Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Pulmonary edema | PPT

  https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/pulmonary-edema-79056812/79056812

  Epidemiology 0 Pulmonary edema occurs in about 1% to 2% of the general population. 0 Between the ages of 40 and 75 years, males are affected more than females. 0 After the age of 75 years, males and females are affected equally. 0 The incidence of pulmonary edema increases with age and may affect about 10% of the population over the age of 75 years. […] Pulmonary edema is fluid accumulation in the lungs caused by fluid leaking from blood vessels into the lung tissue and air spaces. It can be caused by issues that increase pressure in the blood vessels of the lungs like heart failure, or by problems that damage the blood vessel walls. […] Pulmonary edema is fluid accumulation in the lungs caused by increased fluid filtration from pulmonary capillaries into lung tissue. It can be cardiogenic, caused by left ventricular failure which increases hydrostatic pressure, or non-cardiogenic, caused by altered capillary permeability independent of cardiac issues. Symptoms include shortness of breath, cough, and hypoxemia. Treatment focuses on supporting oxygenation, reducing preload and afterload on the heart, and addressing any underlying conditions.

• #2 Pulmonary Oedema – Pathophysiology – Approach & Management | PPT

  https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/pulmonary-oedema-pathophysiology-approach-management/80843033

  Pulmonary edema occurs in about 1% to 2% of the general population. Between the ages of 40 and 75 years, males are affected more than females. After the age of 75 years, males and females are affected equally. The incidence of pulmonary edema increases with age and may affect about 10% of the population over the age of 75 years. […] Non cardiogenic pulmonary edema caused by changes in permeability of the pulmonary capillary membrane as a result of either a direct or an indirect pathologic insult. […] Physiologically, noncardiogenic pulmonary edema is characterized by intrapulmonary shunt with hypoxemia and decreased pulmonary compliance leading to lower functional residual capacity. Clinically, the picture ranges from mild dyspnea to respiratory failure. […] The major complications associated with CPE are respiratory fatigue and failure. Assisted ventilation is provided if the patient begins to show signs of respiratory fatigue (eg, lethargy, fatigue, diaphoresis, worsening anxiety). Sudden cardiac death secondary to cardiac arrhythmia is another concern, and continuous monitoring of heart rhythm is helpful in prompt diagnosis of dangerous arrhythmias.

• #3 Pulmonary Edema – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557611/

  More than 1 million patients are admitted each year with a diagnosis of pulmonary edema secondary to cardiac causes (heart failure). […] An estimated 190,000 patients are diagnosed with acute lung injury each year. […] About 1.5 to 3.5 cases/100,000 population are diagnosed with ARDS.

• #4 Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544260/

  Pulmonary edema is a life-threatening condition with an estimated 75000 to 83000 cases per 100000 persons having heart failure and low ejection fraction. A trial showed an alarming 80% prevalence of pulmonary edema in patients with heart failure. It is a troublesome condition with the rate of discharge being 74% and the rate of survival after one year of 50%. The mortality rate at six years follow-up was 85% with patients with congestive heart failure. Males are typically affected more than females, and older patients are at a higher risk for developing pulmonary edema. […] Cardiogenic pulmonary edema is an alarming condition with the rate of discharge being 74% and the rate of survival after one year of 50%. The mortality rate at 6 years follow-up is 85% with patients of congestive heart failure.

• #5 Pulmonary edema epidemiology and demographics – wikidoc

  https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Pulmonary_edema_epidemiology_and_demographics

  The prevalence of pulmonary edema was estimated to be 75000-83000 cases per 100,000 individuals among heart failure patients with reduced ejection fraction. […] Pulmonary edema commonly affects individuals older than 65 years of age. […] Males are more commonly affected by pulmonary edema than woman. […] The incidence of neurogenic pulmonary edema is approximately 2000 to 42900 per 100,000 individuals in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage. […] The incidence of neurogenic pulmonary edema is approximately 20000 per 100,000 individuals in patients with traumatic brain injury. […] The mortality rate of pulmonary edema is approximately 12000 per 100000 among in-hospital patients. […] The median time from the pulmonary edema until death is approximately 10 days. […] Higher in-hospital mortality rate are associated with left ventricular myocardial function. […] Blacks have the highest risk for heart failure as underlying cause of pulmonary edema.

• #6 Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544260/

  Pulmonary edema is a life-threatening condition with an estimated 75000 to 83000 cases per 100000 persons having heart failure and low ejection fraction. A trial showed an alarming 80% prevalence of pulmonary edema in patients with heart failure. It is a troublesome condition with the rate of discharge being 74% and the rate of survival after one year of 50%. The mortality rate at six years follow-up was 85% with patients with congestive heart failure. Males are typically affected more than females, and older patients are at a higher risk for developing pulmonary edema. […] Cardiogenic pulmonary edema is an alarming condition with the rate of discharge being 74% and the rate of survival after one year of 50%. The mortality rate at 6 years follow-up is 85% with patients of congestive heart failure.

• #7 Pulmonary Edema | Thoracic Key

  https://thoracickey.com/pulmonary-edema/

  Pulmonary edema is a restrictive pulmonary disorder. […] The causes of pulmonary edema can be divided into two major categories: cardiogenic and noncardiogenic. […] According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), about 5 million people in the United States have CHF or about 1.7% of the overall population. […] Approximately 550,000 new cases of CHF are diagnosed annually. […] CHF is a leading cause of hospitalization in people over the age of 65 and is estimated to be a contributing factor to nearly 300,000 deaths annually. […] Increased pulmonary capillary hydrostatic pressure is the most common cause of pulmonary edema. […] There are numerous noncardiogenic causes of pulmonary edema. […] Pulmonary edema may develop as a result of increased capillary permeability stemming from infectious, inflammatory, and other processes.

