Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Amnesia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Types

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21455-amnesia

  Amnesia is when you have significant memory loss. There are many possible causes of it. Sometimes its a symptom of other conditions, but it can also happen on its own. It can involve past memories, or you can have trouble making and storing new memories. Treating the underlying cause may reverse it, but some causes are permanent. […] Amnesia is when you have serious memory loss. It can be a symptom of other conditions or happen by itself. […] Amnesia comes from ancient Greek and means, forgetfulness. But its more than that. Forgetfulness is misplacing your keys or not remembering to do something while running errands. Amnesia involves being unable to remember significant events or details from your life. […] There are two main forms of amnesia. Retrograde amnesia is when you cant recall memories from your past. Anterograde amnesia is when you cant form new memories but can still remember things from before you developed this amnesia.

• #2 Amnesia: What It Is, Types, Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://www.metropolisindia.com/blog/preventive-healthcare/a-comprehensive-guide-to-amnesia

  Amnesia is a condition characterised by partial or complete loss of memory, often caused by brain injury, trauma, psychological factors, or neurological disorders. […] Diagnosis of amnesia requires a comprehensive evaluation to differentiate it from other causes of memory loss like Alzheimer’s disease, dementia, depression, or brain tumours. […] Timely diagnosis helps in better and effective amnesia treatment among the patients. […] Diagnostic tests that your healthcare provider may ask you to start the amnesia treatment are: Imaging tests such as MRI and CT scans to assess for brain damage or structural changes. […] While there’s no specific treatment for amnesia itself, addressing the underlying cause can be beneficial. Amnesia treatment options are as follows: Occupational therapy: Assists in learning new information and compensating for lost memories. […] In conclusion, amnesia is a complex condition characterised by memory loss, which can stem from various causes such as brain injury, trauma, or neurological disorders. While there is no cure for amnesia, proper diagnosis and treatment can help manage symptoms and improve quality of life.

• #3 Amnesia – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/amnesia/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20353366

  A comprehensive evaluation is needed to diagnose amnesia. It can rule out other possible causes of memory loss such as Alzheimer’s disease, other forms of dementia, depression or a brain tumor. […] The memory evaluation can help determine the extent of memory loss and provide insights about what kind of help you may need. […] Your health care provider also may order: Imaging tests including an MRI and CT scan to check for brain damage or changes such as shrinkage. […] No medicines are currently available for treating most types of amnesia. […] If Alzheimer’s disease is the cause of the amnesia, treatment with medicines called cholinesterase inhibitors can help with symptoms.

• #4 Amnesia: Types, causes, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/9673

  A doctor will need to rule out other possible types of memory loss, including those caused by dementia, Alzheimers disease, depression, or a brain tumor. […] The memory assessment will help determine the extent of memory loss. This will help find the best treatment. […] In many cases, amnesia resolves without treatment. However, if an underlying physical or mental disorder is present, treatment for that condition may be necessary. […] There are currently no drugs available for restoring memory lost due to amnesia. However, there are treatments for the underlying causes. […] A person should speak with a doctor to determine the reason for their memory loss. The sooner they start treatment, the more successful it is likely to be.

• #5 Azthena logo with the word Azthena

  https://www.news-medical.net/health/Diagnosis-of-amnesia.aspx

  Amnesia, or memory loss, can be transient or chronic (long-term). […] Assessment and diagnosis of amnesic states usually involve a detailed look at medical and mental health history of the patient. […] Amnesia can come in two forms, anterograde or retrograde. […] The most important method of diagnosis includes psychometric tests or cognitive tests. […] There are numerous tools that are can be used to diagnose amnesia. […] In addition to a clinical evaluation of amnesia, metabolic tests and imaging may also be used to diagnose the cause of the amnesia. […] A CT scan or MRI scan of the brain is often prescribed in addition to other tests. […] Other tests for amnesia may also include cerebral angiography, and cardiovascular tests. […] If a brain infection is suspected, in addition to any other brain pathology, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) may be extracted by a lumbar puncture (small needle in the spine), to assess the levels of various compounds circulating in the brain.

• #6 Amnesias – Neurologic Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/neurologic-disorders/function-and-dysfunction-of-the-cerebral-lobes/amnesias

  Amnesia is partial or total inability to recall past experiences or inability to store new memories after the causative event. […] Diagnosis is clinical but often includes neuropsychologic testing and brain imaging (eg, CT, MRI). […] Amnesia can be classified as follows: Retrograde: Amnesia for events before the causative event […] Anterograde: Inability to store new memories after the causative event. […] Diagnosis of Amnesias: Bedside neurologic testing […] Neuropsychologic testing. […] Diagnose amnesia clinically using bedside tests (eg, 3-item recall) or formal tests (eg, word list learning tests). […] Treat the cause of amnesia.

• #7 Anterograde amnesia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anterograde_amnesia

  In neurology, anterograde amnesia is the inability to create new memories after an event that caused amnesia, leading to a partial or complete inability to recall the recent past, while long-term memories from before the event remain intact. […] This is in contrast to retrograde amnesia, where memories created prior to the event are lost while new memories can still be created. […] To a large degree, anterograde amnesia remains a mysterious ailment because the precise mechanism of storing memories is not yet well understood, although it is known that the regions of the brain involved are certain sites in the temporal cortex, especially in the hippocampus and nearby subcortical regions. […] People with anterograde amnesic syndromes may present widely varying degrees of forgetfulness. […] In most cases of anterograde amnesia, patients lose declarative memory, or the recollection of facts, but they retain nondeclarative memory, often called procedural memory.

• #8 Transient Global Amnesia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK442001/

  Transient global amnesia is a sudden onset of anterograde amnesia accompanied by a temporary period of retrograde amnesia, primarily affecting middle-aged and older individuals. […] Diagnosis of transient global amnesia is primarily clinical, and neither advanced imaging nor treatment is required. […] The diagnosis of transient global amnesia is mainly clinical. […] The clinical picture is limited to combined retrograde and anterograde amnesia, with the patient repeatedly asking the same question during the episode. […] The diagnosis of transient global amnesia is primarily clinical, based on a detailed history and a thorough neurological examination during the acute stage. […] Clinical features making transient global amnesia unlikely include evidence of toxic or metabolic disturbances, a history of trauma or epilepsy, impaired awareness or consciousness, and focal neurological signs.

• #9 Transient global amnesia – Diagnosis & treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/transient-global-amnesia/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20378535

  To diagnose transient global amnesia, your health care provider must first rule out more-serious conditions. This can include stroke, seizure or head injury, for example. These conditions can cause the same type of memory loss. […] The next step is testing to look for abnormalities in the brain’s electrical activity and blood flow. Your health care provider might order one or a combination of these tests: […] An electroencephalogram (EEG) records the brain’s electrical activity via electrodes attached to the scalp. People with epilepsy often have changes in their brain waves, even when they’re not having a seizure. This test is usually ordered if you’ve had more than one episode of transient global amnesia or if your doctor suspects that you’re having seizures. […] No treatment is needed for transient global amnesia. It gets better without treatment and has no known lasting effects.

• #10 Dissociative Amnesia: What It Is, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9789-dissociative-amnesia

  Dissociative amnesia is when you cant remember important information about yourself. These memories are often distressing or upsetting events. Its most likely to happen with severe or long-term trauma, especially experiencing abuse, neglect or violence of any kind. This condition is treatable, and most people can regain their memories. […] Dissociative amnesia is when your mind blocks out important information about yourself, causing gaps in your memory. One of the most common reasons your mind blocks out things is to protect you from unpleasant, distressing or traumatic experiences. Its not the same as simply forgetting something. In most cases, you still have the memories but cant access them. […] Dissociative amnesia often happens because of very traumatic experiences, including abuse, war and natural disasters. People with dissociative amnesia have an increased risk of self-harm or suicidal behaviors.

