Prolaktynoma
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Prolaktynoma to najczęstszy hormonalnie czynny gruczolak przysadki, powstający w wyniku monoklonalnej ekspansji laktotropów po mutacjach somatycznych, prowadzących do nadprodukcji prolaktyny (PRL). Poziomy PRL korelują z wielkością guza: <200 ng/ml dla mikroprolaktynom (<1 cm), 200-1000 ng/ml dla guzów 1-2 cm oraz >1000 ng/ml dla makroprolaktynom (>2 cm). Prolaktynomy dzielą się na sporadyczne i rodzinne, z mutacjami w genach MEN1, PRKAR1A, CDKN1B, AIP oraz somatyczną mutacją SF3B1R625H u ~20% przypadków sporadycznych, co wiąże się z agresywniejszym przebiegiem. Estrogeny odgrywają kluczową rolę w patogenezie, zwiększając ekspresję czynników wzrostu (PTTG, FGF, TGF) i onkoprotein, a także indukując zmiany epigenetyczne. Hamowanie wydzielania PRL odbywa się głównie przez dopaminę z podwzgórza, a oporność na agonistów dopaminy wiąże się z obniżoną ekspresją receptorów D2 i ich izoform.

Patofizjologia prolaktynomy

Prolaktynoma to łagodny guz przysadki mózgowej, który powstaje w wyniku monoklonalnej ekspansji laktotropów przysadki po przejściu mutacji somatycznej, prowadząc do nadmiernej syntezy i wydzielania prolaktyny (PRL)12. Guzy te są najczęściej występującymi hormonalnie czynnymi gruczolakami przysadki i zwykle mają wyraźnie odgraniczone brzegi bez cech inwazji1. Poziomy prolaktyny są zazwyczaj wprost proporcjonalne do wielkości guza – od wartości poniżej 200 ng/ml przy guzach mniejszych niż 1 cm, przez 200-1000 ng/ml przy guzach o wielkości 1-2 cm, do ponad 1000 ng/ml przy guzach większych niż 2 cm średnicy3.

Pochodzenie genetyczne prolaktynomy

Prolaktynomy dzieli się na dwie podgrupy: rodzinne i sporadyczne45. Większość prolaktynomów ma pochodzenie sporadyczne, ale mogą również występować jako część zespołów rodzinnych1.

W przypadku form rodzinnych, najlepiej poznaną mutacją przyczynową jest mutacja genu MEN1 w zespole mnogiej gruczolakowatości wewnątrzwydzielniczej typu 1 (MEN1). Około 15-60% pacjentów z MEN1 może mieć gruczolaka przysadki, a większość z nich to właśnie prolaktynomy1. Ponadto prolaktynomy występują w rodzinach z mutacją genów PRKAR1A (zespół Carneya), CDKN1B (MEN4) lub AIP (izolowany rodzinny gruczolak przysadki – FIPA)45.

W przypadkach sporadycznych odkryto, że około 20% prolaktynomów posiada mutację w genie czynnika splicingowego 3B1 (SF3B1R625H), co wiąże się z wyższymi poziomami prolaktyny w surowicy i potencjalnie bardziej agresywnym zachowaniem niż prolaktynomy bez tej mutacji6. Ponadto, w pojedynczym niezwykle agresywnym prolaktynomie opornym na inhibicję dopaminergiczną wykryto mutację genu RAS7.

Mechanizmy molekularne rozwoju prolaktynomy

Dokładny mechanizm molekularny, za pomocą którego mutacja genu MEN1 powoduje prolaktynomę, pozostaje niejasny. W komórkach endokrynnych MENIN, białko będące produktem genu MEN1, ma negatywny wpływ na wzrost komórek poprzez indukcję genów hamujących cykl komórkowy, takich jak CDKN1B (p27KIP1) lub CDKN2C (p18IKN4C). W związku z tym MEN1 jest uznawany za gen supresorowy nowotworu45.

Gen PRKAR1A koduje podjednostkę regulacyjną kinazy białkowej A (PKA), a mutacja utraty funkcji w linii germinalnej może powodować konstytutywną aktywację podjednostki katalitycznej PKA, co skutkuje zwiększeniem zależnego od PKA wzrostu komórek i produkcji hormonów przysadki, takich jak PRL, GH lub TSH89.

W przypadku mutacji SF3B1, białko SF3B1 bierze udział w splicingu RNA, co może prowadzić do powstawania różnych nieprawidłowo spliceowanych mRNA. W komórkach guza laktotropowego nieprawidłowo spliceowane mRNA pochodzące z genu ESRRG koduje mutantowe białko ERRγ, które ma nieprawidłowo wysokie powinowactwo do PIT1 i silnie wzmacnia zależną od PIT1 transkrypcję genu PRL. Dodatkowo stwierdza się zmniejszoną ekspresję białka DLG1 ze względu na nieprawidłowo spliceowane mRNA DLG1. Białko DLG1 znane jest z właściwości supresorowych guza, więc jego spadek może powodować wzmożony wzrost komórek laktotropowych89.

Rola estrogenów w patogenezie prolaktynomy

Jednym z głównych czynników promujących rozwój guza laktotropowego są estrogeny, które wyjaśniają większą częstość występowania prolaktynomów u kobiet niż u mężczyzn1011. W badaniach na zwierzętach wykazano, że przewlekłe podawanie estrogenów prowadzi do rozwoju prolaktynomy u niektórych gatunków szczurów10.

