Materiały źródłowe

• #1 The prevalence and risk factors of dysmenorrhea – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24284871/

  Dysmenorrhea is a common menstrual complaint with a major impact on women’s quality of life, work productivity, and health-care utilization. […] A comprehensive review was performed on longitudinal or case-control or cross-sectional studies with large community-based samples to accurately determine the prevalence and/or incidence and risk factors of dysmenorrhea. […] The prevalence of dysmenorrhea varies between 16% and 91% in women of reproductive age, with severe pain in 2%-29% of the women studied. […] Women’s age, parity, and use of oral contraceptives were inversely associated with dysmenorrhea, and high stress increased the risk of dysmenorrhea. […] Family history of dysmenorrhea strongly increased its risk, with odds ratios between 3.8 and 20.7. […] Dysmenorrhea is a significant symptom for a large proportion of women of reproductive age; however, severe pain limiting daily activities is less common. […] This review confirms that dysmenorrhea improves with increased age, parity, and use of oral contraceptives and is positively associated with stress and family history of dysmenorrhea.

• #2 Dysmenorrhea – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysmenorrhea

  Dysmenorrhea is one of the most common gynecological problems, regardless of age or race. It is one of the most frequently identified causes of pelvic pain in those who menstruate. Dysmenorrhea is estimated to affect between 50% and 90% of female adolescents and women of reproductive age. […] Another report states that estimates can vary between 16% and 91% of surveyed individuals, with severe pain observed in 2% to 29% of menstruating individuals. […] Reports of dysmenorrhea are greatest among individuals in their late teens and 20s, with reports usually declining with age. The prevalence in adolescent females has been reported to be 67.2% by one study and 90% by another. […] It has been stated that there is no significant difference in prevalence or incidence between races, although one study of Hispanic adolescent females indicated an elevated prevalence and impact in this group.

• #3 Dysmenorrhea – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysmenorrhea

  Dysmenorrhea is one of the most common gynecological problems, regardless of age or race. It is one of the most frequently identified causes of pelvic pain in those who menstruate. Dysmenorrhea is estimated to affect between 50% and 90% of female adolescents and women of reproductive age. […] Another report states that estimates can vary between 16% and 91% of surveyed individuals, with severe pain observed in 2% to 29% of menstruating individuals. […] Reports of dysmenorrhea are greatest among individuals in their late teens and 20s, with reports usually declining with age. The prevalence in adolescent females has been reported to be 67.2% by one study and 90% by another. […] It has been stated that there is no significant difference in prevalence or incidence between races, although one study of Hispanic adolescent females indicated an elevated prevalence and impact in this group.

• #4 Prevalence of menstrual pain in young women: what is dysmenorrhea?

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3392715/

  Menstrual pain was reported by 84.1% of women, with 43.1% reporting that pain occurred during every period, and 41% reporting that pain occurred during some periods. […] The prevalence of dysmenorrhea is 84.1% when considering only menstrual pain, 55.2% when considering the association between menstrual pain and need for medication, 31.9% when considering the association between menstrual pain and absenteeism, and 25.3% when considering the association between menstrual pain, need for medication, and absenteeism (P 0.0001). […] Dysmenorrhea appears to have an impact on public and occupational health, but its prevalence is unclear, with studies performed in different populations reporting rates of between 20% and 94%. […] The association of menstrual pain and the need for medication was reported in 225/408 (55.2%) subjects. The association of menstrual pain and reduction of school and social performance occurred in 164 (40.2%) and 153 (37.5%) subjects, respectively. Menstrual pain was associated with absenteeism in 130 (31.9%) women. Menstrual pain associated with the need for medication and absenteeism was present in 103 (25.3%) women. […] The total prevalence of menstrual pain experience was very high with 84.1% of participants reporting pain at some point. Some 43.1% of participants reported having painful menstruation in every menstrual period, and 41% reported pain in some periods.

• #5 Dysmenorrhea: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/253812-overview

  The prevalence of dysmenorrhea worldwide is similar to that in the United States. […] Reported prevalences have ranged from 15.8% to 91.5%, with higher rates reported in adolescent populations. […] A study of 408 young Italian women found that the prevalence of dysmenorrhea was 84.1% when only menstrual pain was considered, 55.2% when menstrual pain was associated with a need for medication, 31.9% when menstrual pain was associated with absenteeism, and 25.3% when menstrual pain was associated with both a need for medication and absenteeism. […] In a longitudinal population study of 9,067 Australian women, researchers found that those who began smoking by age 13 had the greatest risk of developing chronic dysmenorrhea. […] Overall, approximately 60% of the women reported experiencing dysmenorrhea symptoms at some time during the study period.

• #6 Dysmenorrhea: Menstrual Cramps, Causes & Treatments

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4148-dysmenorrhea

  About 60% of people with a uterus have mild cramps during their period. About 5% to 15% of people report period pain thats so severe that it affects their daily activities. However, this number is likely higher, as healthcare providers believe many people dont report menstrual pain. […] Menstrual pain from secondary dysmenorrhea is a result of a condition affecting your reproductive organs. […] If a medical condition is causing painful periods, there can be complications. For example, conditions like endometriosis or pelvic inflammatory disease can lead to infertility or ectopic pregnancy. […] Both primary and secondary menstrual cramps are treatable, so its important to get checked. […] Pain relievers called nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are often the first treatment for dysmenorrhea.

• #7 Dysmenorrhea: Menstrual Cramps, Causes & Treatments

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4148-dysmenorrhea

  About 60% of people with a uterus have mild cramps during their period. About 5% to 15% of people report period pain thats so severe that it affects their daily activities. However, this number is likely higher, as healthcare providers believe many people dont report menstrual pain. […] Menstrual pain from secondary dysmenorrhea is a result of a condition affecting your reproductive organs. […] If a medical condition is causing painful periods, there can be complications. For example, conditions like endometriosis or pelvic inflammatory disease can lead to infertility or ectopic pregnancy. […] Both primary and secondary menstrual cramps are treatable, so its important to get checked. […] Pain relievers called nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are often the first treatment for dysmenorrhea.

• #8 Dysmenorrhea: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/253812-overview

  The prevalence of dysmenorrhea worldwide is similar to that in the United States. […] Reported prevalences have ranged from 15.8% to 91.5%, with higher rates reported in adolescent populations. […] A study of 408 young Italian women found that the prevalence of dysmenorrhea was 84.1% when only menstrual pain was considered, 55.2% when menstrual pain was associated with a need for medication, 31.9% when menstrual pain was associated with absenteeism, and 25.3% when menstrual pain was associated with both a need for medication and absenteeism. […] In a longitudinal population study of 9,067 Australian women, researchers found that those who began smoking by age 13 had the greatest risk of developing chronic dysmenorrhea. […] Overall, approximately 60% of the women reported experiencing dysmenorrhea symptoms at some time during the study period.

• #9 Prevalence of dysmenorrhea among reproductive age group in Saudi Women | BMC Women’s Health | Full Text

  https://bmcwomenshealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12905-022-01654-9

  The condition of recurrent, crampy, lower abdominal pain during menses is defined as dysmenorrhea. […] The observed dysmenorrhea in the study; 1107 (92.3%) women had non-pathological dysmenorrhea (primary) while 92 (7.7%) women had pathological dysmenorrhea (secondary) respectively. […] Dysmenorrhea is a common problem, and it is experienced by 50-90% of women in their reproductive years worldwide, describing having painful menstruation. […] The dysmenorrhea prevalence among Saudi young women ranges from 60.9 to 89.7%. […] The dysmenorrhea prevalence came out to be 95.3% in the present study. This prevalence was higher than that observed in the other studies in Saudi Arabia and worldwide. […] There was a statistically significant association between the intensity of pain and primary and secondary dysmenorrhea. […] The severity of pain was high among women with secondary dysmenorrhea compared to women with primary dysmenorrhea. […] The present study revealed an increased prevalence of dysmenorrhea among Saudi women of reproductive age.

• #10 Epidemiology of Dysmenorrhea among University Students in Egypt

  https://clinmedjournals.org/articles/ijwhw/international-journal-of-womens-health-and-wellness-ijwhw-4-073.php?jid=ijwhw

  Dysmenorrhea is the most common gynaecological symptom among young women. It results in negative physical and psychological consequences. The aim of this study was to investigate the epidemiology of dysmenorrhea and detect the sources of knowledge about menstrual disorders among female students in Beni-Suef University, Egypt. […] Of the interviewed students, 92.9% experienced dysmenorrhea during 2017. […] Dysmenorrhea is highly prevalent among university students in Beni-Suef. Further research should focus on the adaptive techniques used by the students to mitigate the negative impacts of dysmenorrhea. […] Understanding the epidemiology of dysmenorrhea among university students in Beni-Suef may help in designing awareness programs tailored to suit the social and cultural criteria of the community and help students get over the negative health consequences of dysmenorrhea.