• #11 Dissociative Amnesia: What It Is, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9789-dissociative-amnesia

  Dissociative amnesia is when dissociation causes memory loss (amnesia). […] There are two main ways that dissociative amnesia can work: Retrograde: This is when dissociative amnesia affects finding old memories. Anterograde: This is when dissociative amnesia blocks the formation or storage of new memories. […] Dissociative amnesia is uncommon, but experts also arent sure how uncommon it really is. Estimates range from as low as 0.2% to as high as 7.3%. The American Psychiatric Association estimates about 1.8% of people experience it each year worldwide. […] The main symptom of dissociative amnesia is memory loss. That memory loss can take different forms. […] People with dissociative amnesia may also have certain behaviors or traits related to memory loss. […] Dissociative amnesia can happen in connection with one-time, isolated events or long-term stress or trauma.

• #12 Amnesia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Types

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21455-amnesia

  Amnesia is uncommon on its own. But its a very common symptom of certain conditions. These conditions usually involve brain damage or activity disruptions. An example is Alzheimers disease, a major cause of amnesia. About 24 million people worldwide have Alzheimers, which accounts for millions of people with amnesia. And there are dozens of other possible causes. […] Amnesia can happen for many reasons. The causes fall broadly into two main categories: neurological causes and psychological causes. […] Neurological causes of amnesia all involve damage to your brain or disruptions in brain activity. […] Memory loss can also happen in connection with mental health issues. Examples include dissociative disorders, especially dissociative amnesia, and post-traumatic stress disorder (especially complex PTSD).

• #13 Amnesia Types: Identifying Causes, Treatment

  https://www.verywellhealth.com/amnesia-types-5203061

  There are many causes of amnesia, but most fall into two categories: neurological and functional. […] The type of amnesia a person has will determine the kind of care they will receive. […] Amnesia is a memory disorder that can affect the ability to recall old memories (retrograde amnesia) and the ability to form new memories (anterograde amnesia). Several factors can contribute to this memory loss, such as physical injury, infection, or emotional trauma. In some cases, the memory loss is temporary, and the person eventually recalls the information they lost. But in other cases, the memory loss is permanent. […] The most common cause of functional amnesia is emotional trauma. People with amnesia caused by emotional trauma might work with a therapist to talk about the trauma and help them process their experience. […] Amnesia affects brain structures that control emotions and memories and often include the thalamus and the hippocampus.

• #14 Anterograde amnesia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anterograde_amnesia

  One extensively studied anterograde amnesiac patient, codenamed H.M., demonstrated that despite his amnesia preventing him from learning new declarative information, procedural memory consolidation was still possible, albeit severely reduced in power. […] Patients with anterograde amnesia may have episodic, semantic, or both types of explicit memory impaired for events after the trauma that caused the amnesia. […] Anterograde amnesia can be the first clinical sign that Alzheimer’s disease is developing within the brain. […] Anterograde amnesia can also be caused by alcohol intoxication, a phenomenon commonly known as a blackout. […] The pathophysiology of anterograde amnesic syndromes varies with the extent of damage and the regions of the brain that were damaged. […] The MTL memory system includes the hippocampal formation, perirhinal, entorhinal, and parahippocampal cortices.

• #15 Amnesia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Types

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21455-amnesia

  A healthcare provider can usually diagnose amnesia by talking to you and asking questions about yourself, your life, current events and your symptoms. […] Theres no direct treatment or medication that can cure amnesia. When it happens because of a treatable condition, treating that condition is the best way to reverse it. […] If you have amnesia, you may not be aware of it immediately. Most people who have it feel disoriented early on. […] When amnesia affects how you form or store memories (anterograde amnesia), that kind of memory loss is permanent. Amnesia that affects how you retrieve memories (retrograde amnesia) may improve over time, depending on what caused it in the first place. […] People with amnesia can often compensate for their memory loss in multiple ways. Some use lists and notes to compensate or use smartphone apps or other forms of technology.

• #16 Amnesia: Types, Causes, Treatment, and More

  https://www.webmd.com/brain/what-to-know-about-amnesia

  Amnesia is the loss of memories. These may be memories of events and experiences that happened in the past few seconds, in the past few days, or in the distant past. You may also be unable to recall new things after the event that caused your amnesia. Amnesia can be short or long-lasting, depending on the cause. […] Diagnosis of Amnesia […] Your doctor will take a detailed medical history and ask questions to understand your memory loss. A family member, friend, or caretaker may take part in the interview as well. […] Your doctor may do a physical exam and check your thinking skills and memory with some simple tests. This may include checking your recall of some current events, past events, and personal details. […] Your doctor may also order some tests. These include: MRIs or CT scans to check for brain damage, Electroencephalogram (EEG) to check for seizures, Spinal tap to check for brain infections, Blood tests for thyroid hormones, vitamin and mineral levels, and signs of infection.

• #17 Diagnosing Memory Loss | NYU Langone Health

  https://nyulangone.org/conditions/memory-loss/diagnosis

  Having mild cognitive impairment increases a person’s risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease or other forms of dementia, such as Lewy body dementia. […] Unlike these conditions, however, memory loss doesn’t always get worse and rarely, it may eventually get better. […] To make a diagnosis, NYU Langone doctors obtain a complete picture of your health by asking about symptoms, performing a physical exam, asking about your medical and family histories, and talking with family members or friends. […] Doctors may also use other tools and tests as part of a diagnostic evaluation. […] In a neurological evaluation, doctors assess a person’s speech, vision and other senses, spatial skills, and reflexes. […] The doctor also checks cognitive skills such as memory, ability to concentrate, and sense of time and place by asking simple questions or talking with a family member or caregiver about how the person’s changing abilities affect everyday life.

• #18 AMNESIA: SYMPTOMS, CAUSES, DIAGNOSIS, TREATMENT & PREVENTION

  https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/amnesia-symptoms-causes-diagnosis-treatment-md-shawkat-alam-faisal

  Amnesia can be diagnosed by a doctor or a neurologist. They will start by asking questions about memory loss, as well as other symptoms one might have. They may request a family member or a friend to help with the evaluation, since the patient may not be able to remember the answers to their questions. Doctors may also use cognitive tests. They may also order other diagnostic tests. They can use an MRI or CT scan to check for signs of brain damage. They can use blood tests to check for nutritional deficiencies, infections, or other issues. They can also perform tests to check for seizures. […] To treat amnesia, the doctors will focus on the underlying cause of your condition.

• #19 Transient Global Amnesia | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2022/0100/p50.html

  Transient global amnesia (TGA) is a clinical syndrome characterized by anterograde amnesia, mild retrograde amnesia, and confusion up to 24 hours. […] The diagnosis is primarily clinical, but recent studies suggest that magnetic resonance imaging may be helpful. […] Research suggests that the diagnosis is missed 90% of the time at initial presentation, often resulting in extensive and perhaps unnecessary evaluations. […] TGA should be considered in a patient with less than six hours of amnesia, no focal neurologic findings, and diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging with hippocampal bright lesions. […] If the diagnosis of TGA is certain, only supportive treatment is indicated. […] Although TGA is diagnosed clinically, a thorough history and physical examination must be completed, and a complete blood count with differential and a complete metabolic panel, including liver function tests, C-reactive protein, ammonia level, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, urine toxicology, serum ethanol level, and thyroid-stimulating hormone, should be considered to exclude other etiologies.

