particularly from red meat and other sources of animal fat cooked at high heat may be more likely to get advanced prostate cancer compared to those who don’t. […] There’s some evidence obesity makes it more likely you’ll die of prostate cancer. […] But obesity doesn’t cause prostate cancer or make you more likely to have it. […] Men with a family history of prostate cancer are more likely to develop prostate cancer than the general population.
#2 Prostate Cancer Facts and Causes – Color Health
https://www.color.com/learn/cancer/prostate-cancer-facts-and-causes
Mutations are rare, but when they exist, they significantly increase cancer risk. A recent study found that up to 12% of men with advanced prostate cancer had a mutation in a hereditary cancer risk gene. […] Prostate cancer is more common in African American men and in Caribbean men of African ancestry than in men of other ethnicities. […] Having a father or brother with prostate cancer more than doubles a mans risk of prostate cancer. The risk is even higher for men with multiple relatives with prostate cancer, especially if their relatives were young when the cancer was diagnosed. […] Men with hereditary mutations that increase the risk of prostate cancer may develop it at younger ages.
#2 The Etiology of Prostate Cancer – Prostate Cancer – NCBI Bookshelf
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK571322/
While the exact etiology of prostate cancer remains elusive, various modifiable and unmodifiable risk factors have been suggested as contributing factors. These include age, ethnicity, family history, genetics, obesity, diet, hormones, smoking, alcohol, and certain medications; however, none of these, perhaps with the exception of ethnicity and age, has been conclusively proven to be a definite etiological factor for prostate cancer. […] The etiology of prostate cancer is multifactorial and remain quite baffling, with numerous modifiable and unmodifiable risk factors associated with its development. Some well-established risk factors include advanced age, positive family history, and African ancestry. […] Prostate cancer has an increased heritability. Men with a brother or father diagnosed with prostate cancer have a two to four-fold risk of developing prostate cancer; the risk is higher if a brother is diagnosed.
#2 The Etiology of Prostate Cancer – Prostate Cancer – NCBI Bookshelf
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK571322/
There are ethnic and geographic variations in the incidence of prostate cancer. There is a higher incidence, severity, and mortality rates amongst men of black African descent. […] Among the modifiable risk factors for prostate cancer, smoking has been shown to have an association with prostate cancer incidence and mortality. […] Obesity and increased body mass index have been associated with numerous cancers including prostate cancer, with increased adiposity leading to increased mortality risk of prostate cancer. […] Numerous studies have shown that there is an inverse relationship between physical activity and risk of progression and mortality from prostate cancer. […] Diet and nutrition have been implicated in many cancers including prostate cancer. […] Initial studies decades ago, described the close relationship of testosterone/androgens to prostate growth, and has led to anti-androgen treatment as one of the corner stone of metastatic prostate cancer treatment.
#2 Prostate Cancer: Symptoms, Causes, Stages, and Treatment
https://www.verywellhealth.com/prostate-cancer-7367695
Prostate cancer arises when there are changes in the genes of prostate cells. These mutations cause genes that code for cell division (oncogenes) to be more active while hampering others that regulate growth and repair DNA (tumor suppressor genes). As a result, affected cells (malignant, or cancerous, cells) grow uncontrollably and can spread to other body parts. Researchers aren’t exactly sure what triggers this process. […] Though all males are susceptible, specific populations are at increased risk for developing prostate cancer. These include: Adults over age 55, with risk increasing as you get older; Those with a first-degree relative (father, son, or brother) who has a history of prostate cancer; Those with a history of a prostate cancer diagnosis before the age of 55; A family history of other cancers, such as breast, ovarian, or pancreatic cancer. […] Black men are more likely to develop prostate cancer and are twice as likely to die from the low-grade disease, compared to their white counterparts. This is due to less access to screening, longer delays between diagnosis and treatment, and a lack of diversity in clinical research.
#2 Prostate Cancer Causes & Risk Factors | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center
https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/types/prostate/risk-factors
You have a higher chance of developing prostate cancer if you have any of these risk factors: […] The strongest risk factor for prostate cancer is age. It usually develops after age 50. More than 6 out of 10 prostate tumors are found at age 65 or older. […] Another strong risk factor is family history. Your father, brother, or another close blood relative may have had prostate cancer. This means your risk for the disease is higher, especially if they were diagnosed before age 60. […] Between 5 and 10 out of every 100 prostate cancers may be related to inherited genetic factors. […] Prostate cancer is more common among African Americans than Caucasians. African Americans also more likely to have advanced prostate cancer when theyre diagnosed. […] If you have symptoms of the disease, you may be more at risk. The main symptoms include an urge to urinate often or painful ejaculation. […] It is possible to lower your risk for prostate cancer through your lifestyle and diet choices. […] Research studies show diet and lifestyle may play a role in prostate cancer and its recurrence (when cancer comes back).
