Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Pulmonary Edema: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/24218-pulmonary-edema

  Pulmonary edema is a buildup of fluid in your lungs. A main cause of pulmonary edema is congestive heart failure. […] Pulmonary edema can be life-threatening and requires immediate medical treatment. […] A healthcare provider will perform a physical exam to see if you have fluid in your lungs. […] If your healthcare provider thinks you may have fluid in your lungs, theyll order additional tests, including: Complete blood count (CBC). […] Pulmonary edema is a serious condition. If you have sudden (acute) pulmonary edema, you need immediate treatment. […] If you have acute (sudden) pulmonary edema, you need immediate treatment.

• #1 Pulmonary Edema > Fact Sheets > Yale Medicine

  https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/pulmonary-edema

  Pulmonary edema describes a condition in which fluid builds up in the lungs, making it difficult to breathe. […] Pulmonary edema is a condition in which too much fluid accumulates in the lungs, interfering with a persons ability to breathe normally. […] Pulmonary edema is an emergency situation, because people with the condition are not receiving the oxygen they need. […] People who are having trouble breathing should visit the emergency department as soon as possible. […] There isnt one single test that doctors use to diagnose pulmonary edema. Rather, they find out about someones medical history, give them a physical exam, and order tests to make a diagnosis. […] Doctors may also order tests to confirm pulmonary edema or to rule out other conditions. […] People with breathing problems associated with pulmonary edema need to be treated quickly.

• #1 Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema Differential Diagnoses

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/157452-differential

  Cardiogenic pulmonary edema (CPE) should be differentiated from pulmonary edema associated with injury to the alveolar-capillary membrane, caused by diverse etiologies. […] Several features may differentiate CPE from NCPE. In CPE, a history of an acute cardiac event is usually present. Physical examination shows a low-flow state, an S3 gallop, jugular venous distention, and crackles on auscultation. […] Definite differentiation is based on pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (PCWP) measurements. The PCWP is generally 18 mm Hg in CPE and 18 mm Hg in NCPE, but superimposition of chronic pulmonary vascular disease can make this distinction difficult to assess. […] Conditions to consider in the differential diagnosis of CPE include the following: Pneumothorax, High-altitude pulmonary edema, Neurogenic pulmonary edema, Pulmonary embolism, Respiratory failure. […] Several conditions related to noncardiogenic pulmonary edema (NCPE) primarily affect Starling forces rather than the alveolar-capillary barrier.

• #1 Pulmonary Edema – Pulmonology Advisor

  https://www.pulmonologyadvisor.com/ddi/pulmonary-edema/

  Pulmonary edema occurs when extravascular fluid collects in the lung parenchyma. Hospitalization for acute pulmonary edema is associated with a 1-year mortality rate of up to 40%. Pulmonary edema may be classified as cardiogenic or noncardiogenic. […] Patients with cardiogenic pulmonary edema may present with jugular venous distention, peripheral edema, increased blood pressure, and S3 gallop or murmurs. Patients with noncardiogenic pulmonary edema may present with signs of an active infection, trauma, or burn injuries. […] Laboratory tests to consider when evaluating a patient with pulmonary edema include brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) testing, arterial blood gas test, troponin test, basic metabolic panel, urinalysis, and complete blood count. […] Patients with cardiogenic pulmonary edema will have a BNP level greater than 1200 pg/mL, increased levels of troponin, and possibly increased creatinine levels. Chest radiograph may show increased heart size, pleural effusions, and short parallel lines at the periphery of the lungs (Kerley B lines). In contrast, patients with noncardiogenic pulmonary edema will have an increased white blood cell count and BNP level less than 200 pg/mL.

• #1 Pulmonary edema – Diagnosis & treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/pulmonary-edema/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20377014

  Breathing problems require immediate diagnosis and treatment. A health care provider can base a diagnosis of pulmonary edema on the symptoms and the results of a physical exam and certain tests. […] Tests that can help diagnose pulmonary edema or determine the reason for fluid in the lungs include: […] A chest X-ray can confirm the diagnosis of pulmonary edema and exclude other possible causes of shortness of breath. It’s usually the first test done when a health care provider suspects pulmonary edema. […] A chest computed tomography (CT) scan gives more details about the condition of the lungs. It can help a provider diagnose or rule out pulmonary edema. […] A sensor is attached to a finger or ear. It uses light to determine how much oxygen is in the blood. […] This test measures the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood.

• #1 Pulmonary edema – Knowledge @ AMBOSS

  https://www.amboss.com/us/knowledge/pulmonary-edema/

  Pulmonary edema is the accumulation of fluid in the lung interstitium and alveoli. […] Laboratory studies (e.g., BNP, cardiac biomarkers) and imaging studies (e.g., chest x-ray, POCUS) are performed to help determine the underlying cause and confirm the diagnosis. […] The diagnosis of pulmonary edema is usually confirmed by imaging, e.g., chest x-ray, lung POCUS. […] Additional studies (e.g., BNP, ECG) can help identify the underlying cause. […] There is no single test to distinguish cardiogenic vs. noncardiogenic pulmonary edema. […] Indication: all patients with suspected pulmonary edema. […] Typical findings in cardiogenic pulmonary edema include opacities in the perihilar areas (bat wing pattern) and Kerley B lines. […] Findings suggestive of noncardiogenic pulmonary edema include peripheral, patchy ground-glass opacities.

• #1 Pulmonary edema | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/pulmonary-oedema?lang=us

  Pulmonary edema is a broad descriptive term and is usually defined as an abnormal accumulation of fluid in the extravascular compartments of the lung. […] The chest radiograph remains the most practical and useful method of radiologically assessing and quantifying pulmonary edema. […] Features useful for broadly assessing pulmonary edema on a plain chest radiograph include: upper lobe pulmonary venous diversion (stag’s antler sign), increased cardiothoracic ratio/cardiac silhouette size, features of pulmonary interstitial edema, and features of pulmonary alveolar edema. […] Interstitial pulmonary edema is most commonly demonstrated by ground glass opacification, bronchovascular bundle thickening, and interlobular septal thickening. […] Alveolar edema is demonstrated by airspace consolidation in addition to the above findings. […] The appearance of pulmonary edema is defined as a function of the perturbation of the air-fluid level in the lung, a spectrum of appearances coined the alveolar-interstitial syndromes.

• #1 Pulmonary edema (Proceedings)

  https://www.dvm360.com/view/pulmonary-edema-proceedings-0

  Pulmonary edema is defined as the accumulation of abnormal amount of extravascular lung water. […] Pulmonary edema is generally divided into cardiogenic and non-cardiogenic forms based upon the etiology. […] In all forms of pulmonary edema, the diagnostic test of choice is thoracic radiographs. […] In dogs with cardiogenic pulmonary edema, thoracic radiographs will usually document cardiomegaly, pulmonary venous distension and interstitial to alveolar infiltrates. […] In animals with non-cardiogenic edema, thoracic radiographs will show pulmonary infiltrates without cardiomegaly. […] Other diagnostic tests for non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema include a normal echocardiogram and normal pulmonary capillary wedge pressure. […] Measurement of the ratio of the protein content of the pulmonary edema fluid to the protein content of the plasma is also useful to determine the etiology (cardiogenic Vs non-cardiogenic) of the edema. […] Early attempts should be made to distinguish cardiogenic from non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema.

• #1 Pulmonary Edema – Cardiovascular Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/cardiovascular-disorders/heart-failure/pulmonary-edema

  Pulmonary edema is acute, severe left ventricular failure with pulmonary venous hypertension and alveolar flooding. […] Diagnosis is clinical and by chest x-ray. […] Clinical evaluation showing severe dyspnea and pulmonary crackles. […] Chest x-ray. […] Sometimes serum brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) or N-terminal-pro BNP (NT-pro-BNP). […] ECG, cardiac markers, and other tests for etiology as needed. […] A chest x-ray, done immediately, is usually diagnostic, showing marked interstitial edema. […] Bedside measurement of serum BNP/NT-proBNP levels (elevated in pulmonary edema; normal in COPD exacerbation) is helpful if the diagnosis is in doubt. […] ECG, pulse oximetry, and blood tests (cardiac markers, electrolytes, BUN [blood urea nitrogen], creatinine and, for severely ill patients, arterial blood gas [ABG] measurements) are done.

• #1 Pulmonary edema – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_edema

  Chest X-ray has been used for many years to diagnose pulmonary edema due to its wide availability and relatively cheap cost. […] Lung ultrasounds, employed by a healthcare provider at the point of care, is also a useful tool to diagnose pulmonary edema; not only is it accurate, but it may quantify the degree of lung water, track changes over time, and differentiate between cardiogenic and non-cardiogenic edema. […] Especially in the case of cardiogenic pulmonary edema, urgent echocardiography may strengthen the diagnosis by demonstrating impaired left ventricular function, high central venous pressures and high pulmonary artery pressures leading to pulmonary edema.

• #1 Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema in Emergency Medicine

  https://www.mdpi.com/2543-6031/91/5/34

  Initial testing includes a 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG), chest X-ray, lung ultrasonography, and laboratory tests comprising arterial blood gas (ABG) and cardiac enzymes. […] Chest radiography is one of the most important investigations required for the evaluation of pulmonary edema and can help distinguish between CPE and NCPE. […] Transthoracic Pulmonary ultrasound can detect CPE by identifying B-lines, also known as “comet tails,” which represent alveolar-interstitial edema. […] Echocardiography is recommended to evaluate LV systolic and diastolic function. […] BNP is a cardiac neurohormone that is secreted from the ventricles when they are under increased pressure and stress. […] Pulmonary arterial catheterization using a Swan-Ganz catheter helps in differentiating CPE from NCPE: pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (PCWP) is generally >18 mm Hg in CPE and <18 mm Hg in NCPE.

• #1 Diagnosis of Acute Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema (ACPE) with Point-of-Care Ultrasound – EMOttawa Blog

  https://emottawablog.com/2017/04/diagnosis-of-acute-cardiogenic-pulmonary-edema-acpe-with-point-of-care-ultrasound/

  Point-of-Care Ultrasonography (POCUS) is a valuable tool in the diagnostic armamentarium of the emergency physician. […] In this Grand Rounds review, Dr. Elizabeth Lalande goes through the use of POCUS in the diagnosis of Acute Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema in the undifferentiated, dyspneic patient. […] The sensitivity of POCUS for AIS is around 97% with a specificity of 95%. […] The pooled sensitivity was 94% and specificity was 93%. […] This study showed us that lung US has great test characteristics to diagnosis ACPE. […] Their results: a pooled sensitivity of 85% and specificity of 92% with a +LR of 7.4 and a negative one of 0.16 for lung US. […] Once again, this study has demonstrated that lung US is a great diagnostic tool for us when looking for ACPE in the acute, undifferentiated dysnpneic patient.

• #1 Diagnosis of Acute Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema (ACPE) with Point-of-Care Ultrasound – EMOttawa Blog

  https://emottawablog.com/2017/04/diagnosis-of-acute-cardiogenic-pulmonary-edema-acpe-with-point-of-care-ultrasound/

  ACPE comes from a sick heart. It is certainly useful to visualize the left ventricular systolic function to assess if it goes in hand with the diagnosis of ACPE. If the echo views show a depressed systolic left ventricular function, then it really helps confirm the diagnosis. […] Lung US is a great tool to diagnose ACPE, with excellent test characteristics. […] An eight zone protocol can be used at the bedside to look for the B-profile in your patients with undifferentiated dyspnea. Remember a B-profile consists of at least 3 B-lines in one intercostal space.

• #1 Decreased sensitivity of lung ultrasound limited to the anterior chest in emergency department diagnosis of cardiogenic pulmonary edema: a retrospective analysis | The Ultrasound Journal | Full Text

  https://theultrasoundjournal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1007/s13089-010-0037-0

  Retrospective evaluation of distribution of B-lines in patients with ADHF in the ED setting shows that the B-profile (predominant B-lines in the anterior chest) proposed in the BLUE protocol would have missed a significant proportion of diagnoses. […] We suggest two possible explanations to this discrepancy between the B-profile definition and the eight-zone technique used in these ED based studies. […] Limiting the sonographic lung examination to the anterior chest areas only may miss cases of ADHF in the dyspneic ED patients. Lung ultrasound scanning protocols (e.g. the BLUE protocol based on the B-profile) may need to be modified to include examination of the lateral chest areas as necessary for ED patients with variable degrees ADHF.

• #1 Pulmonary Edema – What You Need to Know

  https://www.drugs.com/cg/pulmonary-edema.html

  How is pulmonary edema diagnosed? […] Your healthcare provider will ask about your signs and symptoms. Your provider will examine you, listen to your heart and lungs, and check your blood pressure. Tell your provider if you have any health conditions or take any medicines. You may also need the following tests: […] Blood tests may help find the cause of your symptoms. They may also be used to make sure organs, such as your kidneys, are working correctly. […] Blood gases may be checked if you are having trouble breathing. Blood is taken from an artery, usually in the wrist. Your blood is tested for the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in it. The results can tell healthcare providers how well your lungs are working. […] A chest x-ray may show signs of a lung infection or lung damage.

• #1 Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema Workup: Approach Considerations, Plasma BNP and NT-proBNP Testing, Radiography and Ultrasonography

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/157452-workup

  Although the predictive value of a BNP measurement with a cutoff value of 100 pg/mL is high, its positive predictive value is not as high as its negative predictive value. […] Chest radiography is helpful in distinguishing CPE from other pulmonary causes of severe dyspnea. […] In cases in which there is a moderate to high pretest probability of acute CPE, ultrasonography can be useful in strengthening a working diagnosis. […] A bedside echocardiogram in a patient with decompensated CHF is an important diagnostic tool in determining the etiology of pulmonary edema. […] This method helps in differentiating CPE from NCPE; NCPE occurs secondary to injury to the alveolar-capillary membrane rather than from alteration in Starling forces. […] A PCWP exceeding 18 mm Hg in a patient not known to have chronically elevated LA pressure indicates CPE.

• #1 Pulmonary Edema – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557611/

  Both posteroanterior and lateral views in standard imaging or anteroposterior views in portable imaging are utilized. […] Echocardiography assists in the diagnosis of left ventricular systolic dysfunction and valvular dysfunction. […] Therapeutic goals in patients with pulmonary edema include alleviation of symptoms and treatment of the underlying pathologic condition. […] Diuretics remain the mainstay of treatment, and furosemide being the most commonly used medication. […] Ventilatory support, both noninvasive and invasive, is used to improve oxygenation, direct alveolar and interstitial fluids back into the capillaries, improve hypercarbia and hence reverse respiratory acidosis, and lastly, tissue oxygenation. […] Prognostic predictions are difficult to quantify, given the vast number of cardiogenic and non-cardiogenic etiologies of pulmonary edema and their individual mortality data.

• #1 Pulmonary edema – Diagnosis & treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/pulmonary-edema/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20377014

  Increased levels of B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) may signal a heart condition. […] Blood tests to diagnose pulmonary edema and its causes also usually include a complete blood count, metabolic panel to check kidney function and thyroid function test. […] This painless test detects and records the timing and strength of the heart’s signals. […] An echocardiogram uses sound waves (ultrasound) to create pictures of the beating heart. It can identify areas of poor blood flow, heart valve issues and heart muscle that is not working properly. […] This test may be done if other tests don’t show the cause of pulmonary edema, or when there’s also chest pain. […] This painless test uses sound waves to measure blood flow through the lungs. It can quickly reveal signs of fluid buildup and plural effusions.

• #1 Pulmonary Edema – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557611/

  Pulmonary edema is defined as an abnormal accumulation of extravascular fluid in the lung parenchyma. […] This activity highlights the role of the interprofessional team in the diagnosis and treatment of this condition. […] Clinical features include progressive worsening dyspnea, rales on lung auscultation, and worsening hypoxia. […] Progressively worsening dyspnea, tachypnea, and rales (or crackles) on examination with associated hypoxia are the clinical features common to both cardiogenic and noncardiogenic pulmonary edema. […] In addition to a thorough history and physical examination, electrocardiogram assists in diagnosing cardiac ischemia or myocardial infarction. […] Following are a variety of diagnostic tools utilized to help diagnose pulmonary edema and, more importantly, differentiate between its different types.

• #1 Pulmonary Edema – Cardiovascular Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/cardiovascular-disorders/heart-failure/pulmonary-edema

  Echocardiography may be helpful to determine the cause of the pulmonary edema (eg, myocardial infarction, valvular dysfunction, hypertensive heart disease, dilated cardiomyopathy) and may influence the choice of therapies. […] Clinical examination and chest x-ray are usually sufficient for diagnosis; ECG, cardiac markers, and sometimes echocardiography are done to identify cause.

• #1 Pulmonary Edema: Causes, Symptoms & Diagnosis Options | Max Hospital

  https://www.maxhealthcare.in/blogs/pulmonary-edema-symptoms-and-diagnosis

  Pulmonary function tests: These tests assess lung function and may be used to evaluate how well the lungs are oxygenating the blood. […] Swan-Ganz catheterization: In certain situations, a Swan-Ganz catheter may be inserted into the pulmonary artery to directly measure pressures within the heart and lungs.

• #1 A systematic review of diagnostic methods to differentiate acute lung injury/acute respiratory distress syndrome from cardiogenic pulmonary edema | Critical Care | Full Text

  https://ccforum.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13054-017-1809-8

  Discriminating acute lung injury (ALI) or acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) from cardiogenic pulmonary edema (CPE) is often challenging. This systematic review examines studies using biomarkers or images to distinguish ALI/ARDS from CPE. […] There were no identified biomarkers or tools with high-quality evidence for differentiating ALI/ARDS from CPE. Combining clinical criteria with validated biomarkers may improve the predictive accuracy. […] Differentiating between cardiogenic pulmonary edema (CPE) and acute lung injury (ALI) or acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is challenging in the early stages of illness. […] The differentiation between ALI/ARDS and CPE is important in order to avoid delaying treatment of fluid retention and avoiding unnecessary testing. […] Several biomarkers to distinguish ALI/ARDS from CPE have been reported. The aim of this systematic review was to review published studies of potential biomarkers to distinguish ALI/ARDS from CPE.

• #1 Pulmonary Edema – Pulmonology Advisor

  https://www.pulmonologyadvisor.com/ddi/pulmonary-edema/

  The treatment goals in pulmonary edema are to correct the underlying cause and lessen the symptoms of fluid accumulation. Treatment for pulmonary edema should include relieving symptoms, improving oxygenation, maintaining cardiac output, perfusion of vital organs, and reducing excess extracellular fluid. […] Ventilation is a nonpharmacologic intervention that aims to increase oxygenation, move fluids back into the capillaries, and reverse respiratory acidosis. Intensive care is required for patients with pulmonary edema who require intubation, have symptoms of hypoperfusion, have an SpO2 less than 90% while on oxygen, have a heart rate less than 40 bpm or greater than 130 bpm, and/or have a systolic blood pressure 90 mm Hg.

• #1 Pulmonary edema – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/pulmonary-edema/symptoms-causes/syc-20377009

  Pulmonary edema that develops suddenly (acute pulmonary edema) is a medical emergency that needs immediate care. […] Treatment for pulmonary edema depends on the cause but generally includes additional oxygen and medications. […] Pulmonary edema that comes on suddenly (acute pulmonary edema) is life-threatening. Call 911 or emergency medical help if you have any of the following acute symptoms: […] Immediate treatment is necessary for acute pulmonary edema to prevent death. […] Cardiogenic pulmonary edema is caused by increased pressures in the heart. […] It’s usually a result of heart failure. […] Medical conditions that can cause heart failure and lead to pulmonary edema include: […] Pulmonary edema that is not caused by increased pressures in the heart is called noncardiogenic pulmonary edema. […] Causes of noncardiogenic pulmonary edema include: […] High-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) generally occurs in those who don’t take the days or weeks needed to become used to the elevation. […] To prevent HAPE, gradually ascend to high elevations.

• #1 Pulmonary Edema: Nursing Diagnoses, Care Plans, Assessment & Interventions | NurseTogether

  https://www.nursetogether.com/pulmonary-edema-nursing-diagnosis-care-plan/

  Oxygen is the first line of treatment for acute pulmonary edema. […] If oxygenation worsens despite oxygen therapy, non-invasive or invasive ventilation support may be necessary. […] Diuretics continue to be the cornerstone of pulmonary edema treatment. […] High-altitude pulmonary edema is prevented and treated with nifedipine. […] Nursing care plans help prioritize assessments and interventions for both short and long-term goals of care. […] Impaired gas exchange associated with pulmonary edema can be caused by fluid collection preventing oxygenation. […] Pulmonary edema is the buildup of fluid in the lungs that obstructs oxygenation and ventilation. […] Shortness of breath caused by abnormal fluid buildup results in inspiration and/or expiration that does not provide adequate ventilation.

• #1 Neurogenic pulmonary edema – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/neurogenic-pulmonary-edema

  Neurogenic pulmonary edema (NPE) is an increase in pulmonary interstitial and alveolar fluid that is due to an acute central nervous system injury and usually develops rapidly after the injury. […] The clinical features, differential diagnosis, diagnosis, etiology, pathogenesis, and treatment of NPE are reviewed here. […] The primary precipitants of NPE are epileptic seizures, traumatic brain injury, and various forms of intracranial hemorrhages. […] NPE due to epileptic seizures generally occurs during the postictal period and it may occur repeatedly in a given individual.

• #1 Negative pressure pulmonary edema (Review)

  https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/etm.2023.12154?text=fulltext

  Negative pressure pulmonary edema (NPPE) is a complication resulting from acute or chronic upper airway obstruction, often posing challenges in recognition and diagnosis for clinicians. […] The diagnosis of NPPE often presents challenges due to confusion with conditions such as gastroesophageal reflux or cardiogenic pulmonary edema, given the similarity in initial factors triggering both diseases. […] The present review aims to discuss the etiology, clinical presentation, pathophysiology and management of NPPE. […] The diagnosis can often be made when the upper airway obstruction is relieved, but the condition is not yet completely resolved. […] NPPE should be differentiated from the diseases described below, as their treatment differs from that of NPPE. […] The treatment of NPPE includes close monitoring, prompt relief of airway obstruction, administration of supplemental oxygen and, if necessary, assisted ventilation. […] Due to interindividual variations, the epidemiology, etiology and pathophysiological processes of NPPE have been subjects of controversy and pose ongoing challenges.

• #1

  https://scholars.duke.edu/display/pub1274106

  In most of the cases (89%), an initial chest X-Ray or chest CT was available, of which one-third (71%) showed radiological signs of pulmonary edema. […] The majority of the cases (82%) experienced a rapid resolution of symptoms within 48 h, the diagnostic hallmark of SIPE. […] Due to a foreseeable increase in participation in swimming competitions and endurance competitions with a swimming component, diagnosis of SIPE will be important, especially for medical teams caring for these athletes.

• #1

  https://scholars.duke.edu/display/pub1274106

  Swimming induced pulmonary edema (SIPE) is a complication that can occur during exercise with the possibility of misdiagnosis and can quickly become life threatening; however, medical literature infrequently describes SIPE. […] Therefore, the aim of this review was to analyse all individual cases diagnosed with SIPE as reported in scientific sources, with an emphasis on the diagnostic pathways and the key facts resulting in its diagnosis. […] Based on the actual literature, we try to point out important findings regarding history, conditions, clinical findings, and diagnostic testing helping to confirm the diagnosis of SIPE. […] A total of 100% of the cases suffered from an acute onset of breathing problems, occasionally accompanied by hemoptysis. […] A total of 73% showed initial hypoxemia.

• #1 Pulmonary Edema – Diagnosis and Treatment

  https://www.drtarunbaid.com/blog/pulmonary-edema-diagnosis-and-treatment

  Pulmonary edema is one of the most common lung disorders which is caused due to excessive fluid build-up in the lungs. […] Given below are some of the most effective diagnosis and treatment options for pulmonary edema. […] One of the most effective diagnostic procedures for pulmonary edema is a chest computerized tomography (CT) scan. […] Another diagnostic test that can help in diagnosing pulmonary edema is a chest X-ray. […] EKG is a painless diagnostic procedure that records the strength and timing of the signals in the heart. […] The blood flow of the lungs can be measured perfectly with the help of a lung ultrasound. […] If the above-mentioned tests dont show any significant results then the doctor can perform cardiac catherization. […] The treatment for pulmonary edema recommended by the best chest specialist in Siliguri includes various medications such as morphine, blood pressure drugs, diuretics, and inotropes. […] Respirators or ventilators are another effective treatment method that can help in blowing extra air inside the windpipe through a tube. […] Another treatment approach that can help you manage the complications of pulmonary edema is a high-flow nasal cannula.

• #1 Pulmonary Edema > Fact Sheets > Yale Medicine

  https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/pulmonary-edema

  Common treatments for pulmonary edema include: Supplemental oxygen, may be delivered via a nasal cannula; Medications, including diuretics; Morphine, which can help reduce anxiety and improve breathing. […] Pulmonary edema can be life-threatening. […] People who seek treatment may recover, but about 20% of people who are treated for pulmonary edema die, often due to complications.

• #1 Pulmonary Edema: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment

  https://www.healthline.com/health/pulmonary-edema

  Your doctor may need to insert an endotracheal tube, or breathing tube, down your throat and use mechanical ventilation. […] The outlook for pulmonary edema depends on the severity. If you have a moderate case and receive quick treatment, you will often have a full recovery. Severe cases can be fatal if you delay treatment. […] Pulmonary edema requires prompt medical treatment.

• #1 Pulmonary edema: MedlinePlus Medical EncyclopediaLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000140.htm

  Pulmonary edema is an abnormal buildup of fluid in the lungs. This buildup of fluid leads to shortness of breath. […] The health care provider will perform a thorough physical exam. […] Possible tests include: Blood chemistries, Blood oxygen levels (oximetry or arterial blood gases), Chest x-ray, Complete blood count (CBC), Echocardiogram (ultrasound of the heart) to see if there are problems with the heart muscle, Electrocardiogram (ECG) to look for signs of a heart attack or problems with the heart rhythm. […] Pulmonary edema is almost always treated in the emergency room or hospital. […] The cause of pulmonary edema should be identified and treated quickly. […] The outlook depends on the cause. The condition may get better quickly or slowly. Some people may need to use a breathing machine for a long time. If not treated, this condition can be life threatening. […] Go to the emergency room or call 911 or the local emergency number if you have breathing problems.

• #2 Pulmonary Edema – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557611/

  Pulmonary edema is defined as an abnormal accumulation of extravascular fluid in the lung parenchyma. […] This activity highlights the role of the interprofessional team in the diagnosis and treatment of this condition. […] Clinical features include progressive worsening dyspnea, rales on lung auscultation, and worsening hypoxia. […] Progressively worsening dyspnea, tachypnea, and rales (or crackles) on examination with associated hypoxia are the clinical features common to both cardiogenic and noncardiogenic pulmonary edema. […] In addition to a thorough history and physical examination, electrocardiogram assists in diagnosing cardiac ischemia or myocardial infarction. […] Following are a variety of diagnostic tools utilized to help diagnose pulmonary edema and, more importantly, differentiate between its different types.

• #2 Pulmonary Edema: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment

  https://www.healthline.com/health/pulmonary-edema

  If a doctor suspects you may have pulmonary edema, they may look for fluid in your lungs or symptoms caused by it. They may perform a basic physical examination and listen to your lungs with a stethoscope, looking for: […] A doctor may also look for some signs on your body. These may include: […] The doctor may discuss your symptoms and ask about your medical history. They may order additional tests if they believe you have fluid in your lungs. […] Examples of tests used in diagnosing pulmonary edema include: […] Pulmonary edema is a serious condition that requires quick treatment. Treatment for pulmonary edema may include: […] A doctor will also diagnose the cause of pulmonary edema and prescribe the appropriate treatment for the underlying cause. […] In severe cases, people with pulmonary edema may need intensive or critical care.

• #2 Pulmonary Edema – Cardiovascular Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/cardiovascular-disorders/heart-failure/pulmonary-edema

  Pulmonary edema is acute, severe left ventricular failure with pulmonary venous hypertension and alveolar flooding. […] Diagnosis is clinical and by chest x-ray. […] Clinical evaluation showing severe dyspnea and pulmonary crackles. […] Chest x-ray. […] Sometimes serum brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) or N-terminal-pro BNP (NT-pro-BNP). […] ECG, cardiac markers, and other tests for etiology as needed. […] A chest x-ray, done immediately, is usually diagnostic, showing marked interstitial edema. […] Bedside measurement of serum BNP/NT-proBNP levels (elevated in pulmonary edema; normal in COPD exacerbation) is helpful if the diagnosis is in doubt. […] ECG, pulse oximetry, and blood tests (cardiac markers, electrolytes, BUN [blood urea nitrogen], creatinine and, for severely ill patients, arterial blood gas [ABG] measurements) are done.

• #2 Pulmonary edema | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/pulmonary-oedema?lang=us

  Pulmonary edema is a broad descriptive term and is usually defined as an abnormal accumulation of fluid in the extravascular compartments of the lung. […] The chest radiograph remains the most practical and useful method of radiologically assessing and quantifying pulmonary edema. […] Features useful for broadly assessing pulmonary edema on a plain chest radiograph include: upper lobe pulmonary venous diversion (stag’s antler sign), increased cardiothoracic ratio/cardiac silhouette size, features of pulmonary interstitial edema, and features of pulmonary alveolar edema. […] Interstitial pulmonary edema is most commonly demonstrated by ground glass opacification, bronchovascular bundle thickening, and interlobular septal thickening. […] Alveolar edema is demonstrated by airspace consolidation in addition to the above findings. […] The appearance of pulmonary edema is defined as a function of the perturbation of the air-fluid level in the lung, a spectrum of appearances coined the alveolar-interstitial syndromes.

• #2 Pulmonary edema – Diagnosis & treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/pulmonary-edema/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20377014

  Breathing problems require immediate diagnosis and treatment. A health care provider can base a diagnosis of pulmonary edema on the symptoms and the results of a physical exam and certain tests. […] Tests that can help diagnose pulmonary edema or determine the reason for fluid in the lungs include: […] A chest X-ray can confirm the diagnosis of pulmonary edema and exclude other possible causes of shortness of breath. It’s usually the first test done when a health care provider suspects pulmonary edema. […] A chest computed tomography (CT) scan gives more details about the condition of the lungs. It can help a provider diagnose or rule out pulmonary edema. […] A sensor is attached to a finger or ear. It uses light to determine how much oxygen is in the blood. […] This test measures the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood.

• #2 Pulmonary Edema – Pulmonology Advisor

  https://www.pulmonologyadvisor.com/ddi/pulmonary-edema/

  Pulmonary edema occurs when extravascular fluid collects in the lung parenchyma. Hospitalization for acute pulmonary edema is associated with a 1-year mortality rate of up to 40%. Pulmonary edema may be classified as cardiogenic or noncardiogenic. […] Patients with cardiogenic pulmonary edema may present with jugular venous distention, peripheral edema, increased blood pressure, and S3 gallop or murmurs. Patients with noncardiogenic pulmonary edema may present with signs of an active infection, trauma, or burn injuries. […] Laboratory tests to consider when evaluating a patient with pulmonary edema include brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) testing, arterial blood gas test, troponin test, basic metabolic panel, urinalysis, and complete blood count. […] Patients with cardiogenic pulmonary edema will have a BNP level greater than 1200 pg/mL, increased levels of troponin, and possibly increased creatinine levels. Chest radiograph may show increased heart size, pleural effusions, and short parallel lines at the periphery of the lungs (Kerley B lines). In contrast, patients with noncardiogenic pulmonary edema will have an increased white blood cell count and BNP level less than 200 pg/mL.

• #2 Pulmonary edema – Diagnosis & treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/pulmonary-edema/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20377014

  Increased levels of B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) may signal a heart condition. […] Blood tests to diagnose pulmonary edema and its causes also usually include a complete blood count, metabolic panel to check kidney function and thyroid function test. […] This painless test detects and records the timing and strength of the heart’s signals. […] An echocardiogram uses sound waves (ultrasound) to create pictures of the beating heart. It can identify areas of poor blood flow, heart valve issues and heart muscle that is not working properly. […] This test may be done if other tests don’t show the cause of pulmonary edema, or when there’s also chest pain. […] This painless test uses sound waves to measure blood flow through the lungs. It can quickly reveal signs of fluid buildup and plural effusions.

• #2 Pulmonary Edema > Fact Sheets > Yale Medicine

  https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/pulmonary-edema

  Common treatments for pulmonary edema include: Supplemental oxygen, may be delivered via a nasal cannula; Medications, including diuretics; Morphine, which can help reduce anxiety and improve breathing. […] Pulmonary edema can be life-threatening. […] People who seek treatment may recover, but about 20% of people who are treated for pulmonary edema die, often due to complications.

• #2 Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema in Emergency Medicine

  https://www.mdpi.com/2543-6031/91/5/34

  Initial testing includes a 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG), chest X-ray, lung ultrasonography, and laboratory tests comprising arterial blood gas (ABG) and cardiac enzymes. […] Chest radiography is one of the most important investigations required for the evaluation of pulmonary edema and can help distinguish between CPE and NCPE. […] Transthoracic Pulmonary ultrasound can detect CPE by identifying B-lines, also known as “comet tails,” which represent alveolar-interstitial edema. […] Echocardiography is recommended to evaluate LV systolic and diastolic function. […] BNP is a cardiac neurohormone that is secreted from the ventricles when they are under increased pressure and stress. […] Pulmonary arterial catheterization using a Swan-Ganz catheter helps in differentiating CPE from NCPE: pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (PCWP) is generally >18 mm Hg in CPE and <18 mm Hg in NCPE.

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