Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Infectious Endocarditis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557641/

  Infectious endocarditis refers to the colonization of cardiac valve endocardium by virulent microorganisms. […] The vast majority of infectious endocarditis cases stem from gram-positive streptococci, staphylococci, and enterococci infection. Together, these three groups account for 80% to 90% of all cases, with Staphylococcus aureus specifically responsible for around 30% of cases in the developed world. […] Risk factors and the environmental setting of bacterial acquisition, healthcare versus community, provide hints towards the underlying infectious etiology. […] Community-acquired infections tend to develop in the setting of immunosuppression, intravenous drug use, poor dentition, degenerative valve disease, and rheumatic heart disease. […] The intact, healthy endocardium is typically resistant to bacterial seeding. Overall, the development of infectious endocarditis requires prodromal endocardial injury followed by a period of bacteremia.

• #1 Infective endocarditis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infective_endocarditis

  The cause is typically a bacterial infection and less commonly a fungal infection. […] The bacteria most commonly involved are streptococci or staphylococci. […] Many microorganisms can cause infective endocarditis. These are generally isolated by blood culture, where the patient’s blood is drawn and any growth is noted and identified. The term bacterial endocarditis (BE) commonly is used, reflecting the fact that most cases of IE are due to bacteria; however, infective endocarditis (IE) has become the preferred term. […] Staphylococcus aureus is the leading cause of infective endocarditis in most parts of the world and is responsible for about 31% of cases. […] Viridans streptococci and Enterococci are the second and third most common organisms responsible for infective endocarditis.

• #1 Infective endocarditis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infective_endocarditis

  Viridans alpha-hemolytic streptococci, that are present in the mouth, are the most frequently isolated microorganisms when the infection is acquired in a community setting. […] Enterococcus can enter the bloodstream as a consequence of abnormalities in the gastrointestinal or genitourinary tracts. […] Some organisms, when isolated, give valuable clues to the cause, as they tend to be specific. […] Less commonly reported bacteria responsible for so called „culture negative endocarditis” include Bartonella, Chlamydia psittaci, and Coxiella. […] Fungal endocarditis (FE) is often fatal and one of the most serious forms of infective endocarditis. The types of fungi most seen associated with this disease are: Candida albicans is found as a spherical or oval budding yeast. It is associated with endocarditis in people who inject drugs, patients with prosthetic valves, and immunocompromised patients. […] Other fungi demonstrated to cause endocarditis are Histoplasma capsulatum and Aspergillus.

• #1 Pathology of Infectious Endocarditis: Overview, Etiology and Pathophysiology, Affected Sites

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1954887-overview

  Endocarditis refers to endothelial damage with thrombosis on endocardial surfaces, typically on the heart valves. Two major types of endocarditis exist: infectious endocarditis, which has a microbial etiology, and noninfectious endocarditis. […] The organisms responsible for most cases of infectious endocarditis are gram-positive cocci: streptococci and, increasingly, staphylococci. The most common microbial infection is staphylococcus. Hospital-acquired infection is often associated with hemodialysis, prosthetic valvular infection, malignancies, and vascular interventions. […] Some cases of culture-negative endocarditis are caused by fastidious gram-negative organisms of the Haemophilus parainfluenzae, Actinobacillus, Actinomycetemcomitans, Cardiobacterium hominis, Eikenella corrodens, Kingella kingae (HACEK) group, which constitutes approximately 1-3% of cases of community-acquired endocarditis on native and prosthetic valves, and may have a relatively good prognosis.

• #1 Causes of infective endocarditis in the Western Cape, South Africa: a prospective cohort study using a set protocol for organism detection and central decision making by an endocarditis team | BMJ Open

  https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/11/12/e053169

  The rate of BCNIE was lower in the prospective group (28/65 or 43.1%) compared with the retrospective group (47/75 or 62.7%; p=0.039). […] A cause was identified (including non-culture techniques) in 86.2% of patients in the prospective cohort, with Staphylococcus aureus (26.2%), Bartonella species (20%) and the viridans streptococci (15.3%) being most common. […] The introduction of a set protocol for organism detection, managed by an endocarditis team, has identified Staphylococcus aureus as the most common cause of IE and identified non-culturable organisms, in particular Bartonella quintana, as an important cause of BCNIE. […] Very high rates of BCNIE have been reported in South Africa varying from 40% to 65%. […] Our group recently reported the emergence and typical clinical and imaging findings of Bartonella species as a cause of BCNIE in South Africa.

• #1 Endocarditis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499844/

  Chiefly involves the mitral valve, followed by the aortic valve. […] Congenital heart disease or any defect with high flow tension is susceptible. […] Mitral valve prolapse accounts for about 20% of cases. […] Degenerative heart disease such as the bicuspid aortic valve, Marfan syndrome, or syphilis. […] Early PVE is caused by S aureus and S epidermidis, including MRSA. […] Streptococci usually cause late PVE. […] S.aureus is the most common cause, but MRSA rates are increasing. […] Gram-negative organisms are rarely involved. […] Risk factors include residual valve injury, diabetes, use of steroids, advanced age, and pacemaker intervention.

• #1 Causes of Endocarditis: What You Need To Know

  https://www.healthline.com/health/endocarditis-causes

  Endocarditis is usually caused by bacteria traveling through the bloodstream to the heart and is treated by IV antibiotics or heart valve replacement surgery. […] Endocarditis is typically caused by bacteria. (Streptococci, staphylococci, and enterococci infections cause about 80-90% of endocarditis cases.) […] The bacteria that cause endocarditis may enter your body through a cut in your skin, a needle injection site, surgery, or even dental work. […] In very rare cases, endocarditis may be due to a fungal infection instead of bacteria. These cases are usually harder to treat and more serious.