#2 What Causes Prostate Cancer and What Are the Risk Factors?
https://www.healthline.com/health/prostate-cancer-risk-factors
Although the reasons arent fully understood, race and ethnicity are risk factors for prostate cancer. […] A diet thats rich in red meat and high-fat dairy products may also be a risk factor for prostate cancer, though theres limited research. […] Where you live can also impact your risk of developing prostate cancer. […] The Prostate Cancer Foundation notes that in the United States, men living north of 40 degrees latitude are at a higher risk of dying from prostate cancer than those living farther south. This may be explained by a reduction in the levels of sunlight, and therefore vitamin D, which men in northern climates receive. Theres some evidence that vitamin D deficiency may increase risk for prostate cancer.
#2 Risks for prostate cancer | Canadian Cancer Society
https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/prostate/risks
Some inherited gene mutations may increase the chance of developing prostate cancer. Only a very small number of prostate cancer cases are linked with inherited gene mutations. […] There is some evidence that diets high in dairy products and calcium may increase the risk for prostate cancer. […] Some research shows that men who have low levels of vitamin E or selenium in their blood may have a higher risk of developing prostate cancer. […] Some evidence suggests that contact with the following chemicals may increase the risk for prostate cancer. […] Inflammation of the prostate is called prostatitis. Many studies, but not all, show that long-term prostatitis increases the risk of developing prostate cancer. It also makes prostate cancer grow and spread more quickly. […] Smoking tobacco may increase the risk for prostate cancer. Some studies also show that smoking may increase the risk of being diagnosed with fast-growing (aggressive) or advanced prostate cancer.
#2 Prostate cancer: Symptoms, treatment, and causes
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/150086
While more research is necessary to confirm their involvement, other factors that may influence prostate cancer risk include: obesity, smoking, alcohol consumption, exposure to chemicals, such as the herbicide Agent Orange, inflammation of the prostate, sexually transmitted infections. […] Medical professionals often refer to cancer as either non-metastatic or metastatic. Non-metastatic cancer is only present in its original growth area, which doctors may call localized. Metastatic cancer is that which spreads to another part of the body from the site of origin.
#2 Early Signs of Prostate Cancer: Stages, Survival Rate, Treatment & Causes
https://www.emedicinehealth.com/prostate_cancer/article_em.htm
The specific cause of prostate cancer remains unknown. Hormonal, genetic, environmental, and dietary factors are thought to play roles. Yet, the only well-established risk factors for prostate cancer are age, ethnicity, and heredity. […] In the U.S., African American men are more likely than Caucasian men to develop prostate cancer. They are also more likely to die from this disease as compared to Caucasian men of a similar age. […] Recent evidence has suggested the role of sexually transmitted infections as one of the causative factors for prostate cancer. People who have had sexually transmitted infections are reported as having 1.4 times greater chance of developing the disease compared to the general population. […] Exposure to chemicals such as cadmium may be implicated in the development of prostate cancer.
#2 What Causes Prostate Cancer?| Causes of Prostate Cancer | American Cancer Society
https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/prostate-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/what-causes.html
In general, the more quickly prostate cells grow and divide, the more chances there are for mutations to occur. Therefore, anything that speeds up this process might make prostate cancer more likely. […] As mentioned in Prostate Cancer Risk Factors, some studies have found that inflammation in the prostate might be linked to prostate cancer. One theory is that inflammation might lead to cell DNA damage, which could contribute to a normal cell becoming a cancer cell. More research is needed in this area.
#2 Prostate Cancer Risk Factors | Risk Factors for Prostate Cancer | American Cancer Society
https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/prostate-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html
Prostate cancer seems to run in some families, which suggests that in some cases there may be an inherited or genetic factor. Still, most prostate cancers occur in men without a family history of it. […] Certain gene changes (known as variants or mutations) that are inherited from a parent can raise prostate cancer risk, although these probably account for only a small percentage of prostate cancers overall. […] Some studies have suggested that exposure to some chemicals might increase prostate cancer risk. For example: Some studies have suggested a link between exposure to arsenic and a higher risk of prostate cancer. […] Some studies have suggested that prostatitis (inflammation of the prostate gland) may be linked to an increased risk of prostate cancer, but other studies have not found such a link.