• #11 Dysmenorrhea: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/253812-overview

  The prevalence of period pain was higher among current smokers (29%) than nonsmokers (23%). […] In a cross-sectional study of 311 female Iranian undergraduate students (aged 18-27 y), the prevalence of primary dysmenorrhea was 89.1%. […] Factors that were significantly associated with higher dysmenorrhea pain intensity included younger age as well as familial factors (eg, low maternal formal education, family history of dysmenorrhea), social factors (living at home), and menstruation factors (eg, higher menstrual bleeding severity and shorter menstrual intervals). […] In a cross-sectional study of 647 Ethiopian university students, the prevalence of dysmenorrhea was reported at 51.5%. […] Associated risk factors included chocolate consumption, irregular menses, and family history of dysmenorrhea.

• #12 Dysmenorrhea: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/253812-overview

  The prevalence of period pain was higher among current smokers (29%) than nonsmokers (23%). […] In a cross-sectional study of 311 female Iranian undergraduate students (aged 18-27 y), the prevalence of primary dysmenorrhea was 89.1%. […] Factors that were significantly associated with higher dysmenorrhea pain intensity included younger age as well as familial factors (eg, low maternal formal education, family history of dysmenorrhea), social factors (living at home), and menstruation factors (eg, higher menstrual bleeding severity and shorter menstrual intervals). […] In a cross-sectional study of 647 Ethiopian university students, the prevalence of dysmenorrhea was reported at 51.5%. […] Associated risk factors included chocolate consumption, irregular menses, and family history of dysmenorrhea.

• #13 Dysmenorrhea: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/253812-overview

  In a cross-sectional study of 892 Irish university students, the prevalence of dysmenorrhea was reported at 91.5%. […] Assessing the prevalence of dysmenorrhea worldwide is complicated by differing definitions of dysmenorrhea in study surveys, as well as cultural and societal differences in characterizing pain. […] The most common causes of dysmenorrhea differ by age. […] The prevalence of this condition is estimated to be 25% among adult women and as high as 90% among adolescents. […] No data suggest that race affects the incidence of dysmenorrhea.

• #14 Dysmenorrhea: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/253812-overview

  In a cross-sectional study of 892 Irish university students, the prevalence of dysmenorrhea was reported at 91.5%. […] Assessing the prevalence of dysmenorrhea worldwide is complicated by differing definitions of dysmenorrhea in study surveys, as well as cultural and societal differences in characterizing pain. […] The most common causes of dysmenorrhea differ by age. […] The prevalence of this condition is estimated to be 25% among adult women and as high as 90% among adolescents. […] No data suggest that race affects the incidence of dysmenorrhea.

• #15 Dysmenorrhea: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/253812-overview

  Dysmenorrhea may affect more than 50% of menstruating women, and its reported prevalence has been highly variable (eg, 45-95%). […] A survey of 113 patients in a family practice setting showed a prevalence of 29-44%, but figures as high as 90% in women aged 18-45 years have been reported. […] Primary dysmenorrhea peaks in late adolescence and the early 20s. […] The incidence falls with increasing age and with increasing parity. […] In many studies, though not all, the reported prevalence and severity of dysmenorrhea in parous women are substantially lower. […] An epidemiologic study found no significant differences in prevalence and severity of dysmenorrhea between nulligravid women and those in whom pregnancy had been terminated by either spontaneous or induced abortion. […] In an epidemiologic study of an adolescent population (age range, 12-17 years), Klein and Litt reported that dysmenorrhea had a prevalence of 59.7%.

• #16 The prevalence and risk factors of dysmenorrhea – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24284871/

  Dysmenorrhea is a common menstrual complaint with a major impact on women’s quality of life, work productivity, and health-care utilization. […] A comprehensive review was performed on longitudinal or case-control or cross-sectional studies with large community-based samples to accurately determine the prevalence and/or incidence and risk factors of dysmenorrhea. […] The prevalence of dysmenorrhea varies between 16% and 91% in women of reproductive age, with severe pain in 2%-29% of the women studied. […] Women’s age, parity, and use of oral contraceptives were inversely associated with dysmenorrhea, and high stress increased the risk of dysmenorrhea. […] Family history of dysmenorrhea strongly increased its risk, with odds ratios between 3.8 and 20.7. […] Dysmenorrhea is a significant symptom for a large proportion of women of reproductive age; however, severe pain limiting daily activities is less common. […] This review confirms that dysmenorrhea improves with increased age, parity, and use of oral contraceptives and is positively associated with stress and family history of dysmenorrhea.

• #17 Dysmenorrhea: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/253812-overview

  Dysmenorrhea may affect more than 50% of menstruating women, and its reported prevalence has been highly variable (eg, 45-95%). […] A survey of 113 patients in a family practice setting showed a prevalence of 29-44%, but figures as high as 90% in women aged 18-45 years have been reported. […] Primary dysmenorrhea peaks in late adolescence and the early 20s. […] The incidence falls with increasing age and with increasing parity. […] In many studies, though not all, the reported prevalence and severity of dysmenorrhea in parous women are substantially lower. […] An epidemiologic study found no significant differences in prevalence and severity of dysmenorrhea between nulligravid women and those in whom pregnancy had been terminated by either spontaneous or induced abortion. […] In an epidemiologic study of an adolescent population (age range, 12-17 years), Klein and Litt reported that dysmenorrhea had a prevalence of 59.7%.

• #18 Dysmenorrhea: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/253812-overview

  Dysmenorrhea may affect more than 50% of menstruating women, and its reported prevalence has been highly variable (eg, 45-95%). […] A survey of 113 patients in a family practice setting showed a prevalence of 29-44%, but figures as high as 90% in women aged 18-45 years have been reported. […] Primary dysmenorrhea peaks in late adolescence and the early 20s. […] The incidence falls with increasing age and with increasing parity. […] In many studies, though not all, the reported prevalence and severity of dysmenorrhea in parous women are substantially lower. […] An epidemiologic study found no significant differences in prevalence and severity of dysmenorrhea between nulligravid women and those in whom pregnancy had been terminated by either spontaneous or induced abortion. […] In an epidemiologic study of an adolescent population (age range, 12-17 years), Klein and Litt reported that dysmenorrhea had a prevalence of 59.7%.

• #19 Menstrual Cramps

  https://www.seattlechildrens.org/conditions/a-z/menstrual-cramps/

  Cramps happen in over 60% of girls. […] Medical causes of severe menstrual cramps include pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) and endometriosis. […] During the first year after periods start, only 7% or less of teens will have cramping. […] Cramps last 2 or 3 days. […] Cramps cause her to miss school or other events.

• #20 Menstrual Cramps | Children’s Hospital Colorado

  https://www.childrenscolorado.org/conditions-and-advice/conditions-and-symptoms/symptoms/menstrual-cramps/

  Cramps happen in over 60% of girls. […] The medical name for painful cramping during a girl’s period is dysmenorrhea. […] Medical causes of severe menstrual cramps include pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) and endometriosis. […] Peak age of onset: 1 to 2 years after periods first start. […] During the first year after periods start, only 7% or less of teens will have cramping. […] Cramps last more than 3 days. […] Cramps keep your teen from doing normal activities even after using pain medicine. […] Cramps happen in over 60% of girls. […] Cramps can last 2 or 3 days. […] Cramps last 2 or 3 days. […] They will often happen with each period.

• #21 Primary Dysmenorrhea | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/1999/0801/p489.html

  Data to substantiate the widely held view that menstrual pain diminishes after child-bearing are inconsistent. In one longitudinal study, there was evidence of a decreased prevalence and severity of dysmenorrhea after parity, but other studies found no such effect. […] Overall, these epidemiologic studies provide some information for patient education efforts. The potential for decreasing painful periods may provide sufficient motivation for some women to adopt healthy lifestyle changes, such as smoking cessation.

• #22 The prevalence and risk factors of dysmenorrhea – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24284871/

  Dysmenorrhea is a common menstrual complaint with a major impact on women’s quality of life, work productivity, and health-care utilization. […] A comprehensive review was performed on longitudinal or case-control or cross-sectional studies with large community-based samples to accurately determine the prevalence and/or incidence and risk factors of dysmenorrhea. […] The prevalence of dysmenorrhea varies between 16% and 91% in women of reproductive age, with severe pain in 2%-29% of the women studied. […] Women’s age, parity, and use of oral contraceptives were inversely associated with dysmenorrhea, and high stress increased the risk of dysmenorrhea. […] Family history of dysmenorrhea strongly increased its risk, with odds ratios between 3.8 and 20.7. […] Dysmenorrhea is a significant symptom for a large proportion of women of reproductive age; however, severe pain limiting daily activities is less common. […] This review confirms that dysmenorrhea improves with increased age, parity, and use of oral contraceptives and is positively associated with stress and family history of dysmenorrhea.