• #20 Diagnosing Memory Loss | NYU Langone Health

  https://nyulangone.org/conditions/memory-loss/diagnosis

  Our physicians may perform a neuropsychological evaluation to assess memory, concentration, and orientation in regards to time, place, and people. […] Psychometric tests measure the accuracy, speed, and quality of mental processes such as decision making, paying attention, using language, planning, organizing, remembering details, and problem solving. […] An MRI scan is a noninvasive medical test that helps physicians diagnose and treat medical conditions. […] Doctors may order an MRI scan of the head to rule out other conditions that can cause memory loss, such as tumors or infections. […] This information helps in determining how well the brain is working and whether memory loss is due to mild cognitive impairment or a type of dementia, such as Alzheimer’s disease. […] NYU Langone doctors use the results of these diagnostic tests to design a treatment plan for a person experiencing memory loss.

• #21 Amnesia | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/amnesia

  Amnesia is a general term describing memory loss. […] Symptoms include memory loss, confusion and the inability to recognise familiar faces or places. […] Diagnosis of amnesia involves a range of tests, including: medical history, general examination, tests for short and long term memory recall, other tests related to thought processing, head x-ray, blood tests, computed tomography (CT) scan, cerebral angiography (scans taken after a special dye is injected).

• #22 Determining a Diagnosis | Memory and Aging Center

  https://memory.ucsf.edu/diagnosis

  After the evaluation, the medical team involved with each patient meets to discuss the diagnosis and potential treatments. After this meeting, the team discusses its findings with the patient and the family. In some cases, a diagnosis will be deferred until more information from blood tests or brain imaging is collected. […] Neuropsychological testing adds to the clinical assessment of a person. These tests evaluate behavior, language, visuospatial abilities, memory, abstraction, planning and mental control, motor skills, and intelligence. The patterns of strengths and weaknesses in a person help identify which areas of the brain are functioning well and which ones are doing poorly. […] Certain blood tests can help evaluate for treatable conditions that may be contributing to changes in thinking or memory.

• #23 Transient Global Amnesia – Brain, Spinal Cord, and Nerve Disorders – MSD Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/home/brain-spinal-cord-and-nerve-disorders/brain-dysfunction/transient-global-amnesia

  Transient global amnesia is a sudden, temporary loss of memory for events before, during, and after the event that caused the amnesia. […] Doctors diagnose this amnesia based mainly on symptoms and certain magnetic resonance imaging findings. […] Memory loss usually lasts 1 to 8 hours but may last 30 minutes up to 24 hours (rarely). […] Doctors usually diagnose transient global amnesia based mainly on symptoms. […] When transient global amnesia first occurs, MRI does not show specific abnormalities. However, after a few days, MRI may show tiny dots in an area of the brain that is important in forming and retrieving memories (the hippocampus). […] There is no specific treatment for transient global amnesia. It has no lasting effects and only rarely recurs.

• #24 Guideline “Transient Global Amnesia (TGA)” of the German Society of Neurology (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Neurologie): S1-guideline | Neurological Research and Practice | Full Text

  https://neurolrespract.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s42466-023-00240-0

  The cause of TGA is still unknown. Numerous findings in recent years point to a multifactorial genesis. Because the pathomechanism of TGA is not yet clearly known, no evidence-based therapeutic or prophylactic recommendations can be made. […] There is no evidence for chronic sequelae of TGA with respect to cerebral ischemia, chronic memory impairment, or the onset of dementia-related syndromes. […] The diagnosis of TGA is based on the patients history and that of others, as well as on clinical neurological and orienting neuropsychological examination, in particular the exclusion of possible differential diagnoses. The diagnosis usually can be established in the acute stage based on the criteria of Caplan and Hodges and Warlow. […] The diagnosis of TGA should be made clinically. In case of an atypical clinical presentation or suspicion of a possible differential diagnosis, further diagnostics (imaging, preferably MRI, if necessary, EEG, laboratory, or CSF diagnostics) should be performed immediately.

• #25 Medical Tests for Diagnosing Alzheimer’s & Dementia | alz.org

  https://www.alz.org/alzheimers-dementia/diagnosis/medical_tests

  There is no single test that can determine if a person is living with Alzheimers or another dementia. Physicians use diagnostic tools combined with medical history and other information, including neurological exams, cognitive and functional assessments, brain imaging (MRI, CT, PET) and cerebrospinal fluid or blood tests to make an accurate diagnosis. […] Brain imaging like these scans can help diagnose dementias. A standard medical workup for Alzheimer’s disease often includes structural imaging with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or computed tomography (CT). These tests are primarily used to rule out other conditions that may cause symptoms similar to Alzheimer’s but require different treatment. […] CSF tests are currently used by dementia specialists to aid in the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s, and research continues to develop and standardize new markers that will aid in diagnosis and detection of other dementias. […] Researchers are investigating whether consistent and measurable changes in blood levels of specific markers may be reliably associated with Alzheimers related changes.

• #26 Determining a Diagnosis | Memory and Aging Center

  https://memory.ucsf.edu/diagnosis

  One of the most useful tests in the evaluation of dementia is magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). […] A computed tomography (CT) scan is similar to the MRI but does not image brain structure with the fine precision of MR. […] A SPECT scan shows how blood flows through arteries in the brain. […] Functional MRI (fMRI) is a special type of scan done in an MRI scanner. […] A doctor collects cerebrospinal fluid (CSF the watery liquid that surrounds your brain and spinal cord) by doing a lumbar puncture (spinal tap) in which a very thin needle is gently inserted into your lower back between two vertebrae, the bony structures that make up your spine. […] Once the CSF has been collected, many different tests may be ordered to either rule out or investigate the possibility of various conditions.

• #27 Transient epileptic amnesia versus transient global amnesia: aspects of differential diagnosis | Lipatova | Epilepsy and paroxysmal conditions

  https://www.epilepsia.su/jour/article/view/1044?locale=en_US

  Functional brain imaging techniques, particularly positron emission tomography with 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (18F-FDG PET), can be a useful addition to brain MRI for differential diagnosis of TEA and neurodegenerative diseases or comorbidity detection. […] TEA is characterized by recurrent episodes, combination with other epilepsy manifestations, and comorbidity with neurodegenerative diseases (dementia). […] Neuroimaging techniques (brain MRI, PET), psychological testing, and biochemical studies of neurodegeneration markers are important to use for the differential diagnosis between TEA and TGA. […] Thus, TGA and TEA are rare phenomena in clinical practice manifested as transient cognitive amnesia disorders. Despite the common clinical signs, such conditions are pathogenetically heterogeneous, differ in prognosis and require distinct therapeutic approaches.

• #28 Transient epileptic amnesia versus transient global amnesia: aspects of differential diagnosis | Lipatova | Epilepsy and paroxysmal conditions

  https://www.epilepsia.su/jour/article/view/1044?locale=en_US

  TEA is a manifestation of late-onset epilepsy, which is characterized by attacks of transient amnesia and inter-onset cognitive impairment, which can be a sign of neurodegenerative diseases such as dementia. […] The term transient epileptic amnesia was introduced in 1990 to emphasize the existence of a special form of epilepsy that causes transient amnesic seizures superficially resembling TGA attacks. […] EEG is the most important TEA diagnostic tool. […] Long-term EEG recording, including sufficient sleep recording, can be crucial both for diagnosing TEA, especially when short-term EEG studies are uninformative, and for verifying uncontrolled subclinical seizures with cognitive and behavioral disorders in case of ineffective prescribed antiepileptic therapy. […] Neuroimaging studies, mainly brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), can verify the etiology and topography of brain changes in TGA patients.