• #1 Pathology of Infectious Endocarditis: Overview, Etiology and Pathophysiology, Affected Sites

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1954887-overview

  The rate of culture-negative endocarditis varies from 7% to 33% and is increased in community-acquired infections because of antibiotic treatment before diagnosis. […] If a full work-up is performed at a tertiary reference center, including serology and culture for esoteric organisms and polymerase chain reaction (PCR), an etiology is found in over 75% of cases of endocarditis with an initial negative culture. The most common organisms are C burnetii and Bartonella species.

• #1 Infectious Endocarditis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557641/

  Even in the setting of endocardial injury and bacteremia, pathogenesis still requires a virulent organism capable of binding to and facilitating platelet-fibrin deposits. […] The initial platelet-fibrin clot provides a nidus for bacterial adherence and further platelet aggregation. […] Mature vegetations consist of an amalgamation of inflammatory cells, fibrin, platelets, and erythrocyte debris. […] The staining of histologic samples will often demonstrate focal bacterial colonies. […] Although antibiotic prophylaxis remains controversial, the AHA/ACC continues to recommend certain individuals undergoing high-risk procedures receive pharmacological prophylaxis.

• #1 Endocarditis: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/16957-endocarditis

  Endocarditis, most often from a bacterial infection, inflames the lining of your heart valves and chambers. […] Infective endocarditis (IE) is a potentially fatal inflammation of your heart valves lining and sometimes heart chambers lining. This occurs when germs (usually bacteria) from elsewhere in your body enter your bloodstream and attach to and attack the lining of your heart valves and/or chambers. […] Most of the time, a bacterial infection causes endocarditis. […] This can cause endocarditis. The bacteria rapidly form colonies, grow vegetation and produce enzymes, destroying the surrounding tissue and opening the path for invasion. […] Normal heart valves are very resistant to infection. However, bacteria can attach to defects on the surface of diseased valves. Replacement heart valves are more prone to infection than normal valves. […] Endocarditis is fatal without treatment.

• #1 Endocarditis | Infective Endocarditis | IE | MedlinePlus

  https://medlineplus.gov/endocarditis.html

  Endocarditis is usually caused by germs that get into your bloodstream and travel to your heart. Once they get inside your heart, the germs can attach to the lining or get trapped in the valves. They start to grow, causing an infection. If not treated quickly, the infection can cause damage to the heart and lead to serious health problems. […] Bacterial infections cause most endocarditis. Normally, many bacteria live in your mouth, on your skin, or in other parts of the body. Sometimes the bacteria can get into your bloodstream from injuries such cuts or scrapes. Dental work and certain surgeries can also allow small amounts of bacteria to enter your bloodstream. […] In some cases, fungal infections cause endocarditis. The fungi, such as yeast, can live in parts of your body. Fungal infections generally happen in people who have weakened immune systems that can’t stop the fungus from growing. This includes people who have HIV.

• #1 Heart Valves and Infective Endocarditis | American Heart Association

  https://www.heart.org/en/health-topics/heart-valve-problems-and-disease/heart-valve-problems-and-causes/heart-valves-and-infective-endocarditis

  Infective endocarditis (IE), also called bacterial endocarditis, is an infection caused by bacteria that enter the bloodstream and settle in the heart lining, a heart valve or a blood vessel. […] The infection can be caused by bacteria introduced into the blood stream. Infection can result from many sources, including poor dental hygiene, tooth brushing that causes minor injury to the lining of the mouth or gums, dental procedures, implanted cardiovascular medical devices, chronic skin disorders and infections, burns, infectious diseases, intravenous drug use and more. These bacteria can lodge on heart valves and cause infection of the endocardium. […] Risk factors for adults include older age, previous heart valve disease, valve surgeries or a heart transplant, having a cardiac device in place (pacemaker or ICD), calcium deposits in the aortic valve, congenital heart defects, history of endocarditis, or poor care of the teeth and gums.

• #1 Causes and risk factors | Hospital Clínic Barcelona

  https://www.clinicbarcelona.org/en/assistance/diseases/infective-endocarditis/causes-and-risk-factors

  Infective endocarditis is usually caused by bacteria that live elsewhere in the body, such as the mouth or the digestive/genitourinary tract, and spread through the bloodstream. […] If this bacteria passes through the heart, it can stick to heart valves, prosthetic valves or pacemaker wires, causing an infection. […] Some patients are more predisposed to developing this disease: Valve stenosis in the heart. […] Patients with congenital heart disease such as valve stenosis. […] Patients with rheumatic valve disease. […] Patients with prosthetic valves, pacemakers or defibrillator implants. […] People who use intravenous catheters for a prolonged period of time. […] Elderly patients. […] Patients with a history of infective endocarditis. […] Poor dental hygiene. […] Using intravenous drugs (such as heroin).

• #1

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/endocarditis/causes/

  Endocarditis is caused by bacteria in the bloodstream multiplying and spreading across the inner lining of your heart (endocardium). The endocardium becomes inflamed, causing damage to your heart valves. […] But if your heart valves are damaged or you have an artificial valve, it’s easier for bacteria to take root and bypass your normal immune response to infection. […] There are a number of things that can make your heart more vulnerable to infection and increase your chance of developing endocarditis. […] Two types of heart valve disease known to increase your risk of endocarditis are: valvular stenosis where the valve(s) of the heart become narrowed, disrupting the blood flow through the heart and valvular regurgitation where the valve(s) of the heart do not close properly, causing blood to leak back in the wrong direction. […] But bacteria can also take root around prosthetic valves, which can occasionally trigger endocarditis. […] People who inject illegal drugs such as heroin or methamphetamine (crystal meth) have an increased risk of developing endocarditis.

• #1 Infective Endocarditis (IE): Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/23068-infective-endocarditis

  Infective endocarditis occurs when bacteria settle in the lining of your heart valves. […] Endocarditis starts when fungi or bacteria enter your bloodstream. Streptococcus and staphylococcus bacteria cause approximately four out of five cases. […] Heart conditions and treatments that introduce bacteria into your bloodstream are the primary cause of infective endocarditis. These include: Artificial heart valves, which are more prone to infection than natural valve tissue. […] On rare occasions, the condition happens in people with healthy hearts. Causes include: A catheter that stays in your blood vessels for a long time.