• #8

  https://journals.lww.com/jcardiovascularmedicine/Fulltext/2016/02000/Epidemiology,_pathophysiology,_and_in_hospital.3.aspx?generateEpub=Article%7Cjcardiovascularmedicine:2016:02000:00003%7C%7C

  The objective of this study was to evaluate the clinical presentation, inpatient management, and in-hospital outcome of patients hospitalized for acute heart failure syndromes (AHFS) and classified as pulmonary edema (PE). […] RO-AHFS enrolled 3224 patients and 28.7% (n = 924) were classified as PE. […] In-hospital all-cause mortality (ACM) in PE patients was 7.4%, and 57% of deaths occurred on day one. […] In this national registry, the PE profile was found to be a high-acuity clinical presentation with distinctive treatment patterns and a poor short-term prognosis.

• #9 Epidemiology, pathophysiology, and in-hospital management of pulmonary edema: data from the Romanian Acute Heart Failure Syndromes registry. – Kaiser Permanente Division of Research

  https://divisionofresearch.kaiserpermanente.org/publications/epidemiology-pathophysiology-and-in-hospital-management-of-pulmonary-edema-data-from-the-romanian-acute-heart-failure-syndromes-registry/

  AIM: The objective of this study was to evaluate the clinical presentation, inpatient management, and in-hospital outcome of patients hospitalized for acute heart failure syndromes (AHFS) and classified as pulmonary edema (PE). […] RESULTS: RO-AHFS enrolled 3224 patients and 28.7% (n=924) were classified as PE. […] In-hospital all-cause mortality (ACM) in PE patients was 7.4%, and 57% of deaths occurred on day one. […] CONCLUSIONS: In this national registry, the PE profile was found to be a high-acuity clinical presentation with distinctive treatment patterns and a poor short-term prognosis.

• #10 Pulmonary Oedema—Therapeutic Targets

  https://www.cfrjournal.com/articles/pulmonary-oedema-therapeutic-targets?language_content_entity=en

  Pulmonary oedema (PO) is a common manifestation of acute heart failure (AHF) associated with a high-acuity presentation and significant haemodynamic abnormalities. PO is defined as alveolar or interstitial oedema verified by chest X-ray and/or with arterial oxygen saturation 90 % on room air accompanied by severe respiratory distress. […] PO is the second most common clinical presentation of AHF syndromes (AHFS), though the prevalence and in-hospital mortality may exhibit substantial geographic variation. Moreover, overlapping features among AHF clinical profiles and/or the confounding presence of noncardiac comorbidities may lead to incomplete or inaccurate classification. These patients are often not included in clinical trials due to their disease severity and inability to wait for study medication to be initiated. PO may be a deadly clinical manifestation of HF and recent experience suggests the vast majority of deaths occurred soon after admission.

• #11 Pulmonary Edema – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557611/

  More than 1 million patients are admitted each year with a diagnosis of pulmonary edema secondary to cardiac causes (heart failure). […] An estimated 190,000 patients are diagnosed with acute lung injury each year. […] About 1.5 to 3.5 cases/100,000 population are diagnosed with ARDS.

• #12 Decision support tool for differential diagnosis of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) vs Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema (CPE): a prospective validation and meta-analysis | Critical Care | Full Text

  https://ccforum.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13054-014-0659-x

  With an estimated 190,600 new cases each year resulting in 74,500 deaths and 3.6 million hospital days, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS [1], formerly known as acute lung injury [ALI] [2]) poses a major health burden on US society [3]. […] In the early stages ARDS can be difficult to differentiate from cardiogenic pulmonary edema (CPE) [4],[5], which may delay initiation of critical treatment measures (for example, lung-protective ventilation, prone positioning, neuromuscular blockade) [6]-[10], lead to unnecessary testing and preclude timely enrollment into research studies [11]-[13]. […] The clinical prediction score reliably differentiates ARDS/ALI vs CPE. Pooled results provide precise estimates of the scores performance which can be used to screen patient populations or to assess the probability of ALI/ARDS vs CPE in specific patients. The score may thus facilitate early inclusion into research studies and expedite prompt treatment.

• #13 Pulmonary Edema – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557611/

  More than 1 million patients are admitted each year with a diagnosis of pulmonary edema secondary to cardiac causes (heart failure). […] An estimated 190,000 patients are diagnosed with acute lung injury each year. […] About 1.5 to 3.5 cases/100,000 population are diagnosed with ARDS.

• #14 Neurogenic pulmonary edema | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/neurogenic-pulmonary-oedema?lang=us

  The incidence of neurogenic pulmonary edema is difficult to estimate, with the majority of published studies regarding this entity being case report level data. Noted associations include: […] marked variability in reported incidence, ranging from 7% to 78% in fatal cases secondary to aneurysmal rupture.

• #15 Pulmonary edema epidemiology and demographics – wikidoc

  https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Pulmonary_edema_epidemiology_and_demographics

  The prevalence of pulmonary edema was estimated to be 75000-83000 cases per 100,000 individuals among heart failure patients with reduced ejection fraction. […] Pulmonary edema commonly affects individuals older than 65 years of age. […] Males are more commonly affected by pulmonary edema than woman. […] The incidence of neurogenic pulmonary edema is approximately 2000 to 42900 per 100,000 individuals in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage. […] The incidence of neurogenic pulmonary edema is approximately 20000 per 100,000 individuals in patients with traumatic brain injury. […] The mortality rate of pulmonary edema is approximately 12000 per 100000 among in-hospital patients. […] The median time from the pulmonary edema until death is approximately 10 days. […] Higher in-hospital mortality rate are associated with left ventricular myocardial function. […] Blacks have the highest risk for heart failure as underlying cause of pulmonary edema.

• #16 High altitude pulmonary edema | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/high-altitude-pulmonary-oedema-1?lang=us

  High altitude pulmonary edema is a subtype of pulmonary edema and is caused by prolonged exposure to an environment with a lower partial oxygen atmospheric pressure. […] It occurs most frequently in young males and ~24-48 hours after they have made a rapid ascent to heights greater than 2,500-3,000 meters and have remained in that environment.