Estrogeny zwiększają ekspresję różnych czynników wzrostu i onkoprotein, takich jak czynniki wzrostu fibroblastów (FGF), transformujący czynnik wzrostu (TGF) i gen transformujący guza przysadki (PTTG), które znane są z ułatwiania wzrostu guza101112. Gen PTTG jest regulowany in vivo i in vitro przez estrogeny, a maksymalna indukcja mRNA genu pttg szczura in vivo występuje we wczesnej fazie transformacji przysadki (normalna komórka do komórki hipertroficznej/hiperplastycznej), jednocześnie z indukcją bFGF i naczyniowego czynnika wzrostu śródbłonka oraz angiogenezą przysadki12.

Estrogeny mogą również powodować zmiany epigenetyczne w różnych tkankach, w tym w przysadce. Jeśli estrogeny zmieniają poziom ekspresji genów, takich jak receptor dopaminy D2, poprzez zmiany epigenetyczne w komórkach przysadki, hormon ten może wpływać na wzrost komórek laktotropowych bez mutacji genu1011.

Rola dopaminy i jej receptorów

Podwzgórze ma dominujący hamujący wpływ na wydzielanie prolaktyny poprzez dopaminę, a każdy czynnik, który zakłóca ten mechanizm, powoduje hiperprolaktynemię3. Dopamina jest głównym czynnikiem hamującym wydzielanie prolaktyny (PIF), a w przeciwieństwie do innych hormonów przedniego płata przysadki, prolaktyna jest regulowana przede wszystkim przez hamowanie przez dopaminę, a nie przez negatywne sprzężenie zwrotne z hormonów obwodowych13.

Hiperprolaktynemia i mlekotok mogą być również spowodowane przez przyjmowanie niektórych leków, w tym fenotiazyn i niektórych innych leków przeciwpsychotycznych, niektórych leków przeciwnadciśnieniowych (zwłaszcza alfa-metylodopy i werapamilu) oraz opioidów13. Pierwotna niedoczynność tarczycy może powodować hiperprolaktynemię i mlekotok, ponieważ zwiększone poziomy hormonu uwalniającego tyreotropinę zwiększają wydzielanie prolaktyny, a także hormonu stymulującego tarczycę (TSH)13.

Mechanizm molekularny oporności na agonistów dopaminy jest niejasny. Może to co najmniej częściowo wiązać się z osłabieniem hamowania przez dopaminę proliferacji laktotropów i produkcji prolaktyny. Oporność na agonistów dopaminy w prolaktynomach wiąże się ze zmniejszoną gęstością receptorów D2, ogólnym zmniejszeniem produkcji mRNA receptora D2 i zmienioną ekspresją izoform mRNA receptora D2 z mniejszą ekspresją bardziej wydajnej krótkiej izoformy14.

Rola białka morfogenetycznego kości (BMP-4)

BMP-4 jest nadekspresjonowany w prolaktynomach pobranych od samic myszy z niedoborem receptora dopaminy D2, podczas gdy ekspresja wysoce homologicznego BMP-2 nie różni się w normalnej tkance przysadki i prolaktynomach15. BMP-4 stymuluje, a noggin blokuje proliferację komórek i ekspresję c-Myc w ludzkich prolaktynomach, podczas gdy BMP-4 nie ma działania w innych ludzkich guzach przysadki15.

BMP-4 i estrogeny działają poprzez nakładające się wewnątrzkomórkowe mechanizmy sygnalizacyjne na proliferację komórek GH3 i ekspresję c-myc: mają działanie addytywne w niskich stężeniach, ale nie w dawkach nasycających, a ich działanie jest hamowane przez blokowanie każdej ścieżki z wzajemnym antagonistą15. Ponadto badania koimmunoprecypitacji wykazują, że pod wpływem stymulacji BMP-4, Smad4 i Smad1 fizycznie oddziałują z receptorem estrogenowym16.

Rola transformującego czynnika wzrostu (TGF-β1)

TGF-β1 jest inhibitorem funkcji laktotropów, a zmniejszona aktywność TGF-β1 obserwowana w prolaktynomach została zaproponowana jako czynnik zaangażowany w rozwój guza17. Zmniejszona aktywność przysadkowego TGF-β1 u samic transgenicznych myszy nadekspresjonujących podjednostkę ludzkiej gonadotropiny kosmówkowej (hCG+) jest zaangażowana w rozwój prolaktynomów17.

Silniejszy system TGF-β1 występujący u samców może chronić je przed nadmierną proliferacją laktotropów, co wyjaśnia różnice płciowe w częstości występowania prolaktynomy17. Znaczenie TGF-β1 w hamowaniu funkcji laktotropów jest wyraźnie wykazane przez fakt, że zarówno w ludzkich prolaktynomach, jak i w modelach zwierzęcych prolaktynomów, stwierdzono zmniejszoną ekspresję i aktywność TGF-β1, co sugeruje jego udział w rozwoju guza18.

Rola kinazy białkowej aktywowanej mitogenami (MAPK14)

MAPK14 odgrywa ważną rolę w promocji rozwoju i progresji prolaktynomy u myszy19. Badania wykazały, że ekspresja białka PRL i MAPK14 była kolokalizowana i znacznie wyższa w porównaniu z grupą kontrolną zarówno u myszy z prolaktynomą indukowaną estradiolem, jak i w ludzkich próbkach prolaktynomy, co sugeruje, że MAPK14 jest znacząco związany z ekspresją PRL20.

In vivo, brak MAPK14 znacznie zmniejszał wzrost prolaktynomy u myszy indukowanych estradiolem i myszy DRD2-/- oraz zmniejszał produkcję i wydzielanie PRL19. Hamowanie ekspresji MAPK14 może być nowym celem terapeutycznym w leczeniu prolaktynomy19.