• #1 Endocarditis – children Information | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/diseases-conditions/endocarditis-children

  Valve infection – children; Staphylococcus aureus – endocarditis – children; Enterococcus – endocarditis- children; Streptococcus viridians – endocarditis – children; Candida – endocarditis – children; Bacterial endocarditis – children; Infective endocarditis – children; Congenital heart disease – endocarditis – children […] Endocarditis occurs when germs enter the bloodstream and then travel to the heart. […] Bacterial infection is the most common cause […] Fungal infections are much more rare […] In some cases, no germs can be found after testing […] Endocarditis can involve the heart muscle, heart valves, or lining of the heart. […] The risk is higher in children who have a history of heart surgery, which can leave rough areas in the lining of the heart chambers. […] Germs may enter the bloodstream: […] By way of a central venous access line that is in place […] During dental surgery […] During other surgeries or minor procedures to the airways and lungs, urinary tract, infected skin, or bones and muscles […] Migration of bacteria from the bowel, mouth, or throat.

• #1 Infective Endocarditis: Etiology, Epidemiology and Current Recommendations for the Dental Practitioner | JCDA

  https://jcda.ca/o4

  Infective endocarditis (IE) is an infection of the endocardium, the innermost lining of the heart. It arises when bacteria from the bloodstream attach to damaged or roughened endothelial surfaces of the heart. IE occurs in those with normal or damaged heart valves, although it tends to be more common in the latter. […] The importance of these updates to the dental practitioner is to reinforce their knowledge of the etiology, epidemiology and overall nature of IE to allow them to provide more comprehensive care to their patients who are at increased risk of this preventable disease, which is associated with both high morbidity and high mortality. […] IE is associated with many risk factors of which a health care practitioner must be aware, both cardiac and non-cardiac. Cardiac risk factors include: prosthetic valves, congenital heart defects, rheumatic heart disease, mitral valve prolapse, aortic valve stenosis and the presence of an implantable electronic cardiac device. Non-cardiac risk factors include: diabetes mellitus, hemodialysis, IV drug use, immunosuppression and poor oral hygiene.

• #1 Bacterial Endocarditis | Cedars-Sinai

  https://www.cedars-sinai.org/health-library/diseases-and-conditions/b/bacterial-endocarditis-adult.html

  Bacterial endocarditis, also called infective endocarditis, is an infection caused by bacteria. […] Some kinds of bacteria normally live on and in the body. […] Not all types of bacteria can cause this kind of infection, but many types can. Two kinds of bacteria cause most cases of bacterial endocarditis. These are staphylococci (staph) and streptococci (strep). […] You may be at increased risk for bacterial endocarditis if you have certain heart valve defects. This gives the bacteria an easier place to take hold and grow. […] Risk factors that may increase the chance of getting bacterial endocarditis include: IV (intravenous) drug use, hemodialysis for kidney failure, heart valve disease, such as leaking or narrowed valve, rheumatic heart disease caused by strep bacteria, implantable cardiac device, heart disease present at birth (congenital), past history of endocarditis, poor dental hygiene, artificial heart valves or valve repair or replacement, heart transplant with a leaky heart valve, weak immune system.

• #1 Infective Endocarditis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/216650-overview

  Early prosthetic valve endocarditis (PVE), which presents shortly after surgery, has a different bacteriology and prognosis than late PVE, which presents in a subacute fashion similar to NVE. […] Early PVE may be caused by a variety of pathogens, including S aureus and S epidermidis. These nosocomially-acquired organisms often are methicillin-resistant (eg, MRSA). […] Staphylococcus aureus is the most common (50% of cases) etiologic organism in patients with IVDA IE. […] The gram-positive cocci (ie, S aureus, CoNS, enterococci, nonenterococcal streptococci) are the most common pathogens of HCIE. […] Fungal endocarditis is found in IV drug users and intensive care unit patients who receive broad-spectrum antibiotics. […] Many cases are due to inappropriate institution antibiotics prior to obtaining adequately drawn blood cultures. […] The most significant risk factor for IE is residual valvular damage caused by a previous attack of endocarditis.

• #1 Infective Endocarditis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/216650-overview

  The different types of IE have varying causes and involve different pathogens. […] The following are the main underlying causes of NVE: Rheumatic valvular disease (30% of NVE) – Primarily involves the mitral valve; Congenital heart disease (15% of NVE) – Underlying etiologies include a patent ductus arteriosus, ventricular septal defect, tetralogy of Fallot, or any native or surgical high-flow lesion; Mitral valve prolapse with an associated murmur (20% of NVE); Degenerative heart disease – Including calcific aortic stenosis resulting from a bicuspid valve, Marfan syndrome, or syphilitic disease. […] Approximately 70% of infections in NVE are caused by Streptococcus species, including S viridans, S bovis, and enterococci. Staphylococcus species cause 25% of cases and generally demonstrate a more aggressive acute course.

• #1 Endocarditis – causes, symptoms and treatments – BHF

  https://www.bhf.org.uk/informationsupport/conditions/endocarditis

  Endocarditis happens when bacteria or fungi enter your bloodstream, attaching to already damaged areas of your heart. […] However, those most at risk of endocarditis usually have damaged heart valves, artificial heart valves or other heart defects. […] Your risk of endocarditis is higher if you: have heart valve disease, have had a heart valve replacement using an artificial valve, have had endocarditis before, have certain types of congenital heart disease, have a condition called hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, inject drugs into your veins. […] Endocarditis can also increase the risk of stroke. […] While people at high risk don’t need antibiotics routinely, occasionally they might be prescribed as a safety measure.