• #17 High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/300716-overview

  The incidence of high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) ranges from an estimated 0.01% to 15.5%. In Colorado, the incidence of HAPE is 1 per 10,000 skiers and up to 1 per 100 climbers at more than 4,270 m (14,010 ft). […] The risk of HAPE rises with increased altitude and faster ascent. At 4500 m, the incidence is 0.6% to 6%; at 5500 m, the incidence is 2% to 15%. […] Climbers with a previous history of HAPE, who ascent rapidly above 4,500 m (14,764 ft) have up to a 60% chance of illness recurrence. […] In a study on Mount Everest trekkers, the incidence of high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) was about 1.6%. […] Men and women are equally susceptible to acute mountain sickness, but women may be less likely to develop high-altitude pulmonary edema. […] The typical patient with high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) is a young person who is otherwise physically fit. HAPE is rare in infants and small children.

• #18 High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/300716-overview

  The incidence of high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) ranges from an estimated 0.01% to 15.5%. In Colorado, the incidence of HAPE is 1 per 10,000 skiers and up to 1 per 100 climbers at more than 4,270 m (14,010 ft). […] The risk of HAPE rises with increased altitude and faster ascent. At 4500 m, the incidence is 0.6% to 6%; at 5500 m, the incidence is 2% to 15%. […] Climbers with a previous history of HAPE, who ascent rapidly above 4,500 m (14,764 ft) have up to a 60% chance of illness recurrence. […] In a study on Mount Everest trekkers, the incidence of high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) was about 1.6%. […] Men and women are equally susceptible to acute mountain sickness, but women may be less likely to develop high-altitude pulmonary edema. […] The typical patient with high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) is a young person who is otherwise physically fit. HAPE is rare in infants and small children.

• #19 High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/300716-overview

  The incidence of high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) ranges from an estimated 0.01% to 15.5%. In Colorado, the incidence of HAPE is 1 per 10,000 skiers and up to 1 per 100 climbers at more than 4,270 m (14,010 ft). […] The risk of HAPE rises with increased altitude and faster ascent. At 4500 m, the incidence is 0.6% to 6%; at 5500 m, the incidence is 2% to 15%. […] Climbers with a previous history of HAPE, who ascent rapidly above 4,500 m (14,764 ft) have up to a 60% chance of illness recurrence. […] In a study on Mount Everest trekkers, the incidence of high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) was about 1.6%. […] Men and women are equally susceptible to acute mountain sickness, but women may be less likely to develop high-altitude pulmonary edema. […] The typical patient with high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) is a young person who is otherwise physically fit. HAPE is rare in infants and small children.

• #20 High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/300716-overview

  The incidence of high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) ranges from an estimated 0.01% to 15.5%. In Colorado, the incidence of HAPE is 1 per 10,000 skiers and up to 1 per 100 climbers at more than 4,270 m (14,010 ft). […] The risk of HAPE rises with increased altitude and faster ascent. At 4500 m, the incidence is 0.6% to 6%; at 5500 m, the incidence is 2% to 15%. […] Climbers with a previous history of HAPE, who ascent rapidly above 4,500 m (14,764 ft) have up to a 60% chance of illness recurrence. […] In a study on Mount Everest trekkers, the incidence of high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) was about 1.6%. […] Men and women are equally susceptible to acute mountain sickness, but women may be less likely to develop high-altitude pulmonary edema. […] The typical patient with high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) is a young person who is otherwise physically fit. HAPE is rare in infants and small children.

• #21 High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/300716-overview

  The incidence of high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) ranges from an estimated 0.01% to 15.5%. In Colorado, the incidence of HAPE is 1 per 10,000 skiers and up to 1 per 100 climbers at more than 4,270 m (14,010 ft). […] The risk of HAPE rises with increased altitude and faster ascent. At 4500 m, the incidence is 0.6% to 6%; at 5500 m, the incidence is 2% to 15%. […] Climbers with a previous history of HAPE, who ascent rapidly above 4,500 m (14,764 ft) have up to a 60% chance of illness recurrence. […] In a study on Mount Everest trekkers, the incidence of high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) was about 1.6%. […] Men and women are equally susceptible to acute mountain sickness, but women may be less likely to develop high-altitude pulmonary edema. […] The typical patient with high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) is a young person who is otherwise physically fit. HAPE is rare in infants and small children.

• #22 High-altitude pulmonary edema – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-altitude_pulmonary_edema

  Rates of HAPE differs depending on altitude and speed of ascent. In general, there is about a 0.2 to 6 percent incidence at 4,500 metres (14,800 ft), and about 2 to 15 percent at 5,500 metres (18,000 ft). […] It has been reported that about 1 in 10,000 skiers who travel to moderate altitudes in Colorado develop HAPE; one study reported 150 cases over 39 months at a Colorado resort located at 2,928 metres (9,606 ft). […] About 1 in 50 climbers who ascended Denali [6,194 metres or 20,322 feet] developed pulmonary edema, and as high as 6% of climbers ascending rapidly in the Alps [4,559 metres or 14,957 feet]. […] In climbers who had previously developed HAPE, re-attack rate was up to 60% with ascent to 4,559 metres (14,957 ft) in a 36-hour time period, though this risk was significantly reduced with slower ascent rates. […] It is believed that up to 50% of people suffer from subclinical HAPE with mild edema to the lungs but no clinical impairment.