Patologiczne konsekwencje prolaktynomy

Hiperprolaktynemia hamuje wydzielanie hormonu uwalniającego gonadotropinę (GnRH) w podwzgórzu, co skutkuje zmniejszeniem poziomów hormonu folikulotropowego (FSH) i hormonu luteinizującego (LH), a ostatecznie zmniejszeniem poziomów estrogenu (u kobiet) i testosteronu (u mężczyzn)21. Sama prolaktyna stymuluje laktację z tkanki piersi21.

Hiperprolaktynemia stanowi około 10-20% przypadków braku miesiączki. Mechanizm ten wiąże się z hamowaniem wydzielania hormonu luteinizującego (LH) i być może hormonu folikulotropowego (FSH) poprzez hamowanie uwalniania hormonu uwalniającego gonadotropinę (GnRH)22.

U mężczyzn z prolaktynomami najczęstszymi rodzajami dysfunkcji hormonów przysadki są niedobór hormonu wzrostu i hipogonadyzm, przy czym hipokortyzolizm występuje rzadziej. Ta obserwacja nie powinna być zaskoczeniem, ponieważ prolaktynomy u mężczyzn są często większe (makroprolaktynomy) i dlatego mogą powodować ucisk tkanek, w przeciwieństwie do prolaktynomów u kobiet, które w momencie wstępnej diagnozy są często małe (mikroprolaktynomy)23.

Mechanizmy leczenia prolaktynomy

Agoniści dopaminy zazwyczaj kurczą guz wydzielający prolaktynę24. Agoniści dopaminy nie kurczą niewydolnego guza, który powoduje ucisk szypuły przysadki, chociaż poziomy prolaktyny będą się zmniejszać24.

Mechanizm działania agonistów dopaminy w kurczeniu guza i obniżaniu poziomów prolaktyny jest złożony. Leki te początkowo zmniejszają zarówno liczbę, jak i rozmiar wewnątrzkomórkowych ziarnistości wydzielniczych prolaktyny, co sugeruje rolę w hamowaniu uwalniania prolaktyny25. Ogólnie rzecz biorąc, zmniejsza się wielkość komórek gruczolaka LAKTOTROPOWEGO z powodu regresji siateczki śródplazmatycznej szorstkiej i aparatu Golgiego, co wiąże się z zaprzestaniem wewnątrzkomórkowej syntezy prolaktyny. Przewlekłe podawanie agonistów dopaminy ma również efekt cytochłonny25.

Wysokie dawki agonistów dopaminy, szczególnie kabergoliny i pergolidu, mogą powodować chorobę zastawkową serca u niektórych pacjentów z chorobą Parkinsona. Badania oceniające niższe dawki agonistów dopaminy stosowane w hiperprolaktynemii nie wykazały zwiększonego ryzyka choroby zastawkowej serca, ale należy omówić tę możliwość z pacjentami i rozważyć nadzór echokardiograficzny, zwłaszcza gdy stosowane są dawki powyżej 3 mg tygodniowo26.

Nowsze podejścia terapeutyczne

Pasireotyd przyłącza się do receptorów somatostatyny (SSTR), które są białkami odgrywającymi rolę w zmniejszaniu hormonów, w tym prolaktyny. Po przyłączeniu się do SSTR pasireotyd zmniejsza produkcję prolaktyny27.

Arterunat (ART) wykazuje działanie przeciwnowotworowe w prolaktynomie i gromadzi się w mitochondriach komórek MMQ, hamując mitochondrialną funkcję oddechową i pośrednicząc w apoptozie poprzez szlak mitochondrialny28. ART aktywuje apoptozę komórek MMQ poprzez mitochondria. Leczenie ART zmniejszało MMP komórek MMQ i zwiększało stosunek BAX-BCL-2, co prowadziło do apoptozy komórkowej29.

Podsumowanie mechanizmów patogenetycznych

Patogeneza prolaktynomy obejmuje złożoną interakcję czynników genetycznych, hormonalnych i komórkowych30. Prolaktynomy powstają z monoklonalnej ekspansji laktotropów przysadki po przejściu mutacji somatycznej, co prowadzi do nadmiernej syntezy i wydzielania prolaktyny1.

Kluczowe mechanizmy obejmują:

  • Mutacje genów, w tym MEN1, PRKAR1A, CDKN1B i AIP w przypadkach rodzinnych45
  • Mutacje somatyczne SF3B1 w ok. 20% przypadków sporadycznych6
  • Zaburzenia regulacji wydzielania dopaminy z podwzgórza3
  • Wpływ estrogenów zwiększających ekspresję czynników wzrostu i onkoprotein (PTTG, FGF, TGF)10
  • Zmniejszoną aktywność TGF-β1, który normalnie hamuje funkcję laktotropów17
  • Zwiększoną aktywność MAPK14 promującą rozwój prolaktynomy20

Te mechanizmy molekularne nie tylko przyczyniają się do rozwoju prolaktynomy, ale również wpływają na odpowiedź na leczenie. Dokładniejsze zrozumienie patogenezy może prowadzić do opracowania nowych, bardziej ukierunkowanych opcji terapeutycznych dla pacjentów z opornymi na leczenie prolaktynomami30.