• #1 Infectious Endocarditis: Diagnosis and Treatment | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2012/0515/p981.html

  Infectious endocarditis results from bacterial or fungal infection of the endocardial surface of the heart and is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. […] Risk factors for infectious endocarditis include hemodialysis (7.9 percent), intravenous drug use (9.8 percent), degenerative valvular disease (mitral regurgitation in 43.4 percent; aortic regurgitation in 26.3 percent), and rheumatic heart disease (3.3 percent). […] The development of infectious endocarditis requires the presence of bacteria or fungi in the blood and an intracardiac surface on which these microorganisms can attach. […] Early infection, which occurs within two months of valve placement, is generally the result of intraoperative contamination of the prosthesis or of postoperative infection. […] Late infection, which occurs at least 12 months after placement of the prosthesis, involves microbes and entry portals similar to those of native valve endocarditis.

• #1

  https://www.singhealth.com.sg/patient-care/conditions-treatments/infective-endocarditis

  Diabetes mellitus: Those with type II diabetes were shown to have higher incidence of IE than patients without. […] Gender: Men are two times more likely to suffer from IE compared to women. […] Immunosuppression: Those with weakened immune systems are more likely to get IE. […] Implanted devices: Bacteria and germs can attach to cardiac devices like pacemakers, thus infecting the lining of the heart. […] Use of illegal IV drugs: Those who consume banned drugs via IV needles are at higher risk of developing IE because of contaminated needles and syringes. […] Poor oral hygiene or dental health: Poor oral hygiene increases the chances of bacteria growing inside the mouth and entering the bloodstream through any wounds on your gums. Certain dental procedures may cause injuries to the gums and allow bacteria to enter the bloodstream, leading to IE.

• #1 Infectious Endocarditis: Diagnosis and Treatment | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2012/0515/p981.html

  Endocarditis should be suspected in any patient with unexplained fevers, night sweats, or signs of systemic illness, particularly if any of the following risk factors are present: a prosthetic heart valve, structural or congenital heart disease, intravenous drug use, and a recent history of invasive procedures. […] The diagnosis of infectious endocarditis requires multiple clinical, laboratory, and imaging findings. […] Successful treatment requires appropriate antibiotic therapy. […] The choice of definitive antibiotic therapy is based on the causative microorganism and its antibiotic susceptibility, and whether the involved valve is native or prosthetic. […] The structural and functional integrity of cardiac valves may be damaged by infection. […] Surgical intervention should be considered in patients with fungal infection, infection with aggressive antibiotic-resistant bacteria or bacteria that respond poorly to antibiotics, left-sided infectious endocarditis caused by gram-negative bacteria, persistent infection with positive blood cultures after one week of antibiotic therapy, or one or more embolic events during the first two weeks of antibiotic therapy.

• #1 Endocarditis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499844/

  Infective endocarditis can include acute and subacute bacterial endocarditis, as well as nonbacterial endocarditis caused by viruses, fungi, and other microbiological agents. […] The leading cause of endocarditis in the pediatric population remains Staphylococcus aureus, followed by Viridans-type streptococci (alpha-hemolytic streptococci). […] Other organisms are involved but less frequently. […] A recent dental procedure should prompt suspicions of viridans group streptococcal infection. […] Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Serratia marcescens are seen commonly in intravenous drug users. […] Fungal organisms can be an issue during open-heart surgery. […] In the presence of an indwelling central venous catheter, a coagulase-negative staphylococcus is frequently found as the causative agent.

• #1 Infective Endocarditis • LITFL • CCC Cardiology

  https://litfl.com/infective-endocarditis/

  endocarditis is a disease characterised by inflammation of the endocardium, typically affecting the heart valves and usually caused by infection and can be acute, subacute or chronic […] most cases of fulminant endocarditis are caused by S. aureus […] Organisms: Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA or MRSA), Coagulase negative Staphylococci: S. epidermidis, S. lugdenensis, Streptococcus viridans, Streptococcus bovis, Enterococcus, HACEK organisms […] Culture negative endocarditis: Brucella, Bartonella, Coxiella burnetti (Q fever), Chlamydia, Legionella, Mycoplasma, Whipples disease (Trophyerma whipplei) […] Predisposition to infection: IV drug use tricuspid, aortic and mitral valve, haemodialysis, high risk surgery (e.g. dental, respiratory and infective), long lines, bone marrow transplant recipients, immunosuppressed (e.g. HIV) […] Major criteria: Positive blood culture for Infective Endocarditis Typical microorganism consistent with IE from 2 separate blood cultures […] Evidence of endocardial involvement […] directed therapy varies according to the underlying causative organism and the valve affected.

• #1 Infective Endocarditis: Etiology, Epidemiology and Current Recommendations for the Dental Practitioner | JCDA

  https://jcda.ca/o4

  For IE to occur and progress, bacteria must first enter the bloodstream (bacteremia). When a heart valve is damaged or surgically operated on (typically through prosthetic valves), the bacteria adhere to and colonize it. […] Bacteria involved in the propagation of the initial adherence include Streptococcus viridans, the most common cause of IE in both damaged and abnormal valves, and Staphylococcus aureus, which is found in both normal and damaged valves, most commonly in IV drug users. […] Acute forms of IE are usually caused by the highly virulent Staphylococcus aureus, with mortality higher than the subacute form and characterized by larger vegetations. […] Subacute forms involve the less virulent Streptococcus viridans and are characterized by smaller vegetations on damaged or diseased heart valves.

• #1 Endocarditis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocarditis

  Endocarditis is characterized by lesions, known as vegetations, which are masses of platelets, fibrin, microcolonies of microorganisms, and scant inflammatory cells. […] The cause is typically a bacterial infection and less commonly a fungal infection. […] The bacteria most commonly involved are streptococci or staphylococci. […] Nonbacterial thrombotic endocarditis (NBTE) is most commonly found on previously undamaged valves. […] NBTE usually occurs during a hypercoagulable state such as system-wide bacterial infection, or pregnancy, though it is also sometimes seen in patients with venous catheters. […] Another form of sterile endocarditis is termed Libman-Sacks endocarditis; this form occurs more often in patients with lupus erythematosus and is thought to be due to the deposition of immune complexes.