• #23 High-altitude pulmonary edema – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-altitude_pulmonary_edema

  Rates of HAPE differs depending on altitude and speed of ascent. In general, there is about a 0.2 to 6 percent incidence at 4,500 metres (14,800 ft), and about 2 to 15 percent at 5,500 metres (18,000 ft). […] It has been reported that about 1 in 10,000 skiers who travel to moderate altitudes in Colorado develop HAPE; one study reported 150 cases over 39 months at a Colorado resort located at 2,928 metres (9,606 ft). […] About 1 in 50 climbers who ascended Denali [6,194 metres or 20,322 feet] developed pulmonary edema, and as high as 6% of climbers ascending rapidly in the Alps [4,559 metres or 14,957 feet]. […] In climbers who had previously developed HAPE, re-attack rate was up to 60% with ascent to 4,559 metres (14,957 ft) in a 36-hour time period, though this risk was significantly reduced with slower ascent rates. […] It is believed that up to 50% of people suffer from subclinical HAPE with mild edema to the lungs but no clinical impairment.

• #24 Negative Pressure Pulmonary Edema

  https://fpnotebook.com/Renal/Edema/NgtvPrsrPlmnryEdm.htm

  Occurs in 0.1% of cases of Endotracheal Intubation for General Anesthesia (esp. with laryngospasm) […] Occurs in up to 12% of patients with acute upper airway obstruction (e.g. laryngospasm)

• #25 Immersion Pulmonary Oedema – UKDMC

  https://www.ukdmc.org/medical-conditions/immersion-pulmonary-oedema/

  Immersion pulmonary oedema (IPO or IPE in the USA) is a life threatening condition that affects surface swimmers, including snorkellers, and divers. The precise incidence is unknown, because fatal cases can be mistaken for drowning. […] A survey showed that 1.4% of triathletes had one or more episodes of IPO. […] There is also evidence that IPO may be the commonest cause of death in amateur scuba divers. […] Factors increasing the risk of IPO are pre-existing cardiac disease and hypertension, immersion in cold water, pre-hydration with fluids before immersion, exertion, stressful events during immersion and inspiring against a negative pressure when diving. […] There is research into the various factors causing IPO. […] People that start a period of immersion with relatively high left ventricular filling pressures, because they have heart disease or hypertension, will be at increased risk of getting IPO. […] An individual who has had IPO is at risk of further episodes. […] Therefore, any diver who has suffered IPO or has had symptoms that might have been the result of IPO should be reviewed by a medical referee.

• #26 Pulmonary edema epidemiology and demographics – wikidoc

  https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Pulmonary_edema_epidemiology_and_demographics

  The prevalence of pulmonary edema was estimated to be 75000-83000 cases per 100,000 individuals among heart failure patients with reduced ejection fraction. […] Pulmonary edema commonly affects individuals older than 65 years of age. […] Males are more commonly affected by pulmonary edema than woman. […] The incidence of neurogenic pulmonary edema is approximately 2000 to 42900 per 100,000 individuals in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage. […] The incidence of neurogenic pulmonary edema is approximately 20000 per 100,000 individuals in patients with traumatic brain injury. […] The mortality rate of pulmonary edema is approximately 12000 per 100000 among in-hospital patients. […] The median time from the pulmonary edema until death is approximately 10 days. […] Higher in-hospital mortality rate are associated with left ventricular myocardial function. […] Blacks have the highest risk for heart failure as underlying cause of pulmonary edema.

• #27 Pulmonary Edema | Concise Medical Knowledge

  https://www.lecturio.com/concepts/pulmonary-edema/

  Pulmonary edema is a condition in which excess serous fluid accumulates in the body cavity or interstitial space of connective tissues. […] Approximately 80,000 cases per 100,000 people with heart failure. […] More often seen in the elderly or critically ill.

• #28 Pulmonary edema | PPT

  https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/pulmonary-edema-79056812/79056812

  Epidemiology 0 Pulmonary edema occurs in about 1% to 2% of the general population. 0 Between the ages of 40 and 75 years, males are affected more than females. 0 After the age of 75 years, males and females are affected equally. 0 The incidence of pulmonary edema increases with age and may affect about 10% of the population over the age of 75 years. […] Pulmonary edema is fluid accumulation in the lungs caused by fluid leaking from blood vessels into the lung tissue and air spaces. It can be caused by issues that increase pressure in the blood vessels of the lungs like heart failure, or by problems that damage the blood vessel walls. […] Pulmonary edema is fluid accumulation in the lungs caused by increased fluid filtration from pulmonary capillaries into lung tissue. It can be cardiogenic, caused by left ventricular failure which increases hydrostatic pressure, or non-cardiogenic, caused by altered capillary permeability independent of cardiac issues. Symptoms include shortness of breath, cough, and hypoxemia. Treatment focuses on supporting oxygenation, reducing preload and afterload on the heart, and addressing any underlying conditions.

• #29 Pulmonary Oedema – Pathophysiology – Approach & Management | PPT

  https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/pulmonary-oedema-pathophysiology-approach-management/80843033

  Pulmonary edema occurs in about 1% to 2% of the general population. Between the ages of 40 and 75 years, males are affected more than females. After the age of 75 years, males and females are affected equally. The incidence of pulmonary edema increases with age and may affect about 10% of the population over the age of 75 years. […] Non cardiogenic pulmonary edema caused by changes in permeability of the pulmonary capillary membrane as a result of either a direct or an indirect pathologic insult. […] Physiologically, noncardiogenic pulmonary edema is characterized by intrapulmonary shunt with hypoxemia and decreased pulmonary compliance leading to lower functional residual capacity. Clinically, the picture ranges from mild dyspnea to respiratory failure. […] The major complications associated with CPE are respiratory fatigue and failure. Assisted ventilation is provided if the patient begins to show signs of respiratory fatigue (eg, lethargy, fatigue, diaphoresis, worsening anxiety). Sudden cardiac death secondary to cardiac arrhythmia is another concern, and continuous monitoring of heart rhythm is helpful in prompt diagnosis of dangerous arrhythmias.