• #29 Laboratory Tests for Dementia | Stanford Health Care

  https://stanfordhealthcare.org/medical-conditions/brain-and-nerves/dementia/diagnosis/laboratory-tests.html

  Doctors may use a variety of laboratory tests to help diagnose dementia and/or rule out other conditions, such as vitamin deficiency or hormone balance, that can contribute to symptoms. A partial list of these tests includes a complete blood count, blood glucose test, urinalysis, drug and alcohol tests (toxicology screen), cerebrospinal fluid analysis (to rule out specific infections that can affect the brain), and analysis of thyroid and thyroid-stimulating hormone levels. A doctor will order only the tests that he or she feels are necessary and/or likely to improve the accuracy of a diagnosis. […] A partial list of these tests includes B12 level and analysis of thyroid and thyroid-stimulating hormone levels. Blood counts, tests for kidney, liver, or blood glucose problems, drug and alcohol tests (toxicology screen), tests for certain infections known to cause dementia, such as HIV and syphilis, and other tests may be ordered as appropriate for a patient’s specific situation. Sometimes, a lumbar puncture (spinal tap) may be performed to obtain cerebrospinal fluid, which is then analyzed for evidence of Alzheimer’s disease proteins or of certain infections, inflammatory conditions, or other diseases that may cause dementia. A doctor will order only the tests that he or she feels are necessary and/or likely to improve the accuracy of a diagnosis.

• #30 Determining a Diagnosis | Memory and Aging Center

  https://memory.ucsf.edu/diagnosis

  In all cases of rapidly progressive dementia, a CSF examination should be performed. […] Lumbar punctures are also vital to our research efforts at the Memory and Aging Center. […] Research from our team and many others have found that changes in CSF predict future risk for cognitive decline and dementia. […] We now have reliable markers for early detection of Alzheimers disease in the clinic and many more markers in exploratory stages to help us better understand how the brain ages and how neurodegenerative disease unfolds in humans. […] The risk of infection from a lumbar puncture is very low, even less than from a standard blood draw. […] The most common side effect after the procedure is a minor headache within the first 24 hours.

• #31 Evaluation of memory deficit – Differential diagnosis of symptoms | BMJ Best Practice US

  https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/710

  Memory is the tie that binds together thoughts, impressions, and experiences. Memory function is dependent on several mental or cognitive abilities using several brain systems. Many disease processes can lead to compromise of these systems. […] When evaluating a patient with a concern of memory loss, the following questions should be considered: Does the patient truly have memory loss or is there another cognitive problem causing the memory disorder? […] What etiologies could be responsible for the memory disorder? […] Memory dysfunction can affect episodic, working, semantic, or procedural memory. It may result from lesions in the hippocampus, limbic circuits, prefrontal cortex, angular gyrus, temporal lobes, cerebellum, basal ganglia, or supplementary motor area. […] Neurodegenerative, neurologic, inflammatory, infectious, traumatic, endocrine, vascular, neoplastic, and metabolic conditions may all cause memory loss.

• #32 Amnesia differential diagnosis – wikidoc

  https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Amnesia_differential_diagnosis

  The underlying etiology of memory loss must be differentiated on the basis of duration of memory loss, presence of anterograde amnesia or retrograde amnesia, associated features, and cognitive impairment. […] Amnesia is anterograde from the time the drug was introduced and patient has impairment in forming new memories. It is reversible upon discontinuation of the drug.

• #33 How is Alzheimer’s Diagnosed? | Alzheimer’s Association

  https://www.alz.org/alzheimers-dementia/diagnosis

  To diagnose Alzheimers, physicians may use medical history, mental status tests, physical and neurological exams, diagnostic tests and brain imaging. […] Testing for Alzheimers or other dementias entails diagnostic, cognitive or blood tests, MRI, CT or PET brain imaging, neurological exams or other assessments.

• #34 Amnesia: Symptoms, Types, Causes, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/neurological-health/amnesia

  Amnesia refers to memory loss. There are many types of amnesia, each with different causes. While some types of amnesia are temporary, others can be permanent. […] Amnesia is a form of memory loss. […] Mild memory loss is a normal part of aging. Significant memory loss or the inability to form new memories may indicate the presence of an amnestic disorder. […] Amnesia can be diagnosed by a doctor or neurologist. They’ll start by asking questions about your memory loss as well as other symptoms you may have. […] To treat amnesia, your doctor will focus on the underlying cause of your condition. […] Amnesia from dementia is often incurable. However, your doctor may prescribe medications to support learning and memory, such as donepezil (Aricept), galantamine (Razadyne ER), or rivastigmine (Exelon). […] Although amnesia can be permanent in rare cases, it usually resolves on its own. Living with amnesia and performing day-to-day activities may be challenging, and you may need to rely on help from others. A healthy lifestyle may help lower your risk of amnesia.

• #35 Diagnosing Memory Loss | NYU Langone Health

  https://nyulangone.org/conditions/memory-loss/diagnosis

  Changes in the way the brain functions, such as processing information more slowly or showing occasional forgetfulness, are a normal part of the aging process. […] This condition is known as mild cognitive impairment (MCI), also simply called memory loss. […] People with mild cognitive impairment may notice that their minds aren’t as sharp as they used to be, and family and friends may see a change as well. […] However, people with MCI do not meet the diagnostic criteria for dementia, which means symptoms are not severe enough to limit their ability to engage in usual activities. […] Mild cognitive impairment is categorized by doctors as amnestic or nonamnestic. […] Amnestic mild cognitive impairment primarily affects memory. […] Nonamnestic mild cognitive impairment affects thought processes.

• #36 Transient Global Amnesia (TGA) | Cedars-Sinai

  https://www.cedars-sinai.org/health-library/diseases-and-conditions/t/transient-global-amnesia-tga.html

  Transient global amnesia (TGA) is a sudden, temporary interruption of short-term memory. […] TGA is diagnosed by eliminating other conditions, such as transient ischemic attack (TIA) or epilepsy. […] These tests may include: Neurological exam, Blood tests, Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), Computed tomography (CT) scan, Electroencephalogram (EEG), Psychiatric evaluation.

• #37 Transient Global Amnesia – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK442001/

  Further evaluation is generally unnecessary when a patient presents to the emergency department with typical clinical features of transient global amnesia. […] Treatment for transient global amnesia primarily involves supportive care and reassurance, as no specific therapy is required or available. […] The differential diagnosis includes acute ischemic stroke involving the hippocampus and transient epileptic amnesia if symptoms recur frequently. […] Most cases of transient global amnesia occur as isolated events with favorable outcomes and negligible morbidity or mortality reported. […] Complications directly attributable to transient global amnesia are rare, given its typically benign and self-limiting nature. […] The healthcare team must educate caregivers and patients about the benign nature of the disorder.

• #38

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11940-023-00759-2

  This review discusses a condition known as Transient Global Amnesia (TGA). We discuss the most up-to-date theories related to etiology and risk factors, as well as its correlations to other conditions such as Takotsubo cardiomyopathy and reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome (RCVS). […] Although TGA is thought to be a seemingly benign condition, it can mimic other neurological emergencies such as stroke and seizure. A more thorough understanding of TGA is necessary for appropriate patient counseling. […] The etiology of TGA is still unclear but initial diagnosis and management should focus on ruling out conditions, such as seizure and stroke, that require more urgent treatment and monitoring. Overall prognosis of TGA is favorable since it is associated with high likelihood of symptom resolution and a low recurrence risk.