• #1 Noninfective Endocarditis – Cardiovascular Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/cardiovascular-disorders/endocarditis/noninfective-endocarditis

  Endocarditis usually refers to infection of the endocardium (ie, infective endocarditis). The term can also include noninfective endocarditis, in which sterile platelet and fibrin thrombi form on cardiac valves and adjacent endocardium. Noninfective endocarditis sometimes leads to infective endocarditis. Both can result in embolization and impaired cardiac function. […] Etiology of Noninfective Endocarditis […] Sterile vegetations form on heart valves in response to factors such as trauma, circulating immune complexes, vasculitis, or a hypercoagulable state. […] The sterile vegetations can embolize or become infected but rarely impair valvular or cardiac function.

• #1 Bacterial Endocarditis | Causes, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/patients/child/encyclopedia/diseases/bacterial-endocarditis

  Bacterial endocarditis is an infection of the inner lining of the heart and the associated internal heart structures, such as the heart valves. This infection can occur in any person (infant, child or adult) who has heart disease present at birth (congenital heart disease), or can occur in people without heart disease. […] Bacterial endocarditis occurs when bacteria (germs) enter the bloodstream and lodge inside the heart, where they can multiply and cause infection. […] Persons with congenital heart disease may have abnormal inner heart linings due to thickened valves that cause abnormal opening or leaking of the valve. […] Any infant, child or adult who has cyanotic congenital heart disease that has not yet been repaired can develop bacterial endocarditis. […] Some people who have already had a heart defect repaired may also need to take precautions against bacterial endocarditis for the rest of their lives, while others may no longer need to observe these precautions.

• #1 Bacterial Endocarditis | Causes, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/patients/child/encyclopedia/diseases/bacterial-endocarditis

  According to the American Heart Association, heart problems that put children at risk for developing bacterial endocarditis include: Prosthetic (artificial) heart valves, a previous history of endocarditis (even in the absence of other heart disease), complex repaired or unrepaired cyanotic congenital heart disease (due to insufficient oxygen in the blood), surgically constructed systemic pulmonary shunts or conduits with residual defects at the site or adjacent to the site of a prosthetic patch or device, cardiac transplantation recipients who develop valvulopathy acquired valve dysfunction, such as due to rheumatic heart disease or collagen vascular disease. […] Bacterial endocarditis is serious. This infection can cause severe damage to the inner lining of the heart and to the valves. The infection can be treated in most cases with strong antibiotics given through an IV over the course of several weeks. However, heart damage may occur before the infection can be controlled.

• #1 Bacterial Endocarditis | Cedars-Sinai

  https://www.cedars-sinai.org/health-library/diseases-and-conditions/b/bacterial-endocarditis-adult.html

  Not all cases of bacterial endocarditis can be prevented. But you can lower some of these risks. For example, prompt treatment of a strep infection can help prevent rheumatic heart disease. Not using IV drugs can lower your risk. Keeping your mouth clean and healthy can also lower your risk. […] You may need to take antibiotics before some medical and dental procedures. This is to help prevent endocarditis if you have an artificial heart valve. Or if you had heart valve repair with artificial material. You may need to take antibiotics if you have certain kinds of congenital heart disease, a history of endocarditis, or had a heart transplant with a leaky heart valve.

• #1 Endocarditis > Fact Sheets > Yale Medicine

  https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/endocarditis

  Endocarditis is a condition in which the endocardiumthe membrane that lines the chambers of the heart and heart valvesbecomes inflamed, typically as a result of a bacterial or fungal infection. […] Its usually caused by a bacterial infection, though less commonly it can be the result of a fungal infection. […] In infective endocarditis, bacteria or fungi enter the bloodstream and circulate throughout the body, including the heart and its four valves. […] People with certain cardiac conditions, however, are at increased risk. Among others, these conditions include heart valve disease, congenital heart disease, and having an artificial heart valve. […] Endocarditis can also damage the heart valves, causing problems with blood flow and leading to heart failure and other heart problems.

• #1 Infective Endocarditis | The Texas Heart Institute®

  https://www.texasheart.org/heart-health/heart-information-center/topics/infective-endocarditis/

  The trapping of microorganisms leads to the development of “clumps” of tissue within the heart and on the heart’s valves. […] These clumps are called vegetations. […] Vegetations are dangerous because they can break off and enter the bloodstream. […] You are more likely to get endocarditis if you already have other heart problems or you have heart valve damage. […] Your risk for developing endocarditis is increased if you have valve disease. […] Antibiotics are used to kill the microorganisms in your bloodstream and within the vegetations in your heart. […] The antibiotics you will be given depend on what kind of microorganism has caused your infection.

• #1 Etiopathogenesis of Infective endocarditis – Histopathology.guru

  https://www.histopathology.guru/etiopathogenesis-of-infective-endocarditis/

  Bacteria from blood stream in any of the above mentioned routes are implanted on the cardiac valves or mural endocardium as they have surface adhesion molecules which mediate their adherence to endocardium […] Conditions predispose to implantation are Previously damaged valves from diseases like RHD, congenital heart disease and prosthetic valves […] Hemodynamic stress […] These conditions causes damage to endothelium on valves, favoring the formation of platelet-fibrin thrombi which get infected from circulating bacteria where they proliferate and form vegetations […] Vegetations can embolize and as their embolic fragments contain virulent organisms, abscesses develop where they lodge, leading to sequelae such as septic infarcts or mycotic aneurysms […] Vegetations of subacute endocarditis are associated with less valvular destruction than acute endocarditis.