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  1. 14.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Prolactinoma – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459347/
    Prolactinomas arise from monoclonal expansion of pituitary lactotrophs that have undergone somatic mutation. […] Pituitary tumor transforming gene (PTTG) overexpression and mutation of a receptor of fibroblast growth factor 4 (FGF4) have been found in pituitary adenoma, mainly prolactinoma. […] Most prolactinomas are sporadic in origin but can also occur as part of familial syndromes. […] Familial isolated prolactinoma and other pituitary adenomas have been described. […] It can be a part of multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1); up to 15 to 60% of patients with MEN1 can have a pituitary adenoma, and the majority of them are prolactinomas. […] Prolactinomas arise from monoclonal expansion of pituitary lactotrophs and are mostly benign, often sharply demarcated without evidence of invasion.
  • #2 Prolactinoma: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/124634-overview
    Tumor formation is due to neoplastic transformation of anterior pituitary lactotrophs, resulting in excess synthesis and secretion of prolactin (PRL). Linkage to aryl hydrocarbon-interacting protein gene (AIP) mutation has been identified in some families with prolactinoma and in childhood-onset pituitary adenomas. […] Dopamine (DA) is the principal PIF, and thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), vasoactive intestinal peptide, and peptide histidine methionine are the putative PRFs. The physiologic role of these PRFs is not established. A delicate balance between the PRFs and PIFs normally keeps the serum PRL level within a physiologic range. Moreover, the interplay of various neurohormonal factors results in a pulsatile secretion of PRL from the pituitary gland. Prolactinoma is one of the several causes of pathologic hyperprolactinemia.
  • #3 Prolactinoma – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459347/
    A few prolactinomas could behave aggressively with the invasion of surrounding local structures, and they generally have higher mitotic activity and are more cellular and pleomorphic. […] Distance extracranial involvement is required to be called a malignant prolactinoma. […] Prolactin levels are usually directly proportionate to the size of the tumor, ranging from below 200 ng/ml with less than 1 cm, 200 ng/ml to 1000 ng/ml with 1 cm to 2 cm, and more than 1000 ng/ml with tumor sized more than 2 cm in diameter. […] If prolactin level does not match with tumor size, then it can be either due to not well-differentiated prolactinoma or the presence of a large cystic component in the tumor. […] Hypothalamus has a predominant inhibitory influence on prolactin secretion via dopamine, and any factor which disrupts this mechanism causes hyperprolactinemia.
  • #4 Update in Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapy of Prolactinoma
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9331865/
    Prolactinomas are divided into two subgroups: familial and sporadic. Among the familial cases, the well-known causative mutation is that of MEN1. Indeed, prolactinoma is most frequent in familial PitNETs in patients with MEN1. Although relatively rare, MEN1 gene mutation is found in sporadic prolactinomas. In addition, prolactinoma is reported to occur in families with a mutation in the PRKAR1A (Carney complex), CDKN1B (MEN4), or AIP (FIPA) gene. […] The precise molecular mechanism whereby MEN1 gene mutation causes prolactinoma is still obscure. In endocrine cells, MENIN, a protein product of the MEN1 gene, has a negative effect on cell growth via the induction of cell cycle-inhibiting genes such as CDKN1B (p27KIP1) or CDKN2C (p18IKN4C). Thus, MEN1 is recognized as a tumor-suppressor gene. In this sense, a loss-of-function mutation in one allele of genomic DNA can enhance the cell cycle, followed by the tumorous growth of the affected cells. The reason that the germ line MEN1 gene mutation causes a PRL-, growth hormone (GH)- or thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)-producing PitNET as opposed to any other pituitary tumor is not known. One possibility is that MENIN somehow interacts with PIT1 (POU1F1), the common transcription factor specifically expressed in the somato-, mammo-, and thyrotrope cells, and facilitates PIT1-dependent gene transcription that is related to hormone synthesis and cell growth.
  • #5 Update in Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapy of Prolactinoma
    https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/15/3604
    Prolactinomas are divided into two subgroups: familial and sporadic. Among the familial cases, the well-known causative mutation is that of MEN1. Indeed, prolactinoma is most frequent in familial PitNETs in patients with MEN1. Although relatively rare, MEN1 gene mutation is found in sporadic prolactinomas. In addition, prolactinoma is reported to occur in families with a mutation in the PRKAR1A (Carney complex), CDKN1B (MEN4), or AIP (FIPA) gene. […] The precise molecular mechanism whereby MEN1 gene mutation causes prolactinoma is still obscure. In endocrine cells, MENIN, a protein product of the MEN1 gene, has a negative effect on cell growth via the induction of cell cycle-inhibiting genes such as CDKN1B (p27KIP1) or CDKN2C (p18IKN4C). Thus, MEN1 is recognized as a tumor-suppressor gene. In this sense, a loss-of-function mutation in one allele of genomic DNA can enhance the cell cycle, followed by the tumorous growth of the affected cells. The reason that the germ line MEN1 gene mutation causes a PRL-, growth hormone (GH)- or thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)-producing PitNET as opposed to any other pituitary tumor is not known. One possibility is that MENIN somehow interacts with PIT1 (POU1F1), the common transcription factor specifically expressed in the somato-, mammo-, and thyrotrope cells, and facilitates PIT1-dependent gene transcription that is related to hormone synthesis and cell growth.
  • #6 Diagnosis and management of prolactin-secreting pituitary adenomas: a Pituitary Society international Consensus Statement | Nature Reviews Endocrinology
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41574-023-00886-5