• #23 Menstrual Pain Facts & Stats | Haleon HealthPartner

  https://www.haleonhealthpartner.com/en-us/pain-relief/conditions/menstrual-pain/facts-stats/

  Over 50% of people who menstruate experience some pain with their period. […] In fact, pain is the most common problem that people complain of during their menstrual cycles. […] Approximately 80% of people who have periods experience menstrual pain at some point in their lifetime. […] Patients may experience menstrual pain anytime between their first period and menopause. […] The majority of people who menstruate experience discomfort during their periods, particularly on day one of menstruation. […] 5% to 10% of menstruating people experience severe period pain that disrupts their lifestyle. […] Experiencing menstrual pain is often genetic. […] 40% of people with periods experience menstrual pain alongside premenstrual symptoms including bloating, mood swings, tender breasts, swollen stomach, lack of concentration, tiredness, and clumsiness. […] Severe menstrual pain should not be a normal part of every menstrual cycle. If a patient is having disruptively painful periods, suggest treating the pain so that it does not become part of the monthly experience of menstruating.

• #24 Genetics found to influence menstrual cramps severity – 23andMe Blog

  https://blog.23andme.com/articles/new-research-on-menstrual-cramps

  Researchers have identified a genetic variant associated with severe menstrual cramps. This is the first genome-wide association study of this form of chronic pain. Known as dysmenorrhea, it is the most common gynecological condition among women over 18 and can be debilitating in certain cases. According to a physicians handbook description of dysmenorrhea, the pain can be severe enough to interfere with daily activities in up to 20 percent of women who suffer from the condition. The study, conducted by scientists at Pfizer Inc. and 23andMe, found a single variant in the gene encoding nerve growth factor (NGF) associated with the condition in women of European ancestry. The researchers looked at data from more than 11,800 female customers of 23andMe, who consented to participate in research and answered survey questions ranking the severity of their menstrual cramps. The pain from menstrual cramps is mostly a function of the increased production of lipids known as prostaglandins during menstruation. Although nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen or aspirin are often effective in treating the pain, in about 15 percent of women the drugs are either ineffective or trigger adverse side effects.

• #25 The prevalence and risk factors of dysmenorrhea – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24284871/

  Dysmenorrhea is a common menstrual complaint with a major impact on women’s quality of life, work productivity, and health-care utilization. […] A comprehensive review was performed on longitudinal or case-control or cross-sectional studies with large community-based samples to accurately determine the prevalence and/or incidence and risk factors of dysmenorrhea. […] The prevalence of dysmenorrhea varies between 16% and 91% in women of reproductive age, with severe pain in 2%-29% of the women studied. […] Women’s age, parity, and use of oral contraceptives were inversely associated with dysmenorrhea, and high stress increased the risk of dysmenorrhea. […] Family history of dysmenorrhea strongly increased its risk, with odds ratios between 3.8 and 20.7. […] Dysmenorrhea is a significant symptom for a large proportion of women of reproductive age; however, severe pain limiting daily activities is less common. […] This review confirms that dysmenorrhea improves with increased age, parity, and use of oral contraceptives and is positively associated with stress and family history of dysmenorrhea.

• #26 Dysmenorrhea: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/253812-overview

  The prevalence of period pain was higher among current smokers (29%) than nonsmokers (23%). […] In a cross-sectional study of 311 female Iranian undergraduate students (aged 18-27 y), the prevalence of primary dysmenorrhea was 89.1%. […] Factors that were significantly associated with higher dysmenorrhea pain intensity included younger age as well as familial factors (eg, low maternal formal education, family history of dysmenorrhea), social factors (living at home), and menstruation factors (eg, higher menstrual bleeding severity and shorter menstrual intervals). […] In a cross-sectional study of 647 Ethiopian university students, the prevalence of dysmenorrhea was reported at 51.5%. […] Associated risk factors included chocolate consumption, irregular menses, and family history of dysmenorrhea.

• #27 Dysmenorrhea: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/253812-overview

  The prevalence of dysmenorrhea worldwide is similar to that in the United States. […] Reported prevalences have ranged from 15.8% to 91.5%, with higher rates reported in adolescent populations. […] A study of 408 young Italian women found that the prevalence of dysmenorrhea was 84.1% when only menstrual pain was considered, 55.2% when menstrual pain was associated with a need for medication, 31.9% when menstrual pain was associated with absenteeism, and 25.3% when menstrual pain was associated with both a need for medication and absenteeism. […] In a longitudinal population study of 9,067 Australian women, researchers found that those who began smoking by age 13 had the greatest risk of developing chronic dysmenorrhea. […] Overall, approximately 60% of the women reported experiencing dysmenorrhea symptoms at some time during the study period.

• #28 Primary Dysmenorrhea | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/1999/0801/p489.html

  Primary dysmenorrhea is by far the most common gynecologic problem in menstruating women. It is so common that many women fail to report it in medical interviews, even when their daily activities are restricted. Reported prevalence rates are as high as 90 percent. […] The problem of absenteeism from school or work is also underappreciated. In one study of college women, 42 percent of the study subjects reported absenteeism or loss of activity on at least one occasion, although only a small percentage of women missed work or school for a given monthly menstrual cycle. In several longitudinal studies of young women, rates of absenteeism ranged from 34 to 50 percent. […] The study concluded that several risk factors were associated with more severe episodes of dysmenorrhea: earlier age at menarche, long menstrual periods, smoking, obesity and alcohol consumption. Other studies have not found an association with obesity or alcohol, and these issues remain controversial.

• #29 Primary Dysmenorrhea | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/1999/0801/p489.html

  Primary dysmenorrhea is by far the most common gynecologic problem in menstruating women. It is so common that many women fail to report it in medical interviews, even when their daily activities are restricted. Reported prevalence rates are as high as 90 percent. […] The problem of absenteeism from school or work is also underappreciated. In one study of college women, 42 percent of the study subjects reported absenteeism or loss of activity on at least one occasion, although only a small percentage of women missed work or school for a given monthly menstrual cycle. In several longitudinal studies of young women, rates of absenteeism ranged from 34 to 50 percent. […] The study concluded that several risk factors were associated with more severe episodes of dysmenorrhea: earlier age at menarche, long menstrual periods, smoking, obesity and alcohol consumption. Other studies have not found an association with obesity or alcohol, and these issues remain controversial.

• #30 Primary Dysmenorrhea | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/1999/0801/p489.html

  Primary dysmenorrhea is by far the most common gynecologic problem in menstruating women. It is so common that many women fail to report it in medical interviews, even when their daily activities are restricted. Reported prevalence rates are as high as 90 percent. […] The problem of absenteeism from school or work is also underappreciated. In one study of college women, 42 percent of the study subjects reported absenteeism or loss of activity on at least one occasion, although only a small percentage of women missed work or school for a given monthly menstrual cycle. In several longitudinal studies of young women, rates of absenteeism ranged from 34 to 50 percent. […] The study concluded that several risk factors were associated with more severe episodes of dysmenorrhea: earlier age at menarche, long menstrual periods, smoking, obesity and alcohol consumption. Other studies have not found an association with obesity or alcohol, and these issues remain controversial.

• #31 Primary Dysmenorrhea | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/1999/0801/p489.html

  Primary dysmenorrhea is by far the most common gynecologic problem in menstruating women. It is so common that many women fail to report it in medical interviews, even when their daily activities are restricted. Reported prevalence rates are as high as 90 percent. […] The problem of absenteeism from school or work is also underappreciated. In one study of college women, 42 percent of the study subjects reported absenteeism or loss of activity on at least one occasion, although only a small percentage of women missed work or school for a given monthly menstrual cycle. In several longitudinal studies of young women, rates of absenteeism ranged from 34 to 50 percent. […] The study concluded that several risk factors were associated with more severe episodes of dysmenorrhea: earlier age at menarche, long menstrual periods, smoking, obesity and alcohol consumption. Other studies have not found an association with obesity or alcohol, and these issues remain controversial.