• #1

  https://www.aurorahealthcare.org/services/heart-vascular/conditions/infective-endocarditis

  Infective endocarditis is an infection in the inner lining of your heart chambers and valves. This inner membrane is called the endocardium. […] The infection develops when microorganisms, usually bacteria, enter your bloodstream and travel to your heart, where they attach and infect the lining and valves. Fungi and other microbes can also cause endocarditis. […] But sometimes under certain conditions, microbes normally found in your mouth, respiratory tract, intestinal system or other parts of your body can cause endocarditis. […] While endocarditis is uncommon, the infection can come from many sources. Risk factors and ways the harmful bacteria might enter your bloodstream include: Poor dental care, such as tooth brushing or dental procedures that cause minor injury to the mouth or gums. […] If untreated, infective endocarditis can lead to other serious conditions. The infecting microbes in your heart can clump, break loose and travel to other parts of your body. This can cause damage to your central nervous system, kidneys, spleen, brain or lungs.

• #1 Endocarditis Guide: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment Options

  https://www.drugs.com/health-guide/endocarditis.html

  In the 10% to 20% of endocarditis patients who have artificial heart valves, infections that follow within 60 days of valve surgery often are caused by a staphylococcus, while endocarditis that occurs later most frequently is caused by a streptococcus. […] When endocarditis is caused by a bacterial infection, it usually is treated with four to six weeks of antibiotics. […] With prompt diagnosis and proper medical treatment, over 90% of patients with bacterial endocarditis recover. […] In cases in which endocarditis is caused by fungi, the prognosis is usually worse than for bacterial endocarditis.

• #1 Etiology, Risk Factors and Clinical Outcomes in Infective Endocarditis Patients Requiring Cardiac Surgery

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/11/7/1957

  Despite the lack of difference in the intrahospital mortality when IE caused by different bacterial agents is compared, the study suggests the worse long-term clinical outcomes for endocarditis in the cases of S. aureus. […] In contrast to E. faecalis, the presence of S. aureus determines the worsening of long-term mortality from infective endocarditis. Perivalvular complications are associated with the presence of coagulase-negative staphylococci.

• #2 Endocarditis: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/16957-endocarditis

  Endocarditis, most often from a bacterial infection, inflames the lining of your heart valves and chambers. […] Infective endocarditis (IE) is a potentially fatal inflammation of your heart valves lining and sometimes heart chambers lining. This occurs when germs (usually bacteria) from elsewhere in your body enter your bloodstream and attach to and attack the lining of your heart valves and/or chambers. […] Most of the time, a bacterial infection causes endocarditis. […] This can cause endocarditis. The bacteria rapidly form colonies, grow vegetation and produce enzymes, destroying the surrounding tissue and opening the path for invasion. […] Normal heart valves are very resistant to infection. However, bacteria can attach to defects on the surface of diseased valves. Replacement heart valves are more prone to infection than normal valves. […] Endocarditis is fatal without treatment.

• #2 Infective endocarditis – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infective_endocarditis

  The cause is typically a bacterial infection and less commonly a fungal infection. […] The bacteria most commonly involved are streptococci or staphylococci. […] Many microorganisms can cause infective endocarditis. These are generally isolated by blood culture, where the patient’s blood is drawn and any growth is noted and identified. The term bacterial endocarditis (BE) commonly is used, reflecting the fact that most cases of IE are due to bacteria; however, infective endocarditis (IE) has become the preferred term. […] Staphylococcus aureus is the leading cause of infective endocarditis in most parts of the world and is responsible for about 31% of cases. […] Viridans streptococci and Enterococci are the second and third most common organisms responsible for infective endocarditis.

• #2 Etiology, Risk Factors and Clinical Outcomes in Infective Endocarditis Patients Requiring Cardiac Surgery

  https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0383/11/7/1957

  Infective endocarditis, which may be caused by various microbial agents, severely affects the innermost layer of the heart and often leads to poor clinical outcomes. […] The most common IE causative bacteria are S. aureus, Streptococcus spp., Enterococcus spp. and coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS). […] The presence of S. aureus is associated with higher early mortality risk and severe complications such as congestive heart failure and embolic events; moreover, mortality appears to correlate with the presence of S. aureus. […] It is increasingly clear that the presence of S. aureus infection often correlates with worsening of clinical outcomes in IE. […] These findings are supported also by other authors suggesting that S. aureus is the leading cause of IE in most parts of the world.

• #2 Endocarditis Guide: Causes, Symptoms and Treatment Options

  https://www.drugs.com/health-guide/endocarditis.html

  Endocarditis, also called infective endocarditis, is an infection and inflammation of the heart valves and the inner lining of the heart chambers, which is called the endocardium. Endocarditis occurs when infectious organisms, such as bacteria or fungi, enter the bloodstream and settle in the heart. In most cases, these organisms are streptococci („strep”), staphylococci („staph”) or species of bacteria that normally live on body surfaces. […] Acute endocarditis most often occurs when an aggressive species of skin bacteria, especially a staphylococcus, enters the bloodstream and attacks a heart valve. […] This form of endocarditis most often is caused by one of the viridans group of streptococci (Streptococcus sanguis, mutans, mitis or milleri) that normally live in the mouth and throat.

• #2 Infective endocarditis – Knowledge @ AMBOSS

  https://www.amboss.com/us/knowledge/infective-endocarditis/

  Staphylococcus aureus is the most common cause of acute IE, including individuals who inject drugs and patients with prosthetic valves or pacemakers/ICDs. […] Viridans streptococci is the most common cause of subacute IE, especially in predamaged native valves (mainly the mitral valve). […] Enterococci (especially Enterococcus faecalis) is a common cause of IE following nosocomial UTIs. […] The identification of one of the following typical pathogens on blood culture may indicate IE. […] The 2023 Duke-ISCVID criteria are used to assess the likelihood of IE, and the diagnosis is confirmed based on culture, histopathology, and/or imaging findings.

• #2 Pathology of Infectious Endocarditis: Overview, Etiology and Pathophysiology, Affected Sites

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1954887-overview

  The rate of culture-negative endocarditis varies from 7% to 33% and is increased in community-acquired infections because of antibiotic treatment before diagnosis. […] If a full work-up is performed at a tertiary reference center, including serology and culture for esoteric organisms and polymerase chain reaction (PCR), an etiology is found in over 75% of cases of endocarditis with an initial negative culture. The most common organisms are C burnetii and Bartonella species.

• #2 Causes of infective endocarditis in the Western Cape, South Africa: a prospective cohort study using a set protocol for organism detection and central decision making by an endocarditis team | BMJ Open

  https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/11/12/e053169

  The finding of Bartonella species as the most common cause of BCNIE contrasts with European data where Coxiella burnetii has been demonstrated to be the most common cause of BCNIE. […] Current guideline empirical therapy for IE has limited efficacy against Bartonella and Mycoplasma species. […] This would suggest that a significant number of patients with BCNIE may previously have been inadequately treated. […] The spectrum of BCPIE has changed in South Africa, with a profile similar to developed countries. […] Staphylococcus aureus was the most common causative organism, which contrasts with a previous series from our centre. […] Our data strongly support the empirical use of antimicrobial drugs that specifically target Staphylococcus aureus, as this is now established as the most common cause of IE in South Africa.

• #2 Endocarditis | Infective Endocarditis | IE | MedlinePlus

  https://medlineplus.gov/endocarditis.html

  Endocarditis is usually caused by germs that get into your bloodstream and travel to your heart. Once they get inside your heart, the germs can attach to the lining or get trapped in the valves. They start to grow, causing an infection. If not treated quickly, the infection can cause damage to the heart and lead to serious health problems. […] Bacterial infections cause most endocarditis. Normally, many bacteria live in your mouth, on your skin, or in other parts of the body. Sometimes the bacteria can get into your bloodstream from injuries such cuts or scrapes. Dental work and certain surgeries can also allow small amounts of bacteria to enter your bloodstream. […] In some cases, fungal infections cause endocarditis. The fungi, such as yeast, can live in parts of your body. Fungal infections generally happen in people who have weakened immune systems that can’t stop the fungus from growing. This includes people who have HIV.

• #2 Causes of infective endocarditis in the Western Cape, South Africa: a prospective cohort study using a set protocol for organism detection and central decision making by an endocarditis team | BMJ Open

  https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/11/12/e053169

  The rate of BCNIE was lower in the prospective group (28/65 or 43.1%) compared with the retrospective group (47/75 or 62.7%; p=0.039). […] A cause was identified (including non-culture techniques) in 86.2% of patients in the prospective cohort, with Staphylococcus aureus (26.2%), Bartonella species (20%) and the viridans streptococci (15.3%) being most common. […] The introduction of a set protocol for organism detection, managed by an endocarditis team, has identified Staphylococcus aureus as the most common cause of IE and identified non-culturable organisms, in particular Bartonella quintana, as an important cause of BCNIE. […] Very high rates of BCNIE have been reported in South Africa varying from 40% to 65%. […] Our group recently reported the emergence and typical clinical and imaging findings of Bartonella species as a cause of BCNIE in South Africa.

• #2 Infectious Endocarditis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557641/

  Even in the setting of endocardial injury and bacteremia, pathogenesis still requires a virulent organism capable of binding to and facilitating platelet-fibrin deposits. […] The initial platelet-fibrin clot provides a nidus for bacterial adherence and further platelet aggregation. […] Mature vegetations consist of an amalgamation of inflammatory cells, fibrin, platelets, and erythrocyte debris. […] The staining of histologic samples will often demonstrate focal bacterial colonies. […] Although antibiotic prophylaxis remains controversial, the AHA/ACC continues to recommend certain individuals undergoing high-risk procedures receive pharmacological prophylaxis.

• #2 Infective Endocarditis | The Texas Heart Institute®

  https://www.texasheart.org/heart-health/heart-information-center/topics/infective-endocarditis/

  The trapping of microorganisms leads to the development of “clumps” of tissue within the heart and on the heart’s valves. […] These clumps are called vegetations. […] Vegetations are dangerous because they can break off and enter the bloodstream. […] You are more likely to get endocarditis if you already have other heart problems or you have heart valve damage. […] Your risk for developing endocarditis is increased if you have valve disease. […] Antibiotics are used to kill the microorganisms in your bloodstream and within the vegetations in your heart. […] The antibiotics you will be given depend on what kind of microorganism has caused your infection.

• #2 Heart Valves and Infective Endocarditis | American Heart Association

  https://www.heart.org/en/health-topics/heart-valve-problems-and-disease/heart-valve-problems-and-causes/heart-valves-and-infective-endocarditis

  Infective endocarditis (IE), also called bacterial endocarditis, is an infection caused by bacteria that enter the bloodstream and settle in the heart lining, a heart valve or a blood vessel. […] The infection can be caused by bacteria introduced into the blood stream. Infection can result from many sources, including poor dental hygiene, tooth brushing that causes minor injury to the lining of the mouth or gums, dental procedures, implanted cardiovascular medical devices, chronic skin disorders and infections, burns, infectious diseases, intravenous drug use and more. These bacteria can lodge on heart valves and cause infection of the endocardium. […] Risk factors for adults include older age, previous heart valve disease, valve surgeries or a heart transplant, having a cardiac device in place (pacemaker or ICD), calcium deposits in the aortic valve, congenital heart defects, history of endocarditis, or poor care of the teeth and gums.

• #2 Heart conditions – endocarditis | Better Health Channel

  https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/heart-conditions-endocarditis

  Endocarditis is an infection of the heart valves or the inner membrane of the heart. […] People who have certain pre-existing heart disease are at increased risk of developing endocarditis. […] Some dental and surgical procedures increase the risk of endocarditis because bacteria may be introduced into the bloodstream. […] Endocarditis may occur in people who have certain pre-existing heart diseases. […] The bacteria that cause most cases of endocarditis belong to the Staphylococcus family, such as Staphylococcus aureus and golden staph, a drug-resistant form of Staphylococcus aureus. […] Risk factors that are linked to endocarditis include: Congenital heart defects, Prior surgery to correct heart defects, Surgical devices such as a pacemaker, artificial heart valve or shunt, Rheumatic heart disease, Prior endocarditis, Intravenous drug use with no medical history of heart disease. […] Short-term bacteraemia may be caused by certain dental and surgical procedures including: Professional tooth cleaning, Any dental procedure that is likely to cause bleeding (such as tooth extraction), Intravenous lines used during or after surgery.

• #2 Endocarditis – children Information | Mount Sinai – New York

  https://www.mountsinai.org/health-library/diseases-conditions/endocarditis-children

  Valve infection – children; Staphylococcus aureus – endocarditis – children; Enterococcus – endocarditis- children; Streptococcus viridians – endocarditis – children; Candida – endocarditis – children; Bacterial endocarditis – children; Infective endocarditis – children; Congenital heart disease – endocarditis – children […] Endocarditis occurs when germs enter the bloodstream and then travel to the heart. […] Bacterial infection is the most common cause […] Fungal infections are much more rare […] In some cases, no germs can be found after testing […] Endocarditis can involve the heart muscle, heart valves, or lining of the heart. […] The risk is higher in children who have a history of heart surgery, which can leave rough areas in the lining of the heart chambers. […] Germs may enter the bloodstream: […] By way of a central venous access line that is in place […] During dental surgery […] During other surgeries or minor procedures to the airways and lungs, urinary tract, infected skin, or bones and muscles […] Migration of bacteria from the bowel, mouth, or throat.

• #2 Endocarditis – causes, symptoms and treatments – BHF

  https://www.bhf.org.uk/informationsupport/conditions/endocarditis

  Endocarditis happens when bacteria or fungi enter your bloodstream, attaching to already damaged areas of your heart. […] However, those most at risk of endocarditis usually have damaged heart valves, artificial heart valves or other heart defects. […] Your risk of endocarditis is higher if you: have heart valve disease, have had a heart valve replacement using an artificial valve, have had endocarditis before, have certain types of congenital heart disease, have a condition called hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, inject drugs into your veins. […] Endocarditis can also increase the risk of stroke. […] While people at high risk don’t need antibiotics routinely, occasionally they might be prescribed as a safety measure.

• #2 Infective endocarditis – Overview | Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust

  https://www.guysandstthomas.nhs.uk/health-information/infective-endocarditis

  Infective endocarditis is an infection of the inner lining or valves of the heart. It is caused by bacteria, or sometimes fungi, entering the bloodstream and sticking to heart structures. […] Your heart is usually well protected against infection, and most bacteria pass harmlessly. However, if your heart valves are damaged, or you have an artificial valve, it is easier for bacteria to get past your immune defence and cause problems. […] This can mean that bacteria settle on the inner lining of your heart (endocardium). These organisms are sometimes referred to as vegetations. They cause inflammation (swelling) of the endocardium, and that can damage your heart valves. […] You are more likely to get infective endocarditis if you have: had infective endocarditis before, a prosthetic (artificial) or repaired heart valve, some types of congenital heart disease (heart defects from birth), thickened or leaking heart valves (including bicuspid aortic valve), enlarged heart muscles and thickened walls (hypertrophic cardiomyopathy), have tubes (cannulas) in your veins for cancer treatment or dialysis, medical conditions that lower your immunity to infection, such as HIV and diabetes, injected non-prescription drugs intravenously (into a vein), some invasive dental procedures, like extractions or deep scaling.

• #2 Infective Endocarditis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/216650-overview

  The different types of IE have varying causes and involve different pathogens. […] The following are the main underlying causes of NVE: Rheumatic valvular disease (30% of NVE) – Primarily involves the mitral valve; Congenital heart disease (15% of NVE) – Underlying etiologies include a patent ductus arteriosus, ventricular septal defect, tetralogy of Fallot, or any native or surgical high-flow lesion; Mitral valve prolapse with an associated murmur (20% of NVE); Degenerative heart disease – Including calcific aortic stenosis resulting from a bicuspid valve, Marfan syndrome, or syphilitic disease. […] Approximately 70% of infections in NVE are caused by Streptococcus species, including S viridans, S bovis, and enterococci. Staphylococcus species cause 25% of cases and generally demonstrate a more aggressive acute course.

• #2 Infective Endocarditis (IE): Causes, Symptoms & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/23068-infective-endocarditis

  Infective endocarditis occurs when bacteria settle in the lining of your heart valves. […] Endocarditis starts when fungi or bacteria enter your bloodstream. Streptococcus and staphylococcus bacteria cause approximately four out of five cases. […] Heart conditions and treatments that introduce bacteria into your bloodstream are the primary cause of infective endocarditis. These include: Artificial heart valves, which are more prone to infection than natural valve tissue. […] On rare occasions, the condition happens in people with healthy hearts. Causes include: A catheter that stays in your blood vessels for a long time.

• #2 Bacterial Endocarditis | Causes, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/patients/child/encyclopedia/diseases/bacterial-endocarditis

  Bacterial endocarditis is an infection of the inner lining of the heart and the associated internal heart structures, such as the heart valves. This infection can occur in any person (infant, child or adult) who has heart disease present at birth (congenital heart disease), or can occur in people without heart disease. […] Bacterial endocarditis occurs when bacteria (germs) enter the bloodstream and lodge inside the heart, where they can multiply and cause infection. […] Persons with congenital heart disease may have abnormal inner heart linings due to thickened valves that cause abnormal opening or leaking of the valve. […] Any infant, child or adult who has cyanotic congenital heart disease that has not yet