• #30 Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544260/

  Pulmonary edema is a life-threatening condition with an estimated 75000 to 83000 cases per 100000 persons having heart failure and low ejection fraction. A trial showed an alarming 80% prevalence of pulmonary edema in patients with heart failure. It is a troublesome condition with the rate of discharge being 74% and the rate of survival after one year of 50%. The mortality rate at six years follow-up was 85% with patients with congestive heart failure. Males are typically affected more than females, and older patients are at a higher risk for developing pulmonary edema. […] Cardiogenic pulmonary edema is an alarming condition with the rate of discharge being 74% and the rate of survival after one year of 50%. The mortality rate at 6 years follow-up is 85% with patients of congestive heart failure.

• #31 High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/300716-overview

  The incidence of high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) ranges from an estimated 0.01% to 15.5%. In Colorado, the incidence of HAPE is 1 per 10,000 skiers and up to 1 per 100 climbers at more than 4,270 m (14,010 ft). […] The risk of HAPE rises with increased altitude and faster ascent. At 4500 m, the incidence is 0.6% to 6%; at 5500 m, the incidence is 2% to 15%. […] Climbers with a previous history of HAPE, who ascent rapidly above 4,500 m (14,764 ft) have up to a 60% chance of illness recurrence. […] In a study on Mount Everest trekkers, the incidence of high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) was about 1.6%. […] Men and women are equally susceptible to acute mountain sickness, but women may be less likely to develop high-altitude pulmonary edema. […] The typical patient with high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) is a young person who is otherwise physically fit. HAPE is rare in infants and small children.

• #32 High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE): Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/300716-overview

  The incidence of high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) ranges from an estimated 0.01% to 15.5%. In Colorado, the incidence of HAPE is 1 per 10,000 skiers and up to 1 per 100 climbers at more than 4,270 m (14,010 ft). […] The risk of HAPE rises with increased altitude and faster ascent. At 4500 m, the incidence is 0.6% to 6%; at 5500 m, the incidence is 2% to 15%. […] Climbers with a previous history of HAPE, who ascent rapidly above 4,500 m (14,764 ft) have up to a 60% chance of illness recurrence. […] In a study on Mount Everest trekkers, the incidence of high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) was about 1.6%. […] Men and women are equally susceptible to acute mountain sickness, but women may be less likely to develop high-altitude pulmonary edema. […] The typical patient with high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) is a young person who is otherwise physically fit. HAPE is rare in infants and small children.

• #33 High altitude pulmonary edema | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org

  https://radiopaedia.org/articles/high-altitude-pulmonary-oedema-1?lang=us

  High altitude pulmonary edema is a subtype of pulmonary edema and is caused by prolonged exposure to an environment with a lower partial oxygen atmospheric pressure. […] It occurs most frequently in young males and ~24-48 hours after they have made a rapid ascent to heights greater than 2,500-3,000 meters and have remained in that environment.

• #34 Pulmonary edema epidemiology and demographics – wikidoc

  https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Pulmonary_edema_epidemiology_and_demographics

  The prevalence of pulmonary edema was estimated to be 75000-83000 cases per 100,000 individuals among heart failure patients with reduced ejection fraction. […] Pulmonary edema commonly affects individuals older than 65 years of age. […] Males are more commonly affected by pulmonary edema than woman. […] The incidence of neurogenic pulmonary edema is approximately 2000 to 42900 per 100,000 individuals in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage. […] The incidence of neurogenic pulmonary edema is approximately 20000 per 100,000 individuals in patients with traumatic brain injury. […] The mortality rate of pulmonary edema is approximately 12000 per 100000 among in-hospital patients. […] The median time from the pulmonary edema until death is approximately 10 days. […] Higher in-hospital mortality rate are associated with left ventricular myocardial function. […] Blacks have the highest risk for heart failure as underlying cause of pulmonary edema.

• #35 Latest on Congestive Heart Failure and Pulmonary Edema

  https://www.uscjournal.com/articles/current-thinking-acute-congestive-heart-failure-and-pulmonary-edema?language_content_entity=en

  In the US, more than three million people have CHF, and more than 400,000 new cases present yearly. The prevalence of CHF is 1% to 2% of the general population. […] Approximately 30% to 40% of patients with CHF are hospitalized every year. CHF is the leading diagnosis-related group (DRG) among hospitalized patients older than 65 years. […] The five-year mortality after diagnosis was reported as 60% in men and 45% in women in 1971. In 1991, data from the Framingham Heart Study showed the five-year mortality rate for CHF essentially remaining unchanged, with a median survival of 3.2 years for males and 5.4 years for females. […] The most common cause of death is progressive heart failure, but sudden death may account for up to 45% of all deaths. […] African-American patients are 1.5 times more likely to die of CHF than white patients. […] The overall incidence of CHF increases with increasing age and effects about 10% of the population older than 75 years.

• #36 Pulmonary edema epidemiology and demographics – wikidoc

  https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Pulmonary_edema_epidemiology_and_demographics

  The prevalence of pulmonary edema was estimated to be 75000-83000 cases per 100,000 individuals among heart failure patients with reduced ejection fraction. […] Pulmonary edema commonly affects individuals older than 65 years of age. […] Males are more commonly affected by pulmonary edema than woman. […] The incidence of neurogenic pulmonary edema is approximately 2000 to 42900 per 100,000 individuals in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage. […] The incidence of neurogenic pulmonary edema is approximately 20000 per 100,000 individuals in patients with traumatic brain injury. […] The mortality rate of pulmonary edema is approximately 12000 per 100000 among in-hospital patients. […] The median time from the pulmonary edema until death is approximately 10 days. […] Higher in-hospital mortality rate are associated with left ventricular myocardial function. […] Blacks have the highest risk for heart failure as underlying cause of pulmonary edema.

• #37 Pulmonary edema epidemiology and demographics – wikidoc

  https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Pulmonary_edema_epidemiology_and_demographics

  The prevalence of pulmonary edema was estimated to be 75000-83000 cases per 100,000 individuals among heart failure patients with reduced ejection fraction. […] Pulmonary edema commonly affects individuals older than 65 years of age. […] Males are more commonly affected by pulmonary edema than woman. […] The incidence of neurogenic pulmonary edema is approximately 2000 to 42900 per 100,000 individuals in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage. […] The incidence of neurogenic pulmonary edema is approximately 20000 per 100,000 individuals in patients with traumatic brain injury. […] The mortality rate of pulmonary edema is approximately 12000 per 100000 among in-hospital patients. […] The median time from the pulmonary edema until death is approximately 10 days. […] Higher in-hospital mortality rate are associated with left ventricular myocardial function. […] Blacks have the highest risk for heart failure as underlying cause of pulmonary edema.

• #38

  https://journals.lww.com/jcardiovascularmedicine/Fulltext/2016/02000/Epidemiology,_pathophysiology,_and_in_hospital.3.aspx?generateEpub=Article%7Cjcardiovascularmedicine:2016:02000:00003%7C%7C

  The objective of this study was to evaluate the clinical presentation, inpatient management, and in-hospital outcome of patients hospitalized for acute heart failure syndromes (AHFS) and classified as pulmonary edema (PE). […] RO-AHFS enrolled 3224 patients and 28.7% (n = 924) were classified as PE. […] In-hospital all-cause mortality (ACM) in PE patients was 7.4%, and 57% of deaths occurred on day one. […] In this national registry, the PE profile was found to be a high-acuity clinical presentation with distinctive treatment patterns and a poor short-term prognosis.

• #39 Epidemiology, pathophysiology, and in-hospital management of pulmonary edema: data from the Romanian Acute Heart Failure Syndromes registry. – Kaiser Permanente Division of Research

  https://divisionofresearch.kaiserpermanente.org/publications/epidemiology-pathophysiology-and-in-hospital-management-of-pulmonary-edema-data-from-the-romanian-acute-heart-failure-syndromes-registry/

  AIM: The objective of this study was to evaluate the clinical presentation, inpatient management, and in-hospital outcome of patients hospitalized for acute heart failure syndromes (AHFS) and classified as pulmonary edema (PE). […] RESULTS: RO-AHFS enrolled 3224 patients and 28.7% (n=924) were classified as PE. […] In-hospital all-cause mortality (ACM) in PE patients was 7.4%, and 57% of deaths occurred on day one. […] CONCLUSIONS: In this national registry, the PE profile was found to be a high-acuity clinical presentation with distinctive treatment patterns and a poor short-term prognosis.

• #40 Pulmonary Edema – Pulmonology Advisor

  https://www.pulmonologyadvisor.com/ddi/pulmonary-edema/

  Hospitalization for acute pulmonary edema is associated with a 1-year mortality rate of up to 40%. […] The treatment goals in pulmonary edema are to correct the underlying cause and lessen the symptoms of fluid accumulation. […] Intensive care is required for patients with pulmonary edema who require intubation; have symptoms of hypoperfusion; have an SpO2 less than 90% while on oxygen; have a heart rate less than 40 bpm or greater than 130 bpm; and/or have a systolic blood pressure 90 mm Hg. […] Hospitalized patients with pulmonary edema should have their weight, serum electrolytes, and renal function monitored daily.

• #41 Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544260/

  Pulmonary edema is a life-threatening condition with an estimated 75000 to 83000 cases per 100000 persons having heart failure and low ejection fraction. A trial showed an alarming 80% prevalence of pulmonary edema in patients with heart failure. It is a troublesome condition with the rate of discharge being 74% and the rate of survival after one year of 50%. The mortality rate at six years follow-up was 85% with patients with congestive heart failure. Males are typically affected more than females, and older patients are at a higher risk for developing pulmonary edema. […] Cardiogenic pulmonary edema is an alarming condition with the rate of discharge being 74% and the rate of survival after one year of 50%. The mortality rate at 6 years follow-up is 85% with patients of congestive heart failure.

• #42 Pulmonary edema epidemiology and demographics – wikidoc

  https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Pulmonary_edema_epidemiology_and_demographics

  The prevalence of pulmonary edema was estimated to be 75000-83000 cases per 100,000 individuals among heart failure patients with reduced ejection fraction. […] Pulmonary edema commonly affects individuals older than 65 years of age. […] Males are more commonly affected by pulmonary edema than woman. […] The incidence of neurogenic pulmonary edema is approximately 2000 to 42900 per 100,000 individuals in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage. […] The incidence of neurogenic pulmonary edema is approximately 20000 per 100,000 individuals in patients with traumatic brain injury. […] The mortality rate of pulmonary edema is approximately 12000 per 100000 among in-hospital patients. […] The median time from the pulmonary edema until death is approximately 10 days. […] Higher in-hospital mortality rate are associated with left ventricular myocardial function. […] Blacks have the highest risk for heart failure as underlying cause of pulmonary edema.

• #43 Pulmonary Oedema – Pathophysiology – Approach & Management | PPT

  https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/pulmonary-oedema-pathophysiology-approach-management/80843033

  In-hospital mortality rates for patients with CPE are difficult to assign because the causes and severity of the disease vary considerably. In a high-acuity setting, in-hospital death rates are as high as 15-20%. Myocardial infarction, associated hypotension, and a history of frequent hospitalizations for CPE generally increase the mortality risk. Severe hypoxia may result in myocardial ischemia or infarction. Mechanical ventilation may be required if medical therapy is delayed or unsuccessful. Endotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation are associated with their own risks, including aspiration (during intubation), mucosal trauma (more common with nasotracheal intubation than with orotracheal intubation), and barotrauma.

• #44 Mechanical ventilation in patients with cardiogenic pulmonary edema: a sub-analysis of the LUNG SAFE study | Journal of Intensive Care | Full Text

  https://jintensivecare.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40560-022-00648-x

  Patients with cardiogenic pulmonary edema (CPE) that need mechanical ventilation constitute a subgroup with a significant mortality […] Mortality rates in cardiogenic pulmonary edema and cardiogenic shock remain high, with only minor improvements in the last years […] Higher airway pressures in invasively ventilated patients with CPE are related to mortality. These patients may be exposed to an increased risk of ventilator-induced lung injury […] Our results show that high driving pressures during the first week of ventilation were associated to a significantly increased mortality, supporting the impact of mechanical ventilation on the outcomes of patients with CPE […] Driving pressure, rather than tidal volume alone, has been proposed as a better marker of regional lung strain with better correlation to mortality than tidal volume in ARDS

• #45 Mechanical ventilation in patients with cardiogenic pulmonary edema: a sub-analysis of the LUNG SAFE study | Journal of Intensive Care | Full Text

  https://jintensivecare.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40560-022-00648-x

  Patients with cardiogenic pulmonary edema (CPE) that need mechanical ventilation constitute a subgroup with a significant mortality […] Mortality rates in cardiogenic pulmonary edema and cardiogenic shock remain high, with only minor improvements in the last years […] Higher airway pressures in invasively ventilated patients with CPE are related to mortality. These patients may be exposed to an increased risk of ventilator-induced lung injury […] Our results show that high driving pressures during the first week of ventilation were associated to a significantly increased mortality, supporting the impact of mechanical ventilation on the outcomes of patients with CPE […] Driving pressure, rather than tidal volume alone, has been proposed as a better marker of regional lung strain with better correlation to mortality than tidal volume in ARDS

• #46 Mechanical ventilation in patients with cardiogenic pulmonary edema: a sub-analysis of the LUNG SAFE study | Journal of Intensive Care | Full Text

  https://jintensivecare.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40560-022-00648-x

  Patients with cardiogenic pulmonary edema (CPE) that need mechanical ventilation constitute a subgroup with a significant mortality […] Mortality rates in cardiogenic pulmonary edema and cardiogenic shock remain high, with only minor improvements in the last years […] Higher airway pressures in invasively ventilated patients with CPE are related to mortality. These patients may be exposed to an increased risk of ventilator-induced lung injury […] Our results show that high driving pressures during the first week of ventilation were associated to a significantly increased mortality, supporting the impact of mechanical ventilation on the outcomes of patients with CPE […] Driving pressure, rather than tidal volume alone, has been proposed as a better marker of regional lung strain with better correlation to mortality than tidal volume in ARDS

• #47 Mechanical ventilation in patients with cardiogenic pulmonary edema: a sub-analysis of the LUNG SAFE study | Journal of Intensive Care | Full Text

  https://jintensivecare.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40560-022-00648-x

  Patients with cardiogenic pulmonary edema (CPE) that need mechanical ventilation constitute a subgroup with a significant mortality […] Mortality rates in cardiogenic pulmonary edema and cardiogenic shock remain high, with only minor improvements in the last years […] Higher airway pressures in invasively ventilated patients with CPE are related to mortality. These patients may be exposed to an increased risk of ventilator-induced lung injury […] Our results show that high driving pressures during the first week of ventilation were associated to a significantly increased mortality, supporting the impact of mechanical ventilation on the outcomes of patients with CPE […] Driving pressure, rather than tidal volume alone, has been proposed as a better marker of regional lung strain with better correlation to mortality than tidal volume in ARDS

• #48 Pulmonary Edema – Pulmonology Advisor

  https://www.pulmonologyadvisor.com/ddi/pulmonary-edema/

  Hospitalization for acute pulmonary edema is associated with a 1-year mortality rate of up to 40%. […] The treatment goals in pulmonary edema are to correct the underlying cause and lessen the symptoms of fluid accumulation. […] Intensive care is required for patients with pulmonary edema who require intubation; have symptoms of hypoperfusion; have an SpO2 less than 90% while on oxygen; have a heart rate less than 40 bpm or greater than 130 bpm; and/or have a systolic blood pressure 90 mm Hg. […] Hospitalized patients with pulmonary edema should have their weight, serum electrolytes, and renal function monitored daily.

• #49 Pulmonary Edema – Pulmonology Advisor

  https://www.pulmonologyadvisor.com/ddi/pulmonary-edema/

  Hospitalization for acute pulmonary edema is associated with a 1-year mortality rate of up to 40%. […] The treatment goals in pulmonary edema are to correct the underlying cause and lessen the symptoms of fluid accumulation. […] Intensive care is required for patients with pulmonary edema who require intubation; have symptoms of hypoperfusion; have an SpO2 less than 90% while on oxygen; have a heart rate less than 40 bpm or greater than 130 bpm; and/or have a systolic blood pressure 90 mm Hg. […] Hospitalized patients with pulmonary edema should have their weight, serum electrolytes, and renal function monitored daily.

• #50 Pulmonary Edema – Cardiovascular Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/cardiovascular-disorders/heart-failure/pulmonary-edema

  Pulmonary edema is acute, severe left ventricular failure with pulmonary venous hypertension and alveolar flooding. […] Although precipitating causes vary by age and country, about one half of cases result from acute coronary ischemia; some from decompensation of significant underlying heart failure (HF), including HF with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) due to hypertension; and the rest from arrhythmia, an acute valvular disorder, or acute volume overload often due to IV fluids. […] Acute pulmonary edema can result from acute coronary ischemia, decompensation of underlying heart failure, arrhythmia, an acute valvular disorder, or acute volume overload. […] Clinical examination and chest x-ray are usually sufficient for diagnosis; ECG, cardiac markers, and sometimes echocardiography are done to identify cause.

• #51 Heart failure learning module 1: background, epidemiology, aetiology and pathophysiology

  https://bjcardio.co.uk/2024/05/heart-failure-learning-module-1-background-epidemiology-aetiology-and-pathophysiology/

  In England and Wales, general practitioners (GPs) keep a HF registry as part of the QOF. These registers record a prevalence of HF of only 0.9%, suggesting that not all patients with HF in primary care are being recorded, or perhaps that the epidemiology is incorrect. Missing patients may be cases of undiagnosed or untreated HF. Improved coding of electronic records using simple automated methods can greatly increase the apparent prevalence of HF, and may yield financial rewards via the QOF framework. […] The National Heart Failure Audit was established in 2007 and produces annual reports (both as a summary and on a hospital-by-hospital basis) on the demographics, investigations, treatment, place of care, level of specialist input, follow up and outcome of all patients admitted with HF in England and Wales.

• #52 Heart failure learning module 1: background, epidemiology, aetiology and pathophysiology

  https://bjcardio.co.uk/2024/05/heart-failure-learning-module-1-background-epidemiology-aetiology-and-pathophysiology/

  In England and Wales, general practitioners (GPs) keep a HF registry as part of the QOF. These registers record a prevalence of HF of only 0.9%, suggesting that not all patients with HF in primary care are being recorded, or perhaps that the epidemiology is incorrect. Missing patients may be cases of undiagnosed or untreated HF. Improved coding of electronic records using simple automated methods can greatly increase the apparent prevalence of HF, and may yield financial rewards via the QOF framework. […] The National Heart Failure Audit was established in 2007 and produces annual reports (both as a summary and on a hospital-by-hospital basis) on the demographics, investigations, treatment, place of care, level of specialist input, follow up and outcome of all patients admitted with HF in England and Wales.

• #53 Heart failure learning module 1: background, epidemiology, aetiology and pathophysiology

  https://bjcardio.co.uk/2024/05/heart-failure-learning-module-1-background-epidemiology-aetiology-and-pathophysiology/

  The recent National Institute for Cardiovascular Outcomes Research (NICOR) National Heart Failure Audit reports that the average age of HF patients in 2022/23 was 77.7 years (75.8 for men and 80.0 for women) with men being more numerous in every age category apart from over 85 years. […] The incidence of HF rises with age and has increased significantly amongst patients aged 85 years and older, probably as a result of the increased use of screening and diagnostic tests. The average age at diagnosis is approximately 77 years but is significantly lower in areas of economic deprivation. […] The performance of general practices in managing patients with HF is monitored by the Quality and Outcomes Framework (QOF). Under the guidance of the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE), the QOF has developed indicators for managing patients with HF that act as targets that are financially incentivised.

• #54 Decision support tool for differential diagnosis of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) vs Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema (CPE): a prospective validation and meta-analysis | Critical Care | Full Text

  https://ccforum.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13054-014-0659-x

  With an estimated 190,600 new cases each year resulting in 74,500 deaths and 3.6 million hospital days, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS [1], formerly known as acute lung injury [ALI] [2]) poses a major health burden on US society [3]. […] In the early stages ARDS can be difficult to differentiate from cardiogenic pulmonary edema (CPE) [4],[5], which may delay initiation of critical treatment measures (for example, lung-protective ventilation, prone positioning, neuromuscular blockade) [6]-[10], lead to unnecessary testing and preclude timely enrollment into research studies [11]-[13]. […] The clinical prediction score reliably differentiates ARDS/ALI vs CPE. Pooled results provide precise estimates of the scores performance which can be used to screen patient populations or to assess the probability of ALI/ARDS vs CPE in specific patients. The score may thus facilitate early inclusion into research studies and expedite prompt treatment.

• #55 Decision support tool for differential diagnosis of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) vs Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema (CPE): a prospective validation and meta-analysis | Critical Care | Full Text

  https://ccforum.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13054-014-0659-x

  With an estimated 190,600 new cases each year resulting in 74,500 deaths and 3.6 million hospital days, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS [1], formerly known as acute lung injury [ALI] [2]) poses a major health burden on US society [3]. […] In the early stages ARDS can be difficult to differentiate from cardiogenic pulmonary edema (CPE) [4],[5], which may delay initiation of critical treatment measures (for example, lung-protective ventilation, prone positioning, neuromuscular blockade) [6]-[10], lead to unnecessary testing and preclude timely enrollment into research studies [11]-[13]. […] The clinical prediction score reliably differentiates ARDS/ALI vs CPE. Pooled results provide precise estimates of the scores performance which can be used to screen patient populations or to assess the probability of ALI/ARDS vs CPE in specific patients. The score may thus facilitate early inclusion into research studies and expedite prompt treatment.

• #56 Decision support tool for differential diagnosis of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) vs Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema (CPE): a prospective validation and meta-analysis | Critical Care | Full Text

  https://ccforum.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13054-014-0659-x

  This prospective validation provides further evidence that the prediction score differentiates well between ARDS and CPE patients. The score can be used in two different ways: (1) to screen a patient population (for example, for early enrollment of ARDS patients into a clinical trial) by using a cutoff value: given the similar settings and results we decided to pool the data from all three currently existing cohorts to obtain more precise estimates for the sensitivity/specificity at different cutoffs; (2) to estimate the probability of ARDS versus CPE for a specific patient based on the patients score result. […] In this prospective validation the clinical prediction score again demonstrated good differentiation between ARDS and CPE. Pooled results provide precise estimates of the scores performance which can be used to screen patient populations or to assess the probability of ARDS versus CPE in specific patients (if the underlying patient populations are similar). The clinical prediction score may thus facilitate early inclusion into research studies and expedite the initiation of critical treatment measures.

• #57 Pulmonary Oedema—Therapeutic Targets

  https://www.cfrjournal.com/articles/pulmonary-oedema-therapeutic-targets?language_content_entity=en

  Patients with PO can be risk stratified from the time of initial presentation and diagnosis, and require intense therapy, which is often dictated by their initial SBP at admission. However, stratification of patients may improve allocation of resources and focus intensity of care on patients most likely to benefit from early, aggressive therapy. Future research is required to develop innovative pharmacotherapies capable of relieving hemodynamic congestion while simultaneously preserving end-organ function. Targeting the epithelial alveolar cells and active signaling process that produces ion transfer and clearance of fluids from alveolar spaces may accelerate the resolution of PO and/or decrease the concomitant conventional IV therapies.

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