• #39 Transient epileptic amnesia | MedLink Neurology

  https://www.medlink.com/articles/transient-epileptic-amnesia

  Transient epileptic amnesia has been considered a syndrome of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy characterized by (1) recurrent episodes of isolated memory impairment of epileptic cause (ictal or postictal) while other cognitive functions remain intact; (2) interictal memory disturbances of accelerated long-term forgetting and autobiographical and topographical amnesia; and (3) late age of onset with a mean of 57 years. […] The duration of episodes of amnesia is usually less than an hour with usual recurrence of around 20 times each year in untreated patients. […] In most cases of transient epileptic amnesia, no clear cause for the epilepsy is identified though MRI may show hippocampal atrophy or focal structural lesions in the temporal lobes. […] Transient epileptic amnesia is considered rare though it is frequently underdiagnosed or misdiagnosed as transient global or psychogenic amnesia.

• #40 Transient Global Amnesia in the ED: Diagnosis and Treatment

  https://www.ebmedicine.net/topics/neurologic/transient-global-amnesia

  Transient global amnesia is a clinically distinct syndrome characterized by the acute inability to form new memories. It can last up to 24 hours. The diagnosis is dependent on eliminating other more serious etiologies including toxic ingestions, acute strokes, complex partial seizures, and central nervous system infections. […] In witnessed transient global amnesia with classic features, a minimalist approach is reasonable, avoiding overtesting, inappropriate medication, and medical interventions in favor of observation, ensuring patient safety, and reassuring patients and their families. […] The definitive diagnosis of TGA cannot be made until symptoms have resolved. Failure of symptom resolution and other worrisome signs and symptoms excludes the diagnosis. […] In uncomplicated cases (ie, in which TGA is not coincidentally presenting with another unrelated process), TGA patients maintain hemodynamic stability and are otherwise cognitively intact, retaining the ability to perform complex tasks.

• #41 Dissociative Amnesia DSM-5 300.12 (F44.0)

  https://www.theravive.com/therapedia/dissociative-amnesia-dsm–5-300.12-(f44.0)

  DA is often comorbid with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). […] Dissociative fugue, formerly a separate disorder, is a subtype of amnesia under DSM-V. […] DA can have adverse effects on a career. […] Families, friends and professional peers can play an important role in the recovery of lost memories. […] An objective of dissociative disorder (DD) treatment is to reintegrate the dissociated selves. […] A multicomponent treatment may be pursued. The main treatment approaches involve psychotherapy, including dream analysis, to retrieve the hidden memories, and memory training. […] Hypnotism is an increasingly explored treatment but also a controversial one. […] The media and mental health field are fascinated by cases of dissociative fugue, a rare condition that is no longer classified as a disorder but a subtype of DA under DSM-V.

• #42

• #43 Memory loss but not dementia: functional cognitive disorder (FCD) | Alzheimer’s Society

  https://www.alzheimers.org.uk/blog/functional-cognitive-disorder-fcd

  Functional cognitive disorder (FCD) is an under-recognised condition that is different from dementia. […] It causes problems with memory or concentration but, unlike dementia, these symptoms aren’t the result of physical damage to the brain or disease. […] A person with FCD is likely to frequently misplace items, lose track of what they are doing or saying, or not be able to follow the thread of a conversation. […] Some people with FCD become very worried that they have dementia. […] People with FCD often have a history of long-term mental and physical ill health, such as anxiety, depression, chronic pain or fatigue. […] In general, the longer they stay the same without getting worse, the greater the chances that a person doesn’t have dementia. […] Just knowing the real cause of their problems can help a person with FCD to start to feel better.

• #44 Differential Diagnosis of Anterograde Amnesia From Bilateral Hippocampal Ischemia Due to Opiate Intoxication

  https://www.psychiatrist.com/pcc/differential-diagnosis-of-anterograde-amnesia-from-bilateral-hippocampal-ischemia-due-to-opiate-intoxication/

  Acute, complete, and bilateral ischemia of the hippocampus is a rare cause of anterograde amnesia (AA). […] The ultimate determination of OAAS as its etiology. […] We recommend that substance use/disorder (especially opiates and cocaine) be assessed and the diagnosis of OAAS be strongly considered in relatively young patients who present with acute-onset AA associated with bilateral complete hippocampal lesions and no other identifiable etiology.

• #45 Retrograde Amnesia: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

  https://www.healthline.com/health/retrograde-amnesia

  Amnesia is a type of memory loss that affects your ability to make, store, and retrieve memories. Retrograde amnesia affects memories that were formed before the onset of amnesia. Someone who develops retrograde amnesia after a traumatic brain injury may be unable to remember what happened in the years, or even decades, prior to that injury. […] Retrograde amnesia can result from damage to different parts of the brain responsible for controlling emotions and memories. These include the thalamus, which is deep in the center of the brain, and the hippocampus, which is in the temporal lobe. […] To diagnose retrograde amnesia, your doctor will need to perform a full medical exam to look for all the possible causes of memory loss. […] There are no specific medications used to treat retrograde amnesia. Generally, your treatment will focus on the underlying cause of the amnesia. […] Depending on the cause, retrograde amnesia might get better, worse, or remain fixed throughout life.

• #46 Transient global amnesia – WikEM

  https://wikem.org/wiki/Transient_global_amnesia

  Paroxysmal, transient anterograde amnesia lasting several hours. […] Most common in female 40-60yo. […] Anterograde amnesia. […] Unaware of their memory loss. […] Normal attention and social skills. […] Struggle with delayed recall. […] Periods of time typically less than 24 hrs, but typically lasts 4-6 hrs. […] No localizing symptoms. […] Attack must be witnessed. […] Acute onset of anterograde amnesia. […] No alteration in consciousness. […] No cognitive impairment other than amnesia. […] No loss of personal identity. […] No focal neurology or epileptic features. […] No head trauma attributing amnesia to a concussion. […] Must resolve within 24 hours. […] No other causes of amnesia. […] Once diagnosed, no specific treatment needed. […] Full recovery with amnesia of event. […] Annual recurrence rate was 4.7%.

• #47 Dissociative Amnesia – Psychiatric Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric-disorders/dissociative-disorders/dissociative-amnesia

  Dissociative amnesia is a type of dissociative disorder that involves inability to recall important personal information that would not typically be lost with ordinary forgetting. […] Diagnosis is based on history after ruling out other causes of amnesia. […] Diagnosis of dissociative amnesia is clinical, based on presence of the following criteria in the DSM-5-TR: Patients cannot recall important personal information (usually trauma- or stress-related) that would not typically be lost with ordinary forgetting. […] Symptoms cause significant distress or significantly impair social or occupational functioning. […] Diagnosis requires a medical and psychiatric examination to rule out other possible causes. […] Psychologic testing can help better characterize the nature of the dissociative experiences.

• #48 Dissociative Amnesia – PsychDB

  https://www.psychdb.com/dissociative-disorders/amnesia

  Dissociative amnesia is a disorder characterized by an inability to recall important autobiographical information that is successfully stored in memory and ordinarily would be readily remembered. […] Dissociative amnesia most often consists of localized or selective amnesia for a specific event or events; or generalized amnesia for identity and life history. […] The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning. […] The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance (e.g., alcohol or other drug of abuse, a medication) or a neurological or other medical condition (e.g., partial complex seizures, transient global amnesia, sequelae of a closed head injury/traumatic brain injury, other neurological condition). […] The disturbance is not better explained by dissociative identity disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, acute stress disorder, somatic symptom disorder, or major or mild neurocognitive disorder.

• #49 Dissociative Amnesia & Fugue – memory loss caused by trauma or stress

  http://traumadissociation.com/dissociativeamnesia

  Clinical interviews to diagnose Dissociative Amnesia include the SCID-D (revised) by Dr Marlene Steinberg, and the Dissociative Disorders Interview Schedule (DDIS). […] The three common types of dissociative amnesia are localized amnesia, selective amnesia (which may occur along with localized amnesia), and generalized amnesia. […] The newly released guide to diagnosing mental disorders is the DSM-5, released in 2013. […] Dissociative amnesia is characterized by an inability to recall important autobiographical memories, where recall would be expected and is inconsistent with ordinary forgetting. […] The symptoms are sufficiently severe to cause significant distress or impairment in personal, family, social, educational, occupational or other important areas of functioning. […] Most cases of Dissociative Amnesia last less than a week.

• #50 Recurrent transient amnesia: a case of transient epileptic amnesia misdiagnosed as transient global amnesia

  https://www.e-acn.org/journal/view.php?number=647

  Transient epileptic amnesia and transient global amnesia both exhibit temporary memory loss. The lack of clues of epileptic events and the absence of epileptiform abnormalities in electroencephalography, a clear brain lesion, and interictal cognitive decline can make diagnoses challenging. […] Transient epileptic amnesia (TEA) is a rare form of temporal lobe epilepsy that is characterized by recurrent observable episodes of transient amnesia that spare cognitive functions other than memory and are corroborated by epileptiform abnormalities in electroencephalography (EEG), clinical manifestations of epilepsy, or a good response to antiseizure therapy. […] The diagnosis of TEA is often delayed from several months to more than 10 years after the onset of symptoms. […] TEA is a type of late-onset temporal lobe epilepsy that is characterized by short episodes of memory loss for up to 1 hour, frequent occurrence, and interictal subjective cognitive decline.

• #51 Dissociative Amnesia Statistics, Facts, Prevalence, Diagnosis and Treatment

  https://www.therecoveryvillage.com/mental-health/dissociative-amnesia/dissociative-amnesia-statistics/

  The diagnostic criteria for dissociative amnesia is defined by: One or more periods where an individual cannot recall memories or information about themselves. These periods are usually related to extreme stress or trauma, and cannot be explained by typical forgetfulness or memory loss. […] This condition does not occur as a symptom of other dissociative disorders. […] This disorder does not occur as a result of substance use, bodily injury or neurological conditions. […] Individuals can no longer function normally as a result of this condition. […] Dissociative amnesia can be diagnosed as a singular condition. More commonly, it co-occurs with similar conditions involving response to trauma, such as anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or substance use. […] Diagnosis of dissociative amnesia is particularly important in the criminal justice system. Attorneys for a defendant may claim the individual committed a crime while in an amnestic state.

• #52 Amnesia Diagnosis Requires Later Analysis of Memory

  https://braininjuryhelp.com/amnesia-diagnosis-needs-full-inquiry/

  Amnesia Diagnosis Requires Later Analysis of Memory […] To make an amnesia diagnosis, a doctor must inquire as to memory for periods later than the immediate events surrounding the time of the brain injury. […] Current amnesia diagnosis protocols do not take into account the role of adrenaline. […] The more subtle but more significant problem is assuming that because someone has memory of an event, that means they weren’t concussed in the event. […] Amnesia is the inability to record continuous memory, not total absence of memory. […] Had an amnesia diagnosis been considered in 1993, it would have been ruled out.

• #53 Amnesia: Types, Causes, Treatment, and More

  https://www.webmd.com/brain/what-to-know-about-amnesia

  There is no specific treatment or cure for amnesia. In some cases, your amnesia may improve as your brain heals. In other cases, treatment of the condition that caused your amnesia will help restore your memory or slow down or prevent further loss. […] Typically, treatment for amnesia involves learning skills to help you make up for your memory problem. […] Whether your amnesia is temporary or long-lasting, there are things you can do to cope. […] You may also want to talk with others going through the same thing. Ask your doctor if there’s a support group for people with your kind of amnesia — for example, for people who’ve had brain injuries or strokes. […] If your amnesia is severe — for example, if you have a degenerative brain disease and can no longer form new memories — you may need fulltime assistance, either at home or in a residential care facility. […] Amnesia rarely looks like what you see in movies and TV — a total loss of your memories and identity. But any time you lose the ability to remember past events or make new memories, it’s important to figure out what’s going on so you can get the right kind of help.

• #54 Transient epileptic amnesia | MedLink Neurology

  https://www.medlink.com/articles/transient-epileptic-amnesia

  Patients with transient epileptic amnesia usually have an excellent prognosis; seizures respond extremely well to monotherapy with small doses of lamotrigine or levetiracetam though interictal memory disturbances may persist. […] Documentation of the epileptic nature of transient epileptic amnesia requires meticulous clinical assessment and EEG. […] Transient epileptic amnesia usually affects middle-aged or elderly subjects, men (60%) more than women, and the attacks often occurring on waking. […] Interictal memory manifestations consist of accelerated long-term forgetting as well as autobiographical and topographical amnesia. […] Monotherapy with lamotrigine or levetiracetam is effective in controlling the seizures and the amnestic attacks in the majority of patients, but interictal memory disturbances may persist.

• #55 Dissociative Amnesia – Psychiatric Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric-disorders/dissociative-disorders/dissociative-amnesia

  Treatment of more severe memory loss begins with creation of a safe and supportive environment. […] When a supportive environment does not result in improvement or when the need to recover memories is urgent, questioning patients while they are under hypnosis or, rarely, in a medication-induced (barbiturate or benzodiazepine) semihypnotic state can be successful. […] The accuracy of memories recovered with such strategies can be determined only by external corroboration. […] Once the amnesia is lifted, treatment helps with the following: Giving meaning to the underlying trauma or conflict, Resolving problems associated with the amnestic episode, Enabling patients to move on with their life. […] The prognosis is determined mainly by the following: The patients life circumstances, particularly stresses and conflicts associated with the amnesia, The patients overall psychologic adjustment.

• #56 Guideline “Transient Global Amnesia (TGA)” of the German Society of Neurology (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Neurologie): S1-guideline | Neurological Research and Practice | Full Text

  https://neurolrespract.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s42466-023-00240-0

  The diagnosis of TGA can be positively supported by MR imaging: The detection of typical unilateral or bilateral punctate DWI/T2 lesions in the hippocampus (especially the CA1 region) in a proportion of patients proves TGA. […] EEG can help differentiate from the rare amnestic epileptic attacks, especially in higher-frequency recurrent amnestic attacks (3/year). […] Because the pathomechanism of TGA is not yet clearly known, no evidence-based recommendations can be made regarding prophylaxis. Possible cerebrovascular risk factors should be identified and treated according to guidelines. […] To date, there is no evidence for the presence of chronic sequelae with respect to chronic memory impairment or the development of dementia-related syndromes. Also, there are no indications that TGA represents a risk factor for cerebral ischemia. […] The diagnosis usually can be established primarily clinically in the acute stage based on the criteria of Caplan and Hodges and Warlow.

• #57 Amnesia | Pantai Hospitals

  https://www.pantai.com.my/medical-specialties/neurology/amnesia

  The tests recommended varies depending on your symptoms and the suspected underlying cause of the amnesia. […] In many cases, amnesia may resolve spontaneously. However, amnesia due to an underlying physical or mental disorder may require treatment. […] Cognitive behavioural therapy and occupational therapy can help with recovering from memory loss. […] Amnesia should always be checked out immediately, regardless of the underlying cause. This can potentially reduce the chances of long-term memory-related complications and other cognitive issues.

• #58 Memory loss but not dementia: functional cognitive disorder (FCD) | Alzheimer’s Society

  https://www.alzheimers.org.uk/blog/functional-cognitive-disorder-fcd

  Treatment for disrupted sleep, pain, anxiety and depression can all help. […] FCD is functional cognitive disorder. […] They said I didn’t have dementia, and if they HAD to say what it was, they would say it’s functional cognitive disorder. […] They said I didn’t have dementia but would say I had FCD if they had to name it. […] I have fibromyalgia and apparently there is a link according to research.

• #59 Amnesia: What It Is, Types, Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://www.metropolisindia.com/blog/preventive-healthcare/a-comprehensive-guide-to-amnesia

  Amnesia is a condition characterised by partial or complete loss of memory, often caused by brain injury, trauma, psychological factors, or neurological disorders. […] Diagnosis of amnesia requires a comprehensive evaluation to differentiate it from other causes of memory loss like Alzheimer’s disease, dementia, depression, or brain tumours. […] Timely diagnosis helps in better and effective amnesia treatment among the patients. […] Diagnostic tests that your healthcare provider may ask you to start the amnesia treatment are: Imaging tests such as MRI and CT scans to assess for brain damage or structural changes. […] While there’s no specific treatment for amnesia itself, addressing the underlying cause can be beneficial. Amnesia treatment options are as follows: Occupational therapy: Assists in learning new information and compensating for lost memories. […] In conclusion, amnesia is a complex condition characterised by memory loss, which can stem from various causes such as brain injury, trauma, or neurological disorders. While there is no cure for amnesia, proper diagnosis and treatment can help manage symptoms and improve quality of life.

• #60 What Happens with Anterograde Amnesia? | Banner Health

  https://www.bannerhealth.com/healthcareblog/teach-me/what-happens-with-anterograde-amnesia

  Anterograde amnesia is a form of amnesia where you cant remember events that occurred after it began, but you can access earlier memories. […] To diagnose anterograde amnesia, youll probably see a neurologist, neuropsychologist or geriatric psychiatrist. […] There is no treatment for anterograde amnesia thats due to a neurodegenerative condition, but strategies such as cognitive rehabilitation, memory aids and therapy can help manage the condition, Dr. Joshi said. […] Support from caregivers, family members and support networks can help you cope, access resources and services, manage the challenges of living with memory loss and improve your well-being and quality of life.

• #61 Dissociative disorders – NHS

  https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/dissociative-disorders/

  Someone with dissociative amnesia will have periods where they cannot remember information about themselves or events in their past life. […] These gaps in memory are much more severe than normal forgetfulness and are not the result of another medical condition. […] Eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing (EMDR) is a psychological treatment that can help reduce the symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). It is sometimes used to treat dissociative disorders.

• #62 Dissociative Amnesia – Mental Health Disorders – MSD Manual Consumer Version

  https://www.msdmanuals.com/home/mental-health-disorders/dissociative-disorders/dissociative-amnesia

  If the missing memories are not recalled or if the need to recall the memories is urgent, memory-retrieval techniques are often successful. […] Doctors use hypnosis and medication-facilitated interviews to reduce the anxiety associated with the period for which there are gaps in memory and to penetrate or bypass the defenses people have created to protect themselves from recalling painful experiences or conflicts. […] Once amnesia has resolved, continued psychotherapy helps people do the following: Understand the trauma or conflicts that caused the disorder. […] Most people recover what appears to be their missing memories and resolve the conflicts that caused the amnesia.

• #63 Anterograde amnesia – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anterograde_amnesia

  Anterograde amnesics without combined retrograde disorders have memories prior to the traumatic event. […] Approaches used to treat those with anterograde amnesia often use interventions which focus on compensatory techniques, such as beepers, written notes, diaries or through intensive training programs involving the active participation of the individual concerned, along with their supporting network of family and friends. […] As described above, patients with anterograde amnesia have a wide range of forgetfulness.

• #64 Amnesia: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention

  https://www.everydayhealth.com/neurological-disorders/amnesia/

  There is no single cure that can return your memory to normal if you have amnesia. […] Treatment generally focuses on symptom management and correcting the underlying cause of the memory loss. […] If a person is experiencing dementia-related amnesia, there is no cure for the underlying illness. […] While theres no surefire way to prevent amnesia, you can take some steps to reduce your risks of psychological and neurological issues that may cause amnesia. […] The duration of amnesia varies. […] Recovery depends on the underlying cause, your overall health, and how you respond to treatment, with some individuals regaining memories over time and others experiencing permanent gaps. […] Amnesia can significantly impact your quality of life and various aspects of it, including your personal relationships, employment, mental health and risks for conditions like anxiety and depression, and independence. […] While theres no specific treatment for amnesia itself, addressing underlying conditions like infections or managing risk factors such as alcohol abuse can aid recovery. […] For some types of amnesia, memory may return naturally over time.

• #65 Transient global amnesia: Uncommon diagnosis of exclusion

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9684613/

  Transient global amnesia (TGA) is an uncommon clinical syndrome characterized by short-term memory loss and disorientation that resolves in 24h. […] After the exclusion of potential causes and the patient returned to a normal state of memory, the diagnosis of transient global amnesia was made. […] Diagnosis of TGA is based on the exclusion of all potential etiologies that may present a similar pattern. […] The criteria of a TGA diagnosis include the presence of a witness during the attacks, cognitive impairment limited to anterograde amnesia, preserved conscious state, normal neurologic examination findings; absence of recent head trauma and active epilepsy; and reversibility of the attack in 24h. […] Diagnosis of TGA is based on the exclusion of all other potential causes of acute memory loss. […] There is no specific treatment for TGA. […] Transient global amnesia is a benign self-resolving condition characterized by anterograde amnesia that resolves in less than 24h with no associated neurologic deficit.

• #66 Dissociative amnesia disorder: Symptoms, treatments, and more

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/dissociative-amnesia

  The outlook for people with dissociative amnesia is favorable. If an individual is no longer in a stressful or traumatic situation, treatment can help them recover lost memories. […] Doctors use thorough clinical and physical evaluations to diagnose dissociative amnesia and rule out other conditions that may be causing a person’s symptoms.

• #67 Anterograde Amnesia: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment, Coping

  https://www.verywellmind.com/an-overview-of-anterograde-amnesia-4581313

  Diagnosing anterograde amnesia can involve using brain scan technology such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and CT scan. […] While there is no cure for anterograde amnesia, some recovery and rehabilitation may be possible even with permanent damage. Treatments for anterograde amnesia are primarily aimed at managing the condition. […] It is important to seek treatment if you are experiencing unexplained memory loss. Your healthcare provider can determine the underlying cause of your memory loss and suggest appropriate treatments.

• #68 Dissociative Amnesia Statistics, Facts, Prevalence, Diagnosis and Treatment

  https://www.therecoveryvillage.com/mental-health/dissociative-amnesia/dissociative-amnesia-statistics/

  The prognosis for dissociative amnesia is highly dependent on the individual. Life circumstances, recollection of memories, adjustment and relief from amnesia stressors all impact how an individual will fare after diagnosis and treatment. In most cases, individuals that recover their memories and remove initial stressors do quite well.

• #69 Amnesia: Symptoms, Causes and Treatment

  https://www.carehospitals.com/diseases-conditions/amnesia

  One of the primary complications of amnesia is the difficulty it creates in work and educational settings. Individuals may struggle to carry out their job responsibilities effectively or meet academic demands, hindering performance and productivity. […] Individuals experiencing unexplained memory loss, head injury, or confusion should seek immediate medical attention. […] The preventive measures focus on maintaining overall brain health and avoiding potential causes of memory loss, such as: […] While there’s no one-size-fits-all cure for amnesia, a range of amnesia treatment options and coping strategies can help people manage their condition and improve their quality of life.

• #70 Transient epileptic amnesia versus transient global amnesia: aspects of differential diagnosis | Lipatova | Epilepsy and paroxysmal conditions

  https://www.epilepsia.su/jour/article/view/1044?locale=en_US

  Transient global amnesia (TGA) and transient epileptic amnesia (TEA) are rare phenomena in clinical practice that manifest as transient cognitive amnestic impairments. […] TGA is a clinical syndrome characterized by sudden anterograde amnesia of the event lasting up to 24 hours, lacking focal neurological symptoms, and not prone to recurrence. […] Mimicking TGA, TEA often occurs manifested as epileptic seizures with impaired awareness of varying duration, including long-term (more than 24 hours), as a variant of focal epilepsy. […] TEA is characterized by recurrent episodes, combination with other manifestations of epilepsy, and comorbidity with neurodegenerative diseases (dementia). […] For differential diagnosis, it is necessary to use prolonged video-electroencephalographic monitoring with sleep recording, neuroimaging methods (brain magnetic resonance imaging, positron emission tomography), psychological testing, biochemical examination for markers of neurodegeneration.

• #71 Recurrent transient amnesia: a case of transient epileptic amnesia misdiagnosed as transient global amnesia

  https://www.e-acn.org/journal/view.php?number=647

  Although the pathophysiology of TEA is unclear, acute transient anterograde amnesia is thought to result from a combination of abnormal epileptic discharges in the temporal lobe and dysfunction in the hippocampus and other legions involved in memory formation and storage. […] This case indicates that TEA should be included in the differential diagnosis of memory loss in adults. The possibility of TEA should be considered in cases with pure memory loss, and detailed history-taking targeting epileptic origins along with repeated EEG tests should be conducted when symptoms appear repeatedly. The role of EEG as a critical diagnostic tool in TEA and its clear response to antiseizure medications should be emphasized.

• #72 Treating Dissociative Amnesia and PTSD: Why Dual Diagnosis Treatment is Key – BrightQuest Treatment Centers

  https://www.brightquest.com/blog/treating-dissociative-amnesia-and-ptsd-why-dual-diagnosis-treatment-is-key/

  Triggered by trauma, post-traumatic stress disorder can overwhelm your ability to cope—and may be associated with partial or complete memory loss. […] Complicating her situation considerably was the co-occurring presence of dissociative amnesia, a trauma-associated disorder that frequently accompanies PTSD. […] In its criteria for diagnosing PTSD, a proposed revision to the fifth edition of the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) made the link between PTSD and dissociative amnesia explicit. […] Because dissociative amnesia and PTSD often go hand in hand, it’s crucial they be treated concurrently to ensure the best chance of recovery. […] When post-traumatic stress disorder and dissociative amnesia co-occur, dual diagnosis treatment—the treatment of two co-occurring conditions simultaneously—is effective in helping patients recover and heal.

• #73 Transient epileptic amnesia versus transient global amnesia: aspects of differential diagnosis | Lipatova | Epilepsy and paroxysmal conditions

  https://www.epilepsia.su/jour/article/view/1044?locale=en_US

  Functional brain imaging techniques, particularly positron emission tomography with 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (18F-FDG PET), can be a useful addition to brain MRI for differential diagnosis of TEA and neurodegenerative diseases or comorbidity detection. […] TEA is characterized by recurrent episodes, combination with other epilepsy manifestations, and comorbidity with neurodegenerative diseases (dementia). […] Neuroimaging techniques (brain MRI, PET), psychological testing, and biochemical studies of neurodegeneration markers are important to use for the differential diagnosis between TEA and TGA. […] Thus, TGA and TEA are rare phenomena in clinical practice manifested as transient cognitive amnesia disorders. Despite the common clinical signs, such conditions are pathogenetically heterogeneous, differ in prognosis and require distinct therapeutic approaches.

• #74 Determining a Diagnosis | Memory and Aging Center

  https://memory.ucsf.edu/diagnosis

  Determining a Diagnosis In trying to determine what is happening, the doctor or medical professional must first review the important signs and symptoms with the patient and caregivers. Follow up tests may be ordered as well. […] An accurate diagnosis made after ruling out other possible explanations is essential for the successful treatment or management of any disease. As new medical treatments become available, early intervention will be more and more important. Regardless of medical treatments, the sooner patients and caregivers have an accurate diagnosis, the sooner they can plan for upcoming care. The steps listed below are the common steps a person will go through when being evaluated for memory loss, behavioral disorders, and other related problems. […] Because memory loss, behavioral disorders, and other related problems are often complex, a comprehensive evaluation is necessary. At the UCSF Memory and Aging Center, patients undergo extensive neurological, neuropsychological, and nursing assessments that usually require several hours. Information from the caregiver is sought in every case. The evaluation may require two to three visits to determine the cause of the symptoms and recommend treatment.

• #75 SAGE – Memory Disorders | Ohio State Medical Center

  https://wexnermedical.osu.edu/brain-spine-neuro/memory-disorders/sage

  The Self-Administered Gerocognitive Exam (SAGE) is designed to detect early signs of cognitive, memory or thinking impairments. It evaluates your thinking abilities and helps physicians to know how well your brain is working. […] The Instrument cannot substitute for medical advice, diagnosis or treatment by a trained medical professional. Diagnosis and treatment of human illness should be based collectively on medical history, including family medical history, and a physical examination along with a doctor’s professional judgment and review of all test results. […] SAGE does not diagnose any specific condition. The results of SAGE will not tell you if you have Alzheimer’s disease, mini-strokes or any number of other disorders. But the results can help your doctor know if further evaluation is necessary.

• #76 SAGE – Memory Disorders | Ohio State Medical Center

  https://wexnermedical.osu.edu/brain-spine-neuro/memory-disorders/sage

  The Self-Administered Gerocognitive Exam (SAGE) is a brief self-administered cognitive screening instrument used to identify mild cognitive impairment (MCI) from any cause and early dementia. The questions are more difficult than other similar questionnaires, such as the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), to pick up those with very mild impairments. […] Researchers at Ohio State evaluated study participants using SAGE and then evaluated the same subjects with other established assessment tools. The test has a sensitivity of 79 percent and a false positive rate of 5 percent in detecting cognitive impairment from normal subjects. Results were published in the January-March 2010 issue of Alzheimer’s Disease Associated Disorders.

• #77 Amnesia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment & Types

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21455-amnesia

  Sudden memory loss in yourself or someone youre with is always a sign to get medical attention. […] If you notice possible signs of memory loss, you may want to ask your provider the following: Whats causing my memory loss? Is memory loss normal in my circumstances? Are there any medications that can help with the disorder causing my amnesia? Will my memory get better or worse over time? What can I do to help myself and preserve my memory and brain function? […] Your memory is a key part of who you are, so not being able to remember something can be a scary experience. If youre experiencing memory loss or have a loved one showing signs of it, you should talk to a healthcare provider.

• #78 Dementia testing and diagnosis | Dementia Australia

  https://www.dementia.org.au/about-dementia/dementia-testing-and-diagnosis

  If you or someone else has noticed signs that your memory, thinking, behaviour and mood are changing, it can be scary. […] The first person to talk to about getting tests for changes in your memory, thinking, behaviour and mood is your doctor. […] There isn’t one single test that tells you if you have or don’t have dementia. […] At some point, your doctor will be ready to give you a diagnosis. […] If your doctor diagnoses you with a form of dementia, there’s no wrong reaction to have. […] When your doctor tells you the diagnosis, you might find it hard to take it all in. […] If you’re worried about changes that are happening to you or someone close to you, and you think there might be something wrong, don’t ignore these signs, go and do something about it. […] A proper assessment helps rule out other conditions. […] If you do have dementia, there are many benefits to finding out early. […] The doctor will ask for as much information as you can give about your medical history. […] The more you or the person with you can tell them, the better.

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