    Molecular mechanisms for prolactinoma pathogenesis require further elucidation. Prolactinomas are mostly sporadic monoclonal neoplasms, implying a somatic genetic event that confers a growth advantage. A hotspot somatic mutation in splicing factor 3 subunit B1 (SF3B1R625H) was identified in 20% of prolactinomas in one series and was associated with higher serum levels of prolactin and potentially more aggressive behaviour than prolactinomas without this mutation. Prolactinomas are very rarely associated with germline mutations and when these are present, onset of disease usually occurs at a younger age than with somatic mutations. Macroprolactinomas in individuals with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (who have germline mutations in MEN1) are more aggressive than in those without these mutations, and prolactinomas with MEN1 mutations could be resistant to therapy. By contrast, microprolactinomas with MEN1 mutations might be less aggressive than previously thought. As pathogenic AIP variants are very rarely detected, screening is not recommended in order to avoid unnecessary testing and cost.
  • #7
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11102-005-5080-7
    In recent years the demonstration that human pituitary adenomas are monoclonal in origin provides further evidence that pituitary neoplasia arise from the replication of a single mutated cell in which growth advantage results from either activation of proto-oncogenes or inactivation of tumor suppressor genes. […] However, with the exception of one RAS mutation identified in a single unusually aggressive prolactinoma resistant to dopaminergic inhibition that resulted to be lethal, no mutational changes have been so far detected in prolactinomas. […] In the absence of genetic changes, modifications in the level of expression of oncogenes or tumor suppressor genes have been detected in these tumors, although it is unknown whether these changes have a causative role or are a secondary event.
  • #8 Update in Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapy of Prolactinoma
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9331865/
    The PRKAR1A gene encodes the regulatory subunit of protein kinase A (PKA), and a germ line loss-of-function mutation can cause constitutive activation of the catalytic subunit of PKA with a resultant increase in PKA-dependent cell growth and the production of pituitary hormones such as PRL, GH, or TSH. However, the impact of PKA activation on cell proliferation is moderate, and the affected cells are reported to show the phenotype of non-invasive hypertrophy rather than an aggressive tumor. […] Regarding sporadic pituitary tumors, recent advances in genome-wide sequencing (GWAS) have identified the mutations responsible for tumorigenesis. Indeed, USP8 and gsp gene mutations have been found in the substantial parts of corticotrope and somatotroph tumors, respectively. Until recently, however, no driver-gene mutation had been reported for prolactinoma, partly because most patients with the tumor receive medical, not surgical, therapy. Recently, a GWAS analysis of somatotroph tumor cells showed aberrant splicing of various mRNAs, including that of the estrogen-related receptor (ERR) gene (ESRRG). Eventually, Li et al. identified a missense mutation of the splicing factor 3B1 gene (SF3B1), causing the amino acid substitution (R625H). Because the SF3B1 protein is involved in splicing nascent RNA, a variety of abnormally spliced mRNA can result from this mutation. In the case of lactotroph tumor cells, abnormally spliced mRNA derived from the ESRRG gene, which encodes ERR, results in a mutant ERR protein, which has shown to have an abnormally high affinity for PIT1 and potently enhance PIT1-dependent PRL gene transcription. Furthermore, the expression of the DLG1 protein is found to be decreased due to the aberrantly spliced DLG1 mRNA. The DLG1 protein is known to have tumor-suppressor properties, and thus its decrease can cause enhanced lactotroph cell growth. Indeed, a prolactinoma-harboring SF3B1 gene mutation is reported to have invasive properties.
  • #9 Update in Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapy of Prolactinoma
    https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/15/3604
    The PRKAR1A gene encodes the regulatory subunit of protein kinase A (PKA), and a germ line loss-of-function mutation can cause constitutive activation of the catalytic subunit of PKA with a resultant increase in PKA-dependent cell growth and the production of pituitary hormones such as PRL, GH, or TSH. However, the impact of PKA activation on cell proliferation is moderate, and the affected cells are reported to show the phenotype of non-invasive hypertrophy rather than an aggressive tumor. […] Regarding sporadic pituitary tumors, recent advances in genome-wide sequencing (GWAS) have identified the mutations responsible for tumorigenesis. Indeed, USP8 and gsp gene mutations have been found in the substantial parts of corticotrope and somatotroph tumors, respectively. Until recently, however, no driver-gene mutation had been reported for prolactinoma, partly because most patients with the tumor receive medical, not surgical, therapy. Recently, a GWAS analysis of somatotroph tumor cells showed aberrant splicing of various mRNAs, including that of the estrogen-related receptor γ (ERRγ) gene. Eventually, Li et al. identified a missense mutation of the splicing factor 3B1 gene (SF3B1), causing the amino acid substitution (R625H). Because the SF3B1 protein is involved in splicing nascent RNA, a variety of abnormally spliced mRNA can result from this mutation. In the case of lactotroph tumor cells, abnormally spliced mRNA derived from the ESRRG gene, which encodes ERRγ, results in a mutant ERRγ protein, which has shown to have an abnormally high affinity for PIT1 and potently enhance PIT1-dependent PRL gene transcription. Furthermore, the expression of the DLG1 protein is found to be decreased due to the aberrantly spliced DLG1 mRNA. The DLG1 protein is known to have tumor-suppressor properties, and thus its decrease can cause enhanced lactotroph cell growth. Indeed, a prolactinoma-harboring SF3B1 gene mutation is reported to have invasive properties.
  • #10 Update in Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapy of Prolactinoma
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9331865/
    The pathogenesis of prolactinoma without the SF3B1 mutation is still unknown. One of the major factors promoting lactotroph tumorigenesis is estrogen; indeed, prolactinoma is known to be more frequent in women than in men. In an animal experiment, prolactinoma was reported to develop a lactotroph tumor in some species of rats in which estrogen was chronically administered. Estrogen is known to increase the expression of a variety of growth factors and oncoproteins such as fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), transforming growth factor (TGF), and pituitary tumor transforming gene (PTTG), all of which are known to facilitate tumor growth. More recently, it was reported that estrogen causes epigenetic changes in a variety of tissues other than the adenohypophysis. If estrogen changes the expression level of genes such as the dopamine D2 receptor via epigenetic changes to the pituitary cells, the hormone may influence lactotroph cell growth without a gene mutation. The involvement of an epigenetic mechanism in prolactinoma pathogenesis is not well characterized and awaits further research.
  • #11 Update in Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapy of Prolactinoma
    https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/15/3604
    The pathogenesis of prolactinoma without the SF3B1 mutation is still unknown. One of the major factors promoting lactotroph tumorigenesis is estrogen; indeed, prolactinoma is known to be more frequent in women than in men. In an animal experiment, prolactinoma was reported to develop a lactotroph tumor in some species of rats in which estrogen was chronically administered. Estrogen is known to increase the expression of a variety of growth factors and oncoproteins such as fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), transforming growth factor β (TGF β), and pituitary tumor transforming gene (PTTG), all of which are known to facilitate tumor growth. More recently, it was reported that estrogen causes epigenetic changes in a variety of tissues other than the adenohypophysis. If estrogen changes the expression level of genes such as the dopamine D2 receptor via epigenetic changes to the pituitary cells, the hormone may influence lactotroph cell growth without a gene mutation. The involvement of an epigenetic mechanism in prolactinoma pathogenesis is not well characterized and awaits further research.
  • #12 Early involvement of estrogen-induced pituitary tumor transforming gene and fibroblast growth factor expression in prolactinoma pathogenesis | Nature Medicine
    https://www.nature.com/articles/nm1199_1317
    Pituitary tumors are commonly encountered, and result from clonal expansion of a single mutated cell. […] Estrogen acting directly through its receptor and by stimulation of fibroblast growth factor regulates prolactin synthesis and secretion. […] A pituitary tumor-derived transforming gene (PTTG) has been isolated, which is tumorigenic in vivo, regulates bFGF secretion, and inhibits chromatid separation. […] We report here that pituitary pttg is regulated in vivo and in vitro by estrogen. Maximal induction of rat pituitary pttg mRNA in vivo occurred early in pituitary transformation (normal cell to hypertrophic/hyperplastic cell), coincident with bFGF and vascular endothelial growth factor induction and pituitary angiogenesis. […] As bFGF and estrogen both induce pttg, and pttg expression coincides with the early lactotrophic hyperplastic response, angiogenesis and prolactinoma development, we propose a previously unknown paracrine growth factor-mediated mechanism for pituitary tumor pathogenesis and potentially other estrogen-regulated tumors.
  • #13 Prolactinoma – Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/endocrine-and-metabolic-disorders/pituitary-disorders/prolactinoma
    Prolactinomas are noncancerous tumors composed of lactotrophs, which are prolactin-secreting adenomas. Prolactin is produced in cells called lactotrophs that constitute about 30% of the cells of the anterior pituitary. In humans, the major function of prolactin is stimulating milk production. Prolactin is the hormone most frequently produced in excess by pituitary tumors. In contrast to other anterior pituitary hormones, prolactin is regulated primarily by suppression by dopamine, and not by negative feedback from peripheral hormones. […] Hyperprolactinemia and galactorrhea also may be caused by ingestion of certain medications, including phenothiazines and some other antipsychotics, certain antihypertensives (especially alpha-methyldopa and verapamil), and opioids. Primary Hyperprolactinemia and galactorrhea also may be caused by ingestion of certain medications, including phenothiazines and some other antipsychotics, certain antihypertensives (especially alpha-methyldopa and verapamil), and opioids. Primary hypothyroidism can cause hyperprolactinemia and galactorrhea because increased levels of thyroid-releasing hormone increase secretion of prolactin as well as thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). Prolactin levels may rise in circulation as a consequence of renal insufficiency due to impaired renal clearance of prolactin. Nipple stimulation and pregnancy are physiologic causes of increased prolactin secretion. Hyperprolactinemia may be associated with hypogonadotropism and hypogonadism probably through inhibition of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) release or action on the pituitary gonadotropes.
  • #14 Dopamine agonist therapy for prolactinomas: do we need to rethink the place of surgery in prolactinoma management? in: Endocrine Oncology Volume 2 Issue 1 (2022)
    https://eo.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/eo/2/1/EO-21-0038.xml
    The current treatment paradigm for prolactinomas involves dopamine agonist (DA) therapy as the first-line treatment, with surgical resection reserved for cases where there is DA failure due to resistance or intolerance. […] The first part of the review discusses the limitations of DA therapy, namely: DA resistance; common DA side effects; and the rare but serious DA-induced risks of cardiac valvulopathy, impulse control disorders, psychosis, CSF rhinorrhoea and tumour fibrosis. […] The molecular basis of DA resistance is unclear. It may at least partly relate to attenuation of dopamine-mediated inhibition of lactotroph proliferation and prolactin production. DA resistance in prolactinomas has been associated with reduced D2 receptor density, overall reduction in D2 receptor mRNA production and altered expression of D2 receptor mRNA isoforms with lower expression of the more efficient short isoform.
  • #15
    https://bicyt.conicet.gov.ar/fichas/produccion/1580922
    Pituitary tumor development involves clonal expansion stimulated by hormones and growth factors/cytokines. […] BMP-4 is overexpressed in prolactinomas taken from dopamine D2-receptor-deficient female mice, but expression of the highly homologous BMP-2 does not differ in normal pituitary tissue and prolactinomas. […] BMP-4 stimulates, and noggin blocks, cell proliferation and the expression of c-Myc in human prolactinomas, whereas BMP-4 has no action in other human pituitary tumors. […] Tumor growth recovered in vivo when the Smad4dn expression was lost, proving that BMP-4/Smad4 are involved in tumor development in vivo. […] BMP-4 and estrogens act through overlapping intracellular signaling mechanisms on GH3 cell proliferation and c-myc expression: they had additive effects at low concentrations but not at saturating doses, and their action was inhibited by blocking either pathway with the reciprocal antagonist (i.e., BMP-4 with ICI 182780 or 17-estradiol with Smad4dn).
  • #16
    https://bicyt.conicet.gov.ar/fichas/produccion/1580922
    Furthermore, coimmunoprecipitation studies demonstrate that under BMP-4 stimulation Smad4 and Smad1 physically interact with the estrogen receptor. This previously undescribed prolactinoma pathogenesis mechanism may participate in tumorigenicity in other cells where estrogens and the type transforming growth factor family have important roles.
  • #17 Sex differences in the development of prolactinoma in mice overexpressing hCGβ: role of TGFβ1 in: Journal of Endocrinology Volume 232 Issue 3 (2017)
    https://joe.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/joe/232/3/535.xml
    Female transgenic mice that overexpress the human chorionic gonadotrophin subunit (hCG+) develop prolactinomas, whereas hCG+ males do not. […] The involvement of high levels of progesterone in lactotroph proliferation is not clearly understood; hence, the pathogenesis of prolactinomas in hCG+ females remains unclear. […] TGF1 is an inhibitor of lactotroph function, and the reduced TGF1 activity found in prolactinomas has been proposed to be involved in tumor development. […] We postulate that decreased pituitary TGF1 activity in hCG+ females is involved in the development of prolactinomas. […] Moreover, the stronger TGF1 system found in males could protect them from excessive lactotroph proliferation. […] Sex differences in the regulation of the pituitary TGF1 system could explain gender differences in the incidence of prolactinoma.
  • #18 Sex differences in the development of prolactinoma in mice overexpressing hCGβ: role of TGFβ1 in: Journal of Endocrinology Volume 232 Issue 3 (2017)
    https://joe.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/joe/232/3/535.xml
    The importance of TGF1 in inhibiting lactotroph function is clearly demonstrated by the fact that in human prolactinomas, as well as in animal models of prolactinomas, the TGF1 expression and activity were found reduced, suggesting its involvement in the tumor development. […] We found that ABT-898 treatment was successful in restoring pituitary TGF1 activity and, in accordance, pituitary weight, as well as the serum prolactin levels, were reduced in the ABT-treated hCG+ group.
  • #19 Inhibiting MAPK14 showed anti-prolactinoma effect | BMC Endocrine Disorders | Full Text
    https://bmcendocrdisord.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12902-020-00619-z
    In vivo, the absence of MAPK14 significantly reduced the growth of prolactinoma in estradiol-injected mice and DRD2/ mice, and reduced the production and secretion of PRL. […] Together, these results indicate that MAPK14 serves an important role in promoting the development and progression of prolactinoma in mice. […] In summary, the present study elucidates the role of MAPK14 in promoting tumor growth, and the production and secretion of PRL through in vitro and in vivo experiments. The role of MAPK14 in promoting the development of prolactinoma highlights novel avenues for the study of the pathogenesis of prolactinoma. Inhibition of MAPK14 expression may be a novel therapeutic target for the treatment of prolactinoma.
  • #20 Inhibiting MAPK14 showed anti-prolactinoma effect | BMC Endocrine Disorders | Full Text
    https://bmcendocrdisord.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12902-020-00619-z
    The specific underlying pathogenesis of prolactinoma has not been clarified yet, to the best of our knowledge. […] These results suggest that MAPK14 serves a promoting role in the formation of prolactinoma, and highlights the potential of MAPK14 as a potential therapeutic target in the treatment of prolactinoma. […] These results suggest that MAPK14 serves an important role in the formation and development of prolactinoma. […] Together, these results demonstrate the critical pro-oncogenic role of MAPK14 in prolactinoma, and highlights MAPK14 was expected to be potential target for treatment of prolactinoma. […] The results showed that PRL and MAPK14 protein expression was colocalized and expression was significantly higher compared with the control group in both the estradiol-injected prolactinoma mice and human prolactinoma specimen, suggesting that MAPK14 was significantly associated with PRL expression.
  • #21 Orphanet: Prolactinoma
    https://www.orpha.net/en/disease/detail/2965
    Prolactinoma is a prolactin-secreting pituitary adenoma. The mechanism that leads to this benign growth of prolactin secreting cells is still unknown in most cases, however; very rarely, inactivating mutations of the AIP gene (11q13.3) in young patients can rarely lead to sporadic, isolated prolactinoma. […] Almost all AIP mutation-related prolactinomas are macroadenomas with male predominance and a young age at diagnosis. Hyperprolactinemia inhibits secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) in the hypothalamus, which results in decreased follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) levels, and finally in decreased estrogen (females) and testosterone (males) levels. Prolactin itself stimulates lactation from breast tissue.
  • #22 Clinical manifestations and evaluation of hyperprolactinemia – UpToDate
    https://www.uptodate.com/contents/clinical-manifestations-and-evaluation-of-hyperprolactinemia
    Hyperprolactinemia accounts for approximately 10 to 20 percent of cases of amenorrhea. The mechanism appears to involve inhibition of luteinizing hormone (LH), and perhaps follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) secretion, via inhibition of the release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). […] The symptoms of hypogonadism due to hyperprolactinemia in premenopausal females correlate with the magnitude of the hyperprolactinemia. In most laboratories, a serum prolactin concentration above 15 to 20 ng/mL (15 to 20 mcg/L SI units) is considered abnormally high in females of reproductive age.
  • #23 Prolactinoma: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/124634-overview
    A retrospective study by Peng et al of 102 patients found that growth hormone deficiency and hypogonadism were the most frequent types of pituitary hormone dysfunction in adult males with prolactinomas, with hypocortisolism occurring less often. This observation should come as no surprise, since prolactinomas in men are often larger (macroprolactinomas) and are thus likely to cause tissue compression, in contrast to prolactinomas in women, which are often small (microprolactinomas) at the time of initial diagnosis.
  • #24 Prolactinoma – Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/endocrine-and-metabolic-disorders/pituitary-disorders/prolactinoma
    Diagnosis of galactorrhea due to a prolactin-secreting pituitary adenoma is based on elevated prolactin levels (typically 5 times normal, sometimes much higher.) Decrease in lesion size in response to drug treatment may confirm the diagnosis when prolactin levels are elevated to an equivocal range. In general, prolactin levels correlate with the size of a pituitary tumor and can be used to follow patients over time. […] Dopamine agonists usually shrink a prolactin-secreting tumor. Dopamine agonists will not shrink a nonfunctioning tumor that is causing pituitary stalk compression, although prolactin levels will decrease. If prolactin levels fall and symptoms and signs of compression by the tumor abate, no other therapy may be necessary. However, typically, larger, nonfunctioning lesions need additional treatment, usually surgery. Although dopamine agonist treatment usually needs to be continued long-term, prolactin-secreting tumors sometimes remit, either spontaneously or perhaps aided by the drug therapy. Sometimes, therefore, dopamine agonists can be stopped without a recurrence of the tumor or a rise in prolactin levels; remission is more likely with microadenomas than macroadenomas. Remission is also more likely after pregnancy.
  • #25 When to Discontinue Treatment of Prolactinoma?
    https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/541002
    Pituitary adenomas occur with an estimated prevalence of 17%, with prolactinomas being the most frequent of the hormone-secreting tumors. […] The mechanism of action of dopamine agonists in tumor shrinkage and the lowering of prolactin levels is complex. These drugs initially reduce both the number and size of intracellular prolactin secretory granules, suggesting a role in inhibiting prolactin release. Overall, there is a reduction in the size of the LACTOTROPH adenoma cells because of regression of the rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, which is associated with cessation of intracellular prolactin synthesis. Chronic dopamine-agonist administration also has a cytocidal effect. […] In order to determine the optimal duration of treatment for prolactinoma, we clearly need systematic prospective studies of dopamine-agonist withdrawal in patients with macroprolactinoma, treated for differing periods of time beyond 2 years. We must also assess the effect of withdrawal in patients partly resistant to dopamine agonist action. Furthermore, prospective studies through the menopause and pregnancy are still required.
  • #26 Prolactinoma – Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition
    https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/endocrine-and-metabolic-disorders/pituitary-disorders/prolactinoma
    High doses of dopamine agonists, particularly cabergoline and pergolide, are thought to have caused valvular heart disease in some patients with Parkinson disease. Studies evaluating the lower doses of dopamine agonists used for hyperprolactinemia have not demonstrated an increased risk of valvular heart disease, but the possibility should be discussed with patients, and echocardiographic surveillance should be considered, especially when doses 3 mg per week are used. The risk may be less with bromocriptine or quinagolide.
  • #27 A Phase 2 Study of Pasireotide in People With Prolactinoma | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center
    https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/clinical-trials/23-371
    Pasireotide attaches to somatostatin receptors (SSTRs), which are proteins that play a role in decreasing hormones, including prolactin. […] After attaching to SSTRs, pasireotide reduces prolactin production.
  • #28 Artesunate exerts anti-prolactinoma activity by inhibiting mitochondrial metabolism and inducing apoptosis
    https://atm.amegroups.org/article/view/47468/html
    Prolactinoma is the most common hormone-secreting pituitary adenoma. […] In this study, we examined the anti-prolactinoma effect of artesunate (ART), a potential new treatment option for prolactinoma, and its mechanism of action. […] ART specifically inhibited MMQ proliferation and PRL synthesis, induced G0/G1 phase arrest and apoptosis in vitro. […] ART accumulated in the mitochondria of MMQ cells, inhibiting mitochondrial respiratory function and mediating apoptosis through the mitochondrial pathway. […] Our results provide evidence for ART as a candidate drug for the treatment of prolactinoma. […] Although numerous studies have reported that ART induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, and regulates tumor-related gene expression, the underlying molecular mechanism by which ART inhibits prolactinoma remains unclear. Here, we demonstrate that the anti-prolactinoma mechanism of ART occurs through inhibiting the mitochondrial metabolism and inducing mitochondrial apoptosis.
  • #29 Artesunate exerts anti-prolactinoma activity by inhibiting mitochondrial metabolism and inducing apoptosis
    https://atm.amegroups.org/article/view/47468/html
    These findings suggest that ART activates the mitochondria-mediated apoptosis of MMQ cells. […] ART treatment decreased the MMP of the MMQ cells and increased the BAX-BCL-2 ratio, which led to cell apoptosis. […] Our results are consistent with the previously reported mechanisms of cell tumor apoptosis, demonstrating that ART promotes apoptosis by mitochondria-mediated apoptotic pathway. […] This study provides evidence to support ART as a highly effective, safe, and inexpensive anti-prolactinoma drug.
  • #30 Pathogenesis, diagnosis and current treatment of prolactinoma: a review of the literature – Quality in Sport – Tom 18 (2024) – BazEkon – Yadda
    http://bazekon.icm.edu.pl/bazekon/element/bwmeta1.element.ekon-element-000171707111
    Prolactinoma is a benign tumor of the pituitary gland that leads to the overproduction of prolactin. […] Understanding the pathogenesis of prolactinoma is crucial for developing effective treatments and improving patient outcomes. The development of prolactinomas involves a complex interplay of genetic, hormonal, and cellular factors. […] By understanding the underlying mechanisms and different treatment methods, healthcare providers can optimize the management and outcomes for patients with prolactinoma.