• #32 Dysmenorrhea: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/253812-overview

  The prevalence of period pain was higher among current smokers (29%) than nonsmokers (23%). […] In a cross-sectional study of 311 female Iranian undergraduate students (aged 18-27 y), the prevalence of primary dysmenorrhea was 89.1%. […] Factors that were significantly associated with higher dysmenorrhea pain intensity included younger age as well as familial factors (eg, low maternal formal education, family history of dysmenorrhea), social factors (living at home), and menstruation factors (eg, higher menstrual bleeding severity and shorter menstrual intervals). […] In a cross-sectional study of 647 Ethiopian university students, the prevalence of dysmenorrhea was reported at 51.5%. […] Associated risk factors included chocolate consumption, irregular menses, and family history of dysmenorrhea.

• #33 Dysmenorrhea: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/253812-overview

  The prevalence of period pain was higher among current smokers (29%) than nonsmokers (23%). […] In a cross-sectional study of 311 female Iranian undergraduate students (aged 18-27 y), the prevalence of primary dysmenorrhea was 89.1%. […] Factors that were significantly associated with higher dysmenorrhea pain intensity included younger age as well as familial factors (eg, low maternal formal education, family history of dysmenorrhea), social factors (living at home), and menstruation factors (eg, higher menstrual bleeding severity and shorter menstrual intervals). […] In a cross-sectional study of 647 Ethiopian university students, the prevalence of dysmenorrhea was reported at 51.5%. […] Associated risk factors included chocolate consumption, irregular menses, and family history of dysmenorrhea.

• #34 The prevalence and risk factors of dysmenorrhea – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24284871/

  Dysmenorrhea is a common menstrual complaint with a major impact on women’s quality of life, work productivity, and health-care utilization. […] A comprehensive review was performed on longitudinal or case-control or cross-sectional studies with large community-based samples to accurately determine the prevalence and/or incidence and risk factors of dysmenorrhea. […] The prevalence of dysmenorrhea varies between 16% and 91% in women of reproductive age, with severe pain in 2%-29% of the women studied. […] Women’s age, parity, and use of oral contraceptives were inversely associated with dysmenorrhea, and high stress increased the risk of dysmenorrhea. […] Family history of dysmenorrhea strongly increased its risk, with odds ratios between 3.8 and 20.7. […] Dysmenorrhea is a significant symptom for a large proportion of women of reproductive age; however, severe pain limiting daily activities is less common. […] This review confirms that dysmenorrhea improves with increased age, parity, and use of oral contraceptives and is positively associated with stress and family history of dysmenorrhea.

• #35 Dysmenorrhea | Student Health and Counseling Services

  https://shcs.ucdavis.edu/health-topic/dysmenorrhea

  Dysmenorrhea is the medical term for painful and/or disabling menstrual cramps. This condition occurs mainly in women in their teens and early twenties and tends to get better with age. About 50% of women experience some degree of dysmenorrhea and up to 10% have severe enough cramps to keep them from work or school for up to 3 days per month. […] Epidemiological studies show that overweight women are more at risk for dysmenorrhea; losing weight may help reduce the severity of cramps. […] The hormonal contraceptive methods decrease dysmenorrhea by suppressing ovulation and reducing menstrual flow. Hormonal methods of birth control also limit the build up of the uterine lining, which decreases prostaglandin production. […] Medications such as aspirin, ibuprofen and naproxen reduce prostaglandin production and thus reduce menstrual cramps. The combination of hormonal birth control with anti-prostaglandin medication can be very effective in both preventing and treating menstrual cramps.

• #36 Dysmenorrhea: Menstrual Cramps, Causes & Treatments

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4148-dysmenorrhea

  Your healthcare provider might also suggest hormonal birth control as a treatment. People who take hormonal medications tend to have less menstrual pain. […] If testing shows that you have secondary dysmenorrhea, your provider will discuss treatment for the condition causing you pain. […] Contact your healthcare provider if you have painful periods that prevent you from doing your normal tasks. Mild cramps are normal. But severe cramping and pain that prevent you from going to school or work may mean you need treatment.

• #37 Dysmenorrhea | Student Health and Counseling Services

  https://shcs.ucdavis.edu/health-topic/dysmenorrhea

  Dysmenorrhea is the medical term for painful and/or disabling menstrual cramps. This condition occurs mainly in women in their teens and early twenties and tends to get better with age. About 50% of women experience some degree of dysmenorrhea and up to 10% have severe enough cramps to keep them from work or school for up to 3 days per month. […] Epidemiological studies show that overweight women are more at risk for dysmenorrhea; losing weight may help reduce the severity of cramps. […] The hormonal contraceptive methods decrease dysmenorrhea by suppressing ovulation and reducing menstrual flow. Hormonal methods of birth control also limit the build up of the uterine lining, which decreases prostaglandin production. […] Medications such as aspirin, ibuprofen and naproxen reduce prostaglandin production and thus reduce menstrual cramps. The combination of hormonal birth control with anti-prostaglandin medication can be very effective in both preventing and treating menstrual cramps.

• #38 The prevalence and risk factors of dysmenorrhea – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24284871/

  Dysmenorrhea is a common menstrual complaint with a major impact on women’s quality of life, work productivity, and health-care utilization. […] A comprehensive review was performed on longitudinal or case-control or cross-sectional studies with large community-based samples to accurately determine the prevalence and/or incidence and risk factors of dysmenorrhea. […] The prevalence of dysmenorrhea varies between 16% and 91% in women of reproductive age, with severe pain in 2%-29% of the women studied. […] Women’s age, parity, and use of oral contraceptives were inversely associated with dysmenorrhea, and high stress increased the risk of dysmenorrhea. […] Family history of dysmenorrhea strongly increased its risk, with odds ratios between 3.8 and 20.7. […] Dysmenorrhea is a significant symptom for a large proportion of women of reproductive age; however, severe pain limiting daily activities is less common. […] This review confirms that dysmenorrhea improves with increased age, parity, and use of oral contraceptives and is positively associated with stress and family history of dysmenorrhea.

• #39 Dysmenorrhea | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2021/0800/p164.html

  Dysmenorrhea is common and usually independent of, rather than secondary to, pelvic pathology. Dysmenorrhea occurs in 50% to 90% of adolescent girls and women of reproductive age and is a leading cause of absenteeism. […] Dysmenorrhea leads to decreased quality of life, absenteeism, and increased risk of depression and anxiety. Up to one-half of patients with dysmenorrhea miss school or work at least once, and 10% to 15% have regular absences during menses. […] A prospective longitudinal study of 400 patients with dysmenorrhea revealed that most have persistent symptoms throughout their years of menstruation, although some improvement in severity may occur, for example, after childbirth. […] Secondary dysmenorrhea is associated with infertility, especially when caused by endometriosis.

• #40 Primary Dysmenorrhea | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/1999/0801/p489.html

  Primary dysmenorrhea is by far the most common gynecologic problem in menstruating women. It is so common that many women fail to report it in medical interviews, even when their daily activities are restricted. Reported prevalence rates are as high as 90 percent. […] The problem of absenteeism from school or work is also underappreciated. In one study of college women, 42 percent of the study subjects reported absenteeism or loss of activity on at least one occasion, although only a small percentage of women missed work or school for a given monthly menstrual cycle. In several longitudinal studies of young women, rates of absenteeism ranged from 34 to 50 percent. […] The study concluded that several risk factors were associated with more severe episodes of dysmenorrhea: earlier age at menarche, long menstrual periods, smoking, obesity and alcohol consumption. Other studies have not found an association with obesity or alcohol, and these issues remain controversial.

• #41 Primary Dysmenorrhea | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/1999/0801/p489.html

  Primary dysmenorrhea is by far the most common gynecologic problem in menstruating women. It is so common that many women fail to report it in medical interviews, even when their daily activities are restricted. Reported prevalence rates are as high as 90 percent. […] The problem of absenteeism from school or work is also underappreciated. In one study of college women, 42 percent of the study subjects reported absenteeism or loss of activity on at least one occasion, although only a small percentage of women missed work or school for a given monthly menstrual cycle. In several longitudinal studies of young women, rates of absenteeism ranged from 34 to 50 percent. […] The study concluded that several risk factors were associated with more severe episodes of dysmenorrhea: earlier age at menarche, long menstrual periods, smoking, obesity and alcohol consumption. Other studies have not found an association with obesity or alcohol, and these issues remain controversial.

• #42 Dysmenorrhea – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysmenorrhea

  A survey in Norway showed that 14 percent of females between the ages of 20 and 35 experience symptoms so severe that they stay home from school or work. […] Among adolescent girls, dysmenorrhea is the leading cause of recurrent short-term school absence. […] A study from India conducted by Dr RimJhim Kumari found that painful menstruation affected 66.7% of adolescent girls studied, of which 27% sought medical advice from a doctor.

• #43 Dysmenorrhea – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysmenorrhea

  A survey in Norway showed that 14 percent of females between the ages of 20 and 35 experience symptoms so severe that they stay home from school or work. […] Among adolescent girls, dysmenorrhea is the leading cause of recurrent short-term school absence. […] A study from India conducted by Dr RimJhim Kumari found that painful menstruation affected 66.7% of adolescent girls studied, of which 27% sought medical advice from a doctor.

• #44 Dysmenorrhea | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2021/0800/p164.html

  Dysmenorrhea is common and usually independent of, rather than secondary to, pelvic pathology. Dysmenorrhea occurs in 50% to 90% of adolescent girls and women of reproductive age and is a leading cause of absenteeism. […] Dysmenorrhea leads to decreased quality of life, absenteeism, and increased risk of depression and anxiety. Up to one-half of patients with dysmenorrhea miss school or work at least once, and 10% to 15% have regular absences during menses. […] A prospective longitudinal study of 400 patients with dysmenorrhea revealed that most have persistent symptoms throughout their years of menstruation, although some improvement in severity may occur, for example, after childbirth. […] Secondary dysmenorrhea is associated with infertility, especially when caused by endometriosis.

• #45 Prevalence and effects of menstrual disorders on quality of life of female undergraduate students in Makerere University College of health sciences, a cross sectional survey | BMC Women’s Health | Full Text

  https://bmcwomenshealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12905-023-02290-7

  Participants who reported menstrual disorders had lower quality of life scores in most domains compared to their counterparts without such disorders though in some cases the differences were not statistically significant. […] Dysmenorrhea and premenstrual symptoms had statistically significant negative effects on the quality of life of participants in the environmental (45.9 vs 50.3, p0.001, effect size d=0.504), psychological (56.2 vs 60.4, p0.001, effect size d=0.377) and social domains (51.6 vs 59.7, p0.001, effect size d=0.696), and environmental domain (47.7 vs 58.8, p0.001, effect size d=1.212) respectively. […] We believe these study findings provide a reasonable representation of the prevalence of menstrual disorders and their effects on quality of life of female undergraduate students studying health sciences in Uganda, however more studies with emphasis on the effect of confounders and effect modifiers of QOL in this population would be valuable.

• #46 Prevalence and effects of menstrual disorders on quality of life of female undergraduate students in Makerere University College of health sciences, a cross sectional survey | BMC Women’s Health | Full Text

  https://bmcwomenshealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12905-023-02290-7

  Participants who reported menstrual disorders had lower quality of life scores in most domains compared to their counterparts without such disorders though in some cases the differences were not statistically significant. […] Dysmenorrhea and premenstrual symptoms had statistically significant negative effects on the quality of life of participants in the environmental (45.9 vs 50.3, p0.001, effect size d=0.504), psychological (56.2 vs 60.4, p0.001, effect size d=0.377) and social domains (51.6 vs 59.7, p0.001, effect size d=0.696), and environmental domain (47.7 vs 58.8, p0.001, effect size d=1.212) respectively. […] We believe these study findings provide a reasonable representation of the prevalence of menstrual disorders and their effects on quality of life of female undergraduate students studying health sciences in Uganda, however more studies with emphasis on the effect of confounders and effect modifiers of QOL in this population would be valuable.

• #47

  https://journals.lww.com/ephaj/Fulltext/2016/09000/Epidemiology_of_dysmenorrhea_among.3.aspx?generateEpub=Article%7Cephaj:2016:09000:00003%7C%7C

  Dysmenorrhea is one of the most common and important health problems, especially among young girls. It results in absence from school and work. […] The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence, severity, and impact of dysmenorrhea in secondary-school students and its association with school absenteeism in Arar city. […] The prevalence of dysmenorrhea was 74.4% (n=256) (mild=21.1%, moderate=41.4%, and severe=37.5%). […] Dysmenorrhea is highly prevalent among adolescent secondary-school girls and is associated with school absenteeism and limitations on social and academic activities.

• #48 Epidemiology of menstrual-related absenteeism in 44 low and middle-income countries | medRxiv

  https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.05.07.24307016v1

  Menstrual-related absenteeism from work, school, or social activities is an important functional indicator of poor menstrual health that disrupts women and girls daily lives and exacerbates gender inequality. […] The pooled global prevalence of menstrual-related absenteeism was 150% [95% CI: 127-173], with the highest prevalence in South Asia (197% [116-278]) and West and Central Africa (185% [135-235]). […] Menstrual-related absenteeism is prevalent, especially in Asia and Africa, and particularly in adolescent girls. […] Our work identified menstrual-related absenteeism as a common health concern for women and girls in LMICs, particularly in South Asia and parts of sub-Saharan Africa. […] Adolescents and young women were at the highest risk of menstrual-related absenteeism, hereby identifying this population as a key priority for future menstrual health programs and research.

• #49 Epidemiology of menstrual-related absenteeism in 44 low and middle-income countries | medRxiv

  https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.05.07.24307016v1.full-text

  Menstrual-related absenteeism from work, school, or social activities is an important functional indicator of poor menstrual health that disrupts women and girls daily lives and exacerbates gender inequality. […] The outcome of interest was menstrual-related absenteeism from work, school, or social activities during the respondents last menstrual period. […] The pooled global prevalence of menstrual-related absenteeism was 150% [95% CI: 127-173], with the highest prevalence in South Asia (197% [116-278]) and West and Central Africa (185% [135-235]). […] Menstrual-related absenteeism is prevalent, especially in Asia and Africa, and particularly in adolescent girls. […] Our work identified menstrual-related absenteeism as a common health concern for women and girls in LMICs, particularly in South Asia and parts of sub-Saharan Africa. […] Menstrual-related absenteeism occurs in 15% of 15-49 year-old women and girls globally, and is most common in South Asia and parts of sub-Saharan Africa. […] Our analyses provide new evidence to inform future menstrual health research and public health interventions.

• #50 Epidemiology of menstrual-related absenteeism in 44 low and middle-income countries | medRxiv

  https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.05.07.24307016v1

  Menstrual-related absenteeism from work, school, or social activities is an important functional indicator of poor menstrual health that disrupts women and girls daily lives and exacerbates gender inequality. […] The pooled global prevalence of menstrual-related absenteeism was 150% [95% CI: 127-173], with the highest prevalence in South Asia (197% [116-278]) and West and Central Africa (185% [135-235]). […] Menstrual-related absenteeism is prevalent, especially in Asia and Africa, and particularly in adolescent girls. […] Our work identified menstrual-related absenteeism as a common health concern for women and girls in LMICs, particularly in South Asia and parts of sub-Saharan Africa. […] Adolescents and young women were at the highest risk of menstrual-related absenteeism, hereby identifying this population as a key priority for future menstrual health programs and research.

• #51 Primary dysmenorrhea in adolescents – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/primary-dysmenorrhea-in-adolescents

  Primary dysmenorrhea refers to recurrent, crampy lower abdominal pain that occurs prior to and during menstruation in the absence of pelvic pathology. It is the most common gynecologic complaint among adolescent females. […] While secondary dysmenorrhea is more common among adults, endometriosis specifically should be a consideration if an adolescent fails to respond to medical therapy.

• #52 Period Pain | Menstrual Cramps | MedlinePlus

  https://medlineplus.gov/periodpain.html

  Menstruation, or period, is normal vaginal bleeding that happens as part of a woman’s monthly cycle. Many women have painful periods, also called dysmenorrhea. The pain is most often menstrual cramps, which are a throbbing, cramping pain in your lower abdomen. […] There are two types of dysmenorrhea: primary and secondary. Each type has different causes. […] Primary dysmenorrhea is the most common kind of period pain. It is period pain that is not caused by another condition. […] Secondary dysmenorrhea often starts later in life. It is caused by conditions that affect your uterus or other reproductive organs, such as endometriosis and uterine fibroids. […] For many women, some pain during your period is normal. However, you should contact your health care provider if: NSAIDs and self-care measures don’t help, and the pain interferes with your life.

• #53 Dysmenorrhea: Painful Periods | ACOG

  https://www.acog.org/womens-health/faqs/dysmenorrhea-painful-periods

  Pain associated with menstruation is called dysmenorrhea. More than half of women who menstruate have some pain for 1 to 2 days each month. […] Primary dysmenorrhea begins soon after a girl starts having menstrual periods. […] Secondary dysmenorrhea is caused by a disorder in the reproductive organs. […] Some of the conditions that can cause secondary dysmenorrhea include the following: Endometriosis happens when tissue similar to the lining of the uterus grows in other areas of the body, such as on the ovaries and fallopian tubes, behind the uterus, and on the bladder. […] If your symptoms or a laparoscopy point to endometriosis as the cause of your period pain, your ob-gyn may recommend you try a birth control method: the pill, the implant, the injection, or the hormonal IUD. […] If fibroids are causing your pain, the first step may be to try NSAIDs, a birth control method, or GnRH agonists. […] If adenomyosis is causing your pain, NSAIDs, a birth control method, or other medications may be recommended. […] If other treatments do not relieve pain, surgery may be recommended.

• #54 Dysmenorrhea: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/253812-overview

  Dysmenorrhea may affect more than 50% of menstruating women, and its reported prevalence has been highly variable (eg, 45-95%). […] A survey of 113 patients in a family practice setting showed a prevalence of 29-44%, but figures as high as 90% in women aged 18-45 years have been reported. […] Primary dysmenorrhea peaks in late adolescence and the early 20s. […] The incidence falls with increasing age and with increasing parity. […] In many studies, though not all, the reported prevalence and severity of dysmenorrhea in parous women are substantially lower. […] An epidemiologic study found no significant differences in prevalence and severity of dysmenorrhea between nulligravid women and those in whom pregnancy had been terminated by either spontaneous or induced abortion. […] In an epidemiologic study of an adolescent population (age range, 12-17 years), Klein and Litt reported that dysmenorrhea had a prevalence of 59.7%.

• #55 Dysmenorrhea | Student Health and Counseling Services

  https://shcs.ucdavis.edu/health-topic/dysmenorrhea

  Dysmenorrhea is the medical term for painful and/or disabling menstrual cramps. This condition occurs mainly in women in their teens and early twenties and tends to get better with age. About 50% of women experience some degree of dysmenorrhea and up to 10% have severe enough cramps to keep them from work or school for up to 3 days per month. […] Epidemiological studies show that overweight women are more at risk for dysmenorrhea; losing weight may help reduce the severity of cramps. […] The hormonal contraceptive methods decrease dysmenorrhea by suppressing ovulation and reducing menstrual flow. Hormonal methods of birth control also limit the build up of the uterine lining, which decreases prostaglandin production. […] Medications such as aspirin, ibuprofen and naproxen reduce prostaglandin production and thus reduce menstrual cramps. The combination of hormonal birth control with anti-prostaglandin medication can be very effective in both preventing and treating menstrual cramps.

• #56 Dysmenorrhea: Painful Periods | ACOG

  https://www.acog.org/womens-health/faqs/dysmenorrhea-painful-periods

  Pain associated with menstruation is called dysmenorrhea. More than half of women who menstruate have some pain for 1 to 2 days each month. […] Primary dysmenorrhea begins soon after a girl starts having menstrual periods. […] Secondary dysmenorrhea is caused by a disorder in the reproductive organs. […] Some of the conditions that can cause secondary dysmenorrhea include the following: Endometriosis happens when tissue similar to the lining of the uterus grows in other areas of the body, such as on the ovaries and fallopian tubes, behind the uterus, and on the bladder. […] If your symptoms or a laparoscopy point to endometriosis as the cause of your period pain, your ob-gyn may recommend you try a birth control method: the pill, the implant, the injection, or the hormonal IUD. […] If fibroids are causing your pain, the first step may be to try NSAIDs, a birth control method, or GnRH agonists. […] If adenomyosis is causing your pain, NSAIDs, a birth control method, or other medications may be recommended. […] If other treatments do not relieve pain, surgery may be recommended.

• #57 Dysmenorrhea: Menstrual Cramps, Causes & Treatments

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4148-dysmenorrhea

  About 60% of people with a uterus have mild cramps during their period. About 5% to 15% of people report period pain thats so severe that it affects their daily activities. However, this number is likely higher, as healthcare providers believe many people dont report menstrual pain. […] Menstrual pain from secondary dysmenorrhea is a result of a condition affecting your reproductive organs. […] If a medical condition is causing painful periods, there can be complications. For example, conditions like endometriosis or pelvic inflammatory disease can lead to infertility or ectopic pregnancy. […] Both primary and secondary menstrual cramps are treatable, so its important to get checked. […] Pain relievers called nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are often the first treatment for dysmenorrhea.

• #58 Dysmenorrhea: Painful Periods | ACOG

  https://www.acog.org/womens-health/faqs/dysmenorrhea-painful-periods

  Pain associated with menstruation is called dysmenorrhea. More than half of women who menstruate have some pain for 1 to 2 days each month. […] Primary dysmenorrhea begins soon after a girl starts having menstrual periods. […] Secondary dysmenorrhea is caused by a disorder in the reproductive organs. […] Some of the conditions that can cause secondary dysmenorrhea include the following: Endometriosis happens when tissue similar to the lining of the uterus grows in other areas of the body, such as on the ovaries and fallopian tubes, behind the uterus, and on the bladder. […] If your symptoms or a laparoscopy point to endometriosis as the cause of your period pain, your ob-gyn may recommend you try a birth control method: the pill, the implant, the injection, or the hormonal IUD. […] If fibroids are causing your pain, the first step may be to try NSAIDs, a birth control method, or GnRH agonists. […] If adenomyosis is causing your pain, NSAIDs, a birth control method, or other medications may be recommended. […] If other treatments do not relieve pain, surgery may be recommended.

• #59 Menstrual cramps – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/menstrual-cramps/symptoms-causes/syc-20374938

  Uterine fibroids. These noncancerous growths in the wall of the uterus can cause pain. […] Adenomyosis. The tissue that lines your uterus begins to grow into the muscular walls of the uterus. […] Pelvic inflammatory disease. This infection of the female reproductive organs is usually caused by sexually transmitted bacteria. […] Cervical stenosis. In some women, the opening of the cervix is small enough to impede menstrual flow, causing a painful increase of pressure within the uterus. […] You might be at risk of menstrual cramps if: You’re younger than age 30. […] You have a family history of menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea). […] Menstrual cramps don’t cause other medical complications, but they can interfere with school, work and social activities. […] Certain conditions associated with menstrual cramps can have complications, though. For example, endometriosis can cause fertility problems. Pelvic inflammatory disease can scar your fallopian tubes, increasing the risk of a fertilized egg implanting outside of your uterus (ectopic pregnancy).

• #60 Menstrual cramps – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/menstrual-cramps/symptoms-causes/syc-20374938

  Uterine fibroids. These noncancerous growths in the wall of the uterus can cause pain. […] Adenomyosis. The tissue that lines your uterus begins to grow into the muscular walls of the uterus. […] Pelvic inflammatory disease. This infection of the female reproductive organs is usually caused by sexually transmitted bacteria. […] Cervical stenosis. In some women, the opening of the cervix is small enough to impede menstrual flow, causing a painful increase of pressure within the uterus. […] You might be at risk of menstrual cramps if: You’re younger than age 30. […] You have a family history of menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea). […] Menstrual cramps don’t cause other medical complications, but they can interfere with school, work and social activities. […] Certain conditions associated with menstrual cramps can have complications, though. For example, endometriosis can cause fertility problems. Pelvic inflammatory disease can scar your fallopian tubes, increasing the risk of a fertilized egg implanting outside of your uterus (ectopic pregnancy).

• #61 Menstrual cramps – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/menstrual-cramps/symptoms-causes/syc-20374938

  Uterine fibroids. These noncancerous growths in the wall of the uterus can cause pain. […] Adenomyosis. The tissue that lines your uterus begins to grow into the muscular walls of the uterus. […] Pelvic inflammatory disease. This infection of the female reproductive organs is usually caused by sexually transmitted bacteria. […] Cervical stenosis. In some women, the opening of the cervix is small enough to impede menstrual flow, causing a painful increase of pressure within the uterus. […] You might be at risk of menstrual cramps if: You’re younger than age 30. […] You have a family history of menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea). […] Menstrual cramps don’t cause other medical complications, but they can interfere with school, work and social activities. […] Certain conditions associated with menstrual cramps can have complications, though. For example, endometriosis can cause fertility problems. Pelvic inflammatory disease can scar your fallopian tubes, increasing the risk of a fertilized egg implanting outside of your uterus (ectopic pregnancy).

• #62 Menstrual cramps – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/menstrual-cramps/symptoms-causes/syc-20374938

  Uterine fibroids. These noncancerous growths in the wall of the uterus can cause pain. […] Adenomyosis. The tissue that lines your uterus begins to grow into the muscular walls of the uterus. […] Pelvic inflammatory disease. This infection of the female reproductive organs is usually caused by sexually transmitted bacteria. […] Cervical stenosis. In some women, the opening of the cervix is small enough to impede menstrual flow, causing a painful increase of pressure within the uterus. […] You might be at risk of menstrual cramps if: You’re younger than age 30. […] You have a family history of menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea). […] Menstrual cramps don’t cause other medical complications, but they can interfere with school, work and social activities. […] Certain conditions associated with menstrual cramps can have complications, though. For example, endometriosis can cause fertility problems. Pelvic inflammatory disease can scar your fallopian tubes, increasing the risk of a fertilized egg implanting outside of your uterus (ectopic pregnancy).

• #63 Severe Menstrual Cramps? Potential Underlying Conditions | UPMC

  https://share.upmc.com/2019/10/causes-of-severe-menstrual-cramps/

  Severe menstrual cramps may be signs of an underlying health problem. […] Copper intrauterine devices (IUDs) can cause severe menstrual cramps in some women. […] This disorder appears during puberty in up to 10 percent of women. That makes it the most common endocrine disorder among reproductive-age females, according to experts at the Center for Fertility and Reproductive Endocrinology at UPMC Magee-Womens Hospital. […] Uterine fibroids are the most diagnosed pelvic tumor in females. […] The most common symptom of PID is lower abdominal cramping and dull, achy discomfort. […] If a heating pad and ibuprofen dont help, you may have an underlying condition. […] Talking to your doctor about menstrual pain is the best way to know if youre living with a treatable underlying medical condition.

• #64 Dysmenorrhea and Endometriosis in the Adolescent | ACOG

  https://www.acog.org/clinical/clinical-guidance/committee-opinion/articles/2018/12/dysmenorrhea-and-endometriosis-in-the-adolescent

  Dysmenorrhea, or menstrual pain, is the most common menstrual symptom among adolescent girls and young women. […] The most common cause of secondary dysmenorrhea is endometriosis. […] Although the true prevalence of endometriosis in adolescents is unknown, at least two thirds of adolescent girls with chronic pelvic pain or dysmenorrhea unresponsive to hormonal therapies and NSAIDs will be diagnosed with endometriosis at the time of diagnostic laparoscopy. […] Endometriosis is the leading cause of secondary dysmenorrhea in adolescents. […] Endometriosis should be considered in patients with persistent, clinically significant dysmenorrhea despite treatment with hormonal agents and NSAIDs, particularly if no other etiology for chronic pelvic pain or secondary dysmenorrhea has been identified based on history, physical examination, and pelvic ultrasonography.

• #65 Dysmenorrhea and Endometriosis in the Adolescent | ACOG

  https://www.acog.org/clinical/clinical-guidance/committee-opinion/articles/2018/12/dysmenorrhea-and-endometriosis-in-the-adolescent

  Dysmenorrhea, or menstrual pain, is the most common menstrual symptom among adolescent girls and young women. […] The most common cause of secondary dysmenorrhea is endometriosis. […] Although the true prevalence of endometriosis in adolescents is unknown, at least two thirds of adolescent girls with chronic pelvic pain or dysmenorrhea unresponsive to hormonal therapies and NSAIDs will be diagnosed with endometriosis at the time of diagnostic laparoscopy. […] Endometriosis is the leading cause of secondary dysmenorrhea in adolescents. […] Endometriosis should be considered in patients with persistent, clinically significant dysmenorrhea despite treatment with hormonal agents and NSAIDs, particularly if no other etiology for chronic pelvic pain or secondary dysmenorrhea has been identified based on history, physical examination, and pelvic ultrasonography.

• #66 Severe Menstrual Cramps? Potential Underlying Conditions | UPMC

  https://share.upmc.com/2019/10/causes-of-severe-menstrual-cramps/

  Severe menstrual cramps may be signs of an underlying health problem. […] Copper intrauterine devices (IUDs) can cause severe menstrual cramps in some women. […] This disorder appears during puberty in up to 10 percent of women. That makes it the most common endocrine disorder among reproductive-age females, according to experts at the Center for Fertility and Reproductive Endocrinology at UPMC Magee-Womens Hospital. […] Uterine fibroids are the most diagnosed pelvic tumor in females. […] The most common symptom of PID is lower abdominal cramping and dull, achy discomfort. […] If a heating pad and ibuprofen dont help, you may have an underlying condition. […] Talking to your doctor about menstrual pain is the best way to know if youre living with a treatable underlying medical condition.

• #67 Dysmenorrhea and Endometriosis in the Adolescent | ACOG

  https://www.acog.org/clinical/clinical-guidance/committee-opinion/articles/2018/12/dysmenorrhea-and-endometriosis-in-the-adolescent

  Endometriosis remains a surgical and pathologic diagnosis in adolescents requiring the presence of endometrial glands and stroma in the biopsy specimen from a location outside of the endometrial cavity. […] The appearance of endometriosis may be different in an adolescent than in an adult woman. In adolescents, endometriotic lesions are typically clear or red and can be difficult to identify for gynecologists unfamiliar with endometriosis in adolescents. […] Endometriosis in adolescents is considered a chronic disease with potential for progression if left untreated. […] The goals of therapy include symptom relief, suppression of disease progression, and protection of future fertility. […] Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs should be the mainstay of pain relief for adolescents with endometriosis.

• #68

  https://journals.lww.com/epidem/fulltext/1993/03000/menstrual_cycle_characteristics_and_the_risk_of.9.aspx

  The present study utilized a case-control design to assess the relation between menstrual cycle factors and risk of endometriosis in women age 1945 years. […] Among women under age 30, using friend controls, we observed elevated risks for severe cramps (OR = 2.5, 95% CI = 1.26.0). […] Using medical controls, we observed elevated risks for severe cramps (OR = 2.3, 95% CI = 1.15.3) among women under age 30. These results support theories that associate endometriosis with increased exposure to menstruation.

• #69 Dysmenorrhea and Endometriosis in the Adolescent | ACOG

  https://www.acog.org/clinical/clinical-guidance/committee-opinion/articles/2018/12/dysmenorrhea-and-endometriosis-in-the-adolescent

  Endometriosis remains a surgical and pathologic diagnosis in adolescents requiring the presence of endometrial glands and stroma in the biopsy specimen from a location outside of the endometrial cavity. […] The appearance of endometriosis may be different in an adolescent than in an adult woman. In adolescents, endometriotic lesions are typically clear or red and can be difficult to identify for gynecologists unfamiliar with endometriosis in adolescents. […] Endometriosis in adolescents is considered a chronic disease with potential for progression if left untreated. […] The goals of therapy include symptom relief, suppression of disease progression, and protection of future fertility. […] Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs should be the mainstay of pain relief for adolescents with endometriosis.

• #70 RETRACTED ARTICLE: A one-year observational cohort study of menstrual cramps and ovulation in healthy, normally ovulating women | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-08658-3

  Menstrual cramps (primary dysmenorrhea) are highly prevalent, affecting over 60% of adult women in Canada and between 17 and 80% of premenopausal women worldwide. […] Despite this, the pathophysiology of dysmenorrhea is not yet completely understood. […] In current literature, it is generally asserted that cramps only occur in ovulatory cycles. […] There remains, however, a lack of primary data that documents both cramps and ovulation in support of this hypothesis. […] Our primary objective was to prospectively investigate the relationship between cramps and ovulation in luteal phase length-documented cycles in women with known variability in ovulatory characteristics. […] We hypothesized that menstrual cramps would be similar in ovulatory and anovulatory cycles. […] These prospective observational data for 13.6 cycles/woman in 53 healthy, regularly cycling and screened-to-be-normally ovulatory women documented cramp characteristics were similar between ovulatory and anovulatory cycles.

• #71 RETRACTED ARTICLE: A one-year observational cohort study of menstrual cramps and ovulation in healthy, normally ovulating women | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-08658-3

  Menstrual cramps (primary dysmenorrhea) are highly prevalent, affecting over 60% of adult women in Canada and between 17 and 80% of premenopausal women worldwide. […] Despite this, the pathophysiology of dysmenorrhea is not yet completely understood. […] In current literature, it is generally asserted that cramps only occur in ovulatory cycles. […] There remains, however, a lack of primary data that documents both cramps and ovulation in support of this hypothesis. […] Our primary objective was to prospectively investigate the relationship between cramps and ovulation in luteal phase length-documented cycles in women with known variability in ovulatory characteristics. […] We hypothesized that menstrual cramps would be similar in ovulatory and anovulatory cycles. […] These prospective observational data for 13.6 cycles/woman in 53 healthy, regularly cycling and screened-to-be-normally ovulatory women documented cramp characteristics were similar between ovulatory and anovulatory cycles.

• #72 RETRACTED ARTICLE: A one-year observational cohort study of menstrual cramps and ovulation in healthy, normally ovulating women | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-08658-3

  In contrast to the current hypothesis that cycles without normal ovulation lack cramps, in within-woman analysis there was no difference in Cramp Scores in SOD cycles compared with normally ovulatory cycles. […] However, the SOD cycles showed significantly higher cramp intensity than normally ovulatory ones. […] Our data documented that cramp prevalence, duration, intensity, and Cramp Score were similar in ovulatory and anovulatory cycles within-woman. […] Our study emphasized that cramps occurred regardless of ovulatory status, but further longitudinal menstrual cycle studies are needed.

• #73 RETRACTED ARTICLE: A one-year observational cohort study of menstrual cramps and ovulation in healthy, normally ovulating women | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-08658-3

  In contrast to the current hypothesis that cycles without normal ovulation lack cramps, in within-woman analysis there was no difference in Cramp Scores in SOD cycles compared with normally ovulatory cycles. […] However, the SOD cycles showed significantly higher cramp intensity than normally ovulatory ones. […] Our data documented that cramp prevalence, duration, intensity, and Cramp Score were similar in ovulatory and anovulatory cycles within-woman. […] Our study emphasized that cramps occurred regardless of ovulatory status, but further longitudinal menstrual cycle studies are needed.

• #74 RoADPain — Nuffield Department of Women’s & Reproductive Health

  https://www.wrh.ox.ac.uk/research/roadpain

  RoADPain is a research project which aims to understand the role of adolescent dysmenorrhea (period pain) as a risk factor for chronic pain. […] We hope this work will reduce the risk of both adolescent girls and adult women suffering with period pain and other chronic pain conditions. […] Aim 2 will involve recruiting new participants to the study. […] A better understanding of the risk factors for developing period pain when periods start will let us identify girls at risk of early-onset period pain, thereby ensuring they are educated and empowered to seek treatment early. […] Any findings about whether or how period pain leads to chronic pain will be developed into novel strategies to prevent chronic pain, including future work with other researchers and drug companies.

• #75 Primary Dysmenorrhea | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/1999/0801/p489.html

  Primary dysmenorrhea is by far the most common gynecologic problem in menstruating women. It is so common that many women fail to report it in medical interviews, even when their daily activities are restricted. Reported prevalence rates are as high as 90 percent. […] The problem of absenteeism from school or work is also underappreciated. In one study of college women, 42 percent of the study subjects reported absenteeism or loss of activity on at least one occasion, although only a small percentage of women missed work or school for a given monthly menstrual cycle. In several longitudinal studies of young women, rates of absenteeism ranged from 34 to 50 percent. […] The study concluded that several risk factors were associated with more severe episodes of dysmenorrhea: earlier age at menarche, long menstrual periods, smoking, obesity and alcohol consumption. Other studies have not found an association with obesity or alcohol, and these issues remain controversial.

• #76 Dysmenorrhea | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2021/0800/p164.html

  Symptoms of secondary dysmenorrhea may start immediately following menarche or may arise later in life. Symptoms more consistent with secondary dysmenorrhea include changes in or progressive worsening of pelvic pain, abnormal uterine bleeding, vaginal discharge, and dyspareunia. […] A substantial delay from symptom onset to diagnosis is common, ranging from 5.4 years in adolescents to 1.9 years in adults. In secondary dysmenorrhea, the time from onset of symptoms to surgically confirmed diagnosis may range from four to 11 years. […] If symptoms persist despite three to six months of empiric treatment or if at any time the symptom pattern suggests a secondary etiology, a more extensive workup should be performed for secondary causes of dysmenorrhea.

• #77 Ending the neglect of menstrual pain in adolescents is the key to improving outcomes for people with persistent pelvic pain | The Medical Journal of Australia

  https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2024/220/9/ending-neglect-menstrual-pain-adolescents-key-improving-outcomes-people

  Although menstruation is a normal physiological event, it causes significant problems for many people. Period pain differs considerably between individuals, and concerns are often dismissed or ignored without acknowledging its impact or the possibility of long term risks. […] It has been reported that 90% of adolescents who menstruate experience period pain, and that for 21% this pain is severe. Their quality of life and participation in school, sport, and social activities are all affected. […] Highlighting the high prevalence of dysmenorrhoea is needed to overcome the stigma attached to female pain, indicated by the many adolescents and young adults who report that their period pain is regarded as normal or dismissed by health care providers. […] Persistent pelvic pain is often neglected as the pain problem without a home.

• #78 Ending the neglect of menstrual pain in adolescents is the key to improving outcomes for people with persistent pelvic pain | The Medical Journal of Australia

  https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2024/220/9/ending-neglect-menstrual-pain-adolescents-key-improving-outcomes-people

  The study by Cameron and colleagues makes clear that period and pelvic pain must be recognised and evidence-based interventions provided to adolescents with persistent dysmenorrhoea if we are to improve their quality of life as adults. Understanding the trajectories of menstrual health throughout life is critical for developing effective public health interventions for optimising women’s health.

• #79 Epidemiology of Dysmenorrhea among University Students in Egypt

  https://www.clinmedjournals.org/articles/ijwhw/international-journal-of-womens-health-and-wellness-ijwhw-4-073.php?jid=ijwhw

  Dysmenorrhea is a public health concern as it carries negative impacts on physical and emotional health, school attendance, and academic achievement. […] In conclusion, occurrence of dysmenorrhea among university students in Beni-Suef was very high. Family and friends were the main sources of knowledge. Further research should focus on investigating the coping strategies of the students to manage their dysmenorrhea and designing educational programs that allow physicians and/or nurses to discuss the menstrual problems with the university students or young females.

• #80 Epidemiology of Dysmenorrhea among University Students in Egypt

  https://www.clinmedjournals.org/articles/ijwhw/international-journal-of-womens-health-and-wellness-ijwhw-4-073.php?jid=ijwhw

  Dysmenorrhea is the most common gynaecological symptom among young women. It results in negative physical and psychological consequences. The aim of this study was to investigate the epidemiology of dysmenorrhea and detect the sources of knowledge about menstrual disorders among female students in Beni-Suef University, Egypt. […] Dysmenorrhea is highly prevalent among university students in Beni-Suef. Further research should focus on the adaptive techniques used by the students to mitigate the negative impacts of dysmenorrhea. […] Understanding the epidemiology of dysmenorrhea among university students in Beni-Suef may help in designing awareness programs tailored to suit the social and cultural criteria of the community and help students get over the negative health consequences of dysmenorrhea.

• #81 Epidemiology of Dysmenorrhea among University Students in Egypt

  https://www.clinmedjournals.org/articles/ijwhw/international-journal-of-womens-health-and-wellness-ijwhw-4-073.php?jid=ijwhw

  Dysmenorrhea is a public health concern as it carries negative impacts on physical and emotional health, school attendance, and academic achievement. […] In conclusion, occurrence of dysmenorrhea among university students in Beni-Suef was very high. Family and friends were the main sources of knowledge. Further research should focus on investigating the coping strategies of the students to manage their dysmenorrhea and designing educational programs that allow physicians and/or nurses to discuss the menstrual problems with the university students or young females.

• #82 Epidemiology of Dysmenorrhea among University Students in Egypt

  https://clinmedjournals.org/articles/ijwhw/international-journal-of-womens-health-and-wellness-ijwhw-4-073.php?jid=ijwhw

  Dysmenorrhea was prevalent in 1773 (92.9%) of study population. […] In conclusion, occurrence of dysmenorrhea among university students in Beni-Suef was very high. Family and friends were the main sources of knowledge. Further research should focus on investigating the coping strategies of the students to manage their dysmenorrhea and designing educational programs that allow physicians and/or nurses to discuss the menstrual problems with the university students or young females.

• #83 The Epidemiology of Menstrual Pain in a South African University Population

  https://wiredspace.wits.ac.za/items/57194d17-7a89-4929-95a6-782bcb7aab86

  Dysmenorrhoea, pain associated with menstruation, is a significant public health concern among young women of reproductive age. […] However, epidemiological data on the prevalence and associated risk factors for dysmenorrhoea in South Africa are scarce. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of dysmenorrhoea and its associated risk factors in a South African university student and staff population. […] I found a high prevalence [76.7% (95% CI, 75.7-77.6)] of moderate-to-severe dysmenorrhoea among the respondents. […] The study highlights the need for increased awareness, education, and effective interventions aimed at reducing the prevalence and impact of dysmenorrhoea on women’s lives. […] The findings have important implications for the management of dysmenorrhoea that can improve women’s quality of life and promote better health outcomes.

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