#2 What Is Metastatic Prostate Cancer?
https://www.webmd.com/prostate-cancer/metastatic-prostate-cancer
If your prostate cancer spreads to other parts of your body, your doctor may tell you that it’s „metastatic” or that your cancer has „metastasized.” […] About 50% of people diagnosed with local prostate cancer will get metastatic cancer during their lifetime. Finding cancer early and treating it can lower that rate. […] Metastatic hormone-sensitive prostate cancer (mHSPC) is a type of metastatic prostate cancer where the cancer cells use the hormone androgen to grow. […] Metastatic prostate cancer is a stage of prostate cancer where the cancer cells have spread from the prostate to distant parts of the body. It is also called stage IV cancer.
#2 Prostate Cancer – Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, Diagnosis – MedBroadcast.com
https://medbroadcast.com/condition/getcondition/prostate-cancer
Diet may be a crucial factor in prostate cancer. The fact that Africans are far less affected by prostate cancer than Americans of African descent suggests that diet and lifestyle are partly to blame. […] Some foods may protect against prostate cancer. Tomatoes, grapefruit, and watermelon all contain lycopene, a chemical that may lower risk of prostate cancer. […] If cells from a tumour break off and move into the bloodstream, they can settle in distant parts of the body and start dividing to form new tumours. This process of migration is called metastasis, and the new tumours are called metastases. […] The lymphatic system is the main carrier of metastases in prostate cancer. Secondary tumours can grow almost anywhere in the body, such as the lungs, brain, lymph nodes, however, it is most likely to spread to the bone.
#2 Stage 4 prostate cancer | Beacon Health System
https://www.beaconhealthsystem.org/library/diseases-and-conditions/stage-4-prostate-cancer?content_id=CON-20377948
Metastatic prostate cancer is cancer that starts in the prostate and spreads to other parts of the body. Other terms for this condition include advanced prostate cancer and stage 4 prostate cancer. […] It’s not clear what causes metastatic prostate cancer. This advanced form of prostate cancer happens when cancer cells break away from where they started in the prostate. The cancer cells can travel through the lymphatic system or the blood to other areas of the body. A metastatic prostate cancer also is a stage 4 prostate cancer. […] The risk factors that raise the risk of metastatic prostate cancer are the same for prostate cancer in general. Factors that can increase the risk of prostate cancer include older age, race and ethnicity, family history of prostate cancer, family history of DNA changes, obesity, and smoking tobacco.
#2 What is Metastatic Prostate Cancer?
https://www.healthline.com/health/advanced-prostate-cancer/metastatic-prostate-cancer
Metastatic prostate cancer is when prostate cancer spreads beyond your prostate gland. This is considered an advanced form of prostate cancer. […] Sometimes, prostate cancer could spread outside of the prostate gland to other parts of your body, such as nearby tissue, lymph nodes, bones, and distant organs. […] According to the Prostate Cancer Foundation, up to 90% of metastatic prostate cancers spread to the bones. Prostate cancer may also affect distant organs, such as your lungs, liver, or brain. […] Prostate cancer is uncommon for people younger than 45 years old. However, the risk increases as you get older. […] Other risk factors for developing prostate cancer include being African American and having close relatives who have had prostate, breast, or ovarian cancer. […] Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) screening can help reduce your risk of developing metastatic prostate cancer. Research suggests that PSA screening has resulted in a 72% decrease in metastatic prostate cancer diagnoses. […] If prostate cancer metastasizes, it most commonly spreads to the bones or nearby lymph nodes. […] Advanced metastatic prostate cancer may not be cured. However, treatments could help slow the progression of the disease and relieve symptoms.
#2 Prostate Cancer (Causes, Symptoms and Treatment)
https://patient.info/doctor/prostate-cancer-pro
Most prostate cancers are adenocarcinomas arising in the peripheral zone of the prostate gland. […] The most common sites for metastases are bone and lymph nodes. […] The three well-established risk factors for prostate cancer are increasing age, ethnic origin and genetic predisposition. […] There is a higher incidence of and mortality from prostate cancer in men of black African-Caribbean family origin compared with white men. […] Obesity and being overweight are associated with advanced prostate cancer. […] Factors such as food consumption, pattern of sexual behaviour, alcohol consumption, exposure to ultraviolet radiation, chronic inflammation and occupational exposure have all been considered as possible risk factors of prostate cancer. […] Prostate cancer can be divided into: Non-metastatic: either localised disease confined to the prostate gland or locally advanced disease that has spread outside the capsule of the gland but has not spread to organs, other than the seminal vesicles.
#2 How Does Prostate Cancer Kill You in the End?
https://www.medicinenet.com/how_does_prostate_cancer_kill_you_in_the_end/article.htm
Prostate cancer is cancer of the prostate gland in men. Death from prostate cancer most often happens when cancer has spread (metastasized) to other organs in the body. […] Death from prostate cancer most often happens when cancer has spread (metastasized) to other organs in the body. This is known as the advanced stage of prostate cancer. […] The chances of survival decrease as cancer spreads beyond the prostate. If cancer has metastasized to other parts of the body, only three out of 10 men will survive for five years after the diagnosis. […] Cancerous cells may spread to organs other than the site of origin. In the case of prostate cancer, this tendency is decreased, but it can happen. […] Prostate cancer can kill in the end through metastases that can develop in lymph nodes, bones (particularly lower spine, pelvis, and femur), brain, liver, and lungs.
#2 How Does Prostate Cancer Kill You in the End?
https://www.medicinenet.com/how_does_prostate_cancer_kill_you_in_the_end/article.htm
Metastasis to the bone can cause too much bone calcium to be released into the blood. The condition is known as hypercalcemia. […] Metastasis to the lungs can cause the affected lung to collapse or cause a lung infection that becomes difficult to treat. […] Metastasis to the liver can affect the liver’s ability to filter out toxins from the body. […] Advanced stage cancer leads to malnutrition, which can cause muscle wasting, weight loss and fatigue. […] Androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) is usually the choice of treatment of metastatic prostate cancer.
#2 Prostate Cancer – Genitourinary Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/genitourinary-disorders/genitourinary-cancers/prostate-cancer
Adenocarcinoma of the prostate is the most common nondermatologic cancer in men 50 in the United States. […] Genetic risk factors include BRCA1/2 mutations, Lynch syndrome, and family history of some hereditary breast and ovarian cancers. […] Hormonal influences contribute to the course of adenocarcinoma but almost certainly not to other types of prostate cancer. […] The effect of testosterone supplements on the risk of prostate cancer remains controversial. […] Data suggest that testosterone supplements for treatment of symptomatic hypogonadism do not increase the risk of prostate cancer. […] Hormonal therapy is effective in metastatic prostate cancer for a limited amount of time. […] Cancer that progresses (indicated by an increasing PSA level) despite a testosterone level consistent with castration is classified as castrate-resistant prostate cancer.
#2 Metastatic Prostate Cancer: Treatment Options & Prognosis | ZERO Prostate Cancer
https://zerocancer.org/stages-and-grades/metastatic-prostate-cancer
Testosterone, the male sex hormone, fuels the growth of prostate cancer but it also is crucial to bone health. […] Without testosterone, bones can become weak and break more easily. […] Bone strength can also be decreased as a result of radiation and chemotherapy used to treat prostate cancer. […] Factors that impact metastatic prostate cancer prognosis include: […] The number and location of metastatic sites can affect prognosis. […] Patients with fewer metastases or metastases confined to the bones may have a better prognosis than those with widespread metastases or visceral involvement (such as liver or lung metastases). […] How well a patient responds to hormone therapy, chemotherapy, and other treatments can significantly affect their prognosis and survival. […] According to the American Cancer Society, the 5-year relative survival rate for distant (metastatic) prostate cancer is about 34%. […] Advances in therapies like hormone therapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and targeted agents continue to improve outcomes and quality of life for men with advanced prostate cancer.
#2 Prostate Cancer: Causes and Risk Factors
https://www.webmd.com/prostate-cancer/what-causes-prostate-cancer
In the U.S., there are racial disparities for many cancers. This is especially true for prostate cancer. Black men are 1.67 times more likely to get a diagnosis of prostate cancer compared to white people. […] There’s no clear cause to explain why some people get prostate cancer and others don’t. But many factors can influence your risk, including genes you carry, your exposures, your lifestyle, and other factors.
#3 What Is Metastatic Prostate Cancer?
https://www.webmd.com/prostate-cancer/metastatic-prostate-cancer
If your prostate cancer spreads to other parts of your body, your doctor may tell you that it’s „metastatic” or that your cancer has „metastasized.” […] About 50% of people diagnosed with local prostate cancer will get metastatic cancer during their lifetime. Finding cancer early and treating it can lower that rate. […] Metastatic hormone-sensitive prostate cancer (mHSPC) is a type of metastatic prostate cancer where the cancer cells use the hormone androgen to grow. […] Metastatic prostate cancer is a stage of prostate cancer where the cancer cells have spread from the prostate to distant parts of the body. It is also called stage IV cancer.
#3 Metastatic prostate cancer – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic
https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/stage-4-prostate-cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20377966
Metastatic prostate cancer is cancer that starts in the prostate and spreads to other parts of the body. […] It’s not clear what causes metastatic prostate cancer. This advanced form of prostate cancer happens when cancer cells break away from where they started in the prostate. The cancer cells can travel through the lymphatic system or the blood to other areas of the body. A metastatic prostate cancer also is a stage 4 prostate cancer. […] The risk factors that raise the risk of metastatic prostate cancer are the same for prostate cancer in general. Factors that can increase the risk of prostate cancer include:
#3 What is Metastatic Prostate Cancer?
https://www.healthline.com/health/advanced-prostate-cancer/metastatic-prostate-cancer
Metastatic prostate cancer is when prostate cancer spreads beyond your prostate gland. This is considered an advanced form of prostate cancer. […] Sometimes, prostate cancer could spread outside of the prostate gland to other parts of your body, such as nearby tissue, lymph nodes, bones, and distant organs. […] According to the Prostate Cancer Foundation, up to 90% of metastatic prostate cancers spread to the bones. Prostate cancer may also affect distant organs, such as your lungs, liver, or brain. […] Prostate cancer is uncommon for people younger than 45 years old. However, the risk increases as you get older. […] Other risk factors for developing prostate cancer include being African American and having close relatives who have had prostate, breast, or ovarian cancer. […] Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) screening can help reduce your risk of developing metastatic prostate cancer. Research suggests that PSA screening has resulted in a 72% decrease in metastatic prostate cancer diagnoses. […] If prostate cancer metastasizes, it most commonly spreads to the bones or nearby lymph nodes. […] Advanced metastatic prostate cancer may not be cured. However, treatments could help slow the progression of the disease and relieve symptoms.
#3 Risk and causes of prostate cancer | Cancer Research UK
https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/prostate-cancer/risks-causes
Prostate cancer is not clearly linked to any preventable causes. Your risk of developing it depends on many things. These include age and ethnicity. […] Prostate cancer is more common in Black men than in White men. It is least common in Asian men. […] Your risk of prostate cancer is higher if you have a close relative who has had prostate cancer. […] Most cancers are not linked to inherited faulty genes. But some inherited faulty genes can increase your risk of prostate cancer. […] People who inherit faulty versions of BRCA 2 genes have an increased risk of developing different types of cancer. This includes prostate cancer. […] Obesity and overweight is the second biggest preventable cause of cancer after smoking. […] Being overweight or obese increases your risk of metastatic or advanced prostate cancer. Metastatic prostate cancer is a cancer that began in the prostate and has spread to another part of the body. […] Research has found that the risk of developing prostate cancer is higher in people exposed to high levels of pesticides. […] Some factors might increase the risk of prostate cancer but there is not enough evidence to be sure.
#3 Risks for prostate cancer | Canadian Cancer Society
https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/prostate/risks
Prostate cancer occurs in Black men (including men of African or Caribbean ancestry) more often than in men of other ethnicities. Black men are also more likely to have prostate tumours that grow and spread quickly and more likely to die from prostate cancer compared to other men. […] There is strong evidence that having obesity or overweight increases the risk for prostate cancer. Having these conditions makes it more likely that prostate cancer will be diagnosed at a later stage. High body fat is also linked with a higher risk of developing high grade prostate cancer. […] There is evidence that being a tall adult man increases the risk for prostate cancer. Several factors that lead to tall adult height, such as genetics and rate of growth during childhood, seem to contribute to the greater risk.
#3 Risks for prostate cancer | Canadian Cancer Society
https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/prostate/risks
Some inherited gene mutations may increase the chance of developing prostate cancer. Only a very small number of prostate cancer cases are linked with inherited gene mutations. […] There is some evidence that diets high in dairy products and calcium may increase the risk for prostate cancer. […] Some research shows that men who have low levels of vitamin E or selenium in their blood may have a higher risk of developing prostate cancer. […] Some evidence suggests that contact with the following chemicals may increase the risk for prostate cancer. […] Inflammation of the prostate is called prostatitis. Many studies, but not all, show that long-term prostatitis increases the risk of developing prostate cancer. It also makes prostate cancer grow and spread more quickly. […] Smoking tobacco may increase the risk for prostate cancer. Some studies also show that smoking may increase the risk of being diagnosed with fast-growing (aggressive) or advanced prostate cancer.
#3
https://www.parkwayshenton.com.sg/health-plus/article/prostate-cancer-causes-symptoms-treatment
Stage IV advanced cancer (prostate cancer with metastasis) is not curable, but treatment can often help to control the disease for prolonged periods of time, hence reducing symptoms and improving quality of life. It is usually treated with a combination of different approaches, which may include hormone therapy, chemotherapy, radiotherapy or immunotherapy. Surgery is usually not offered when there is spread to the other parts of the body such as the bones (distant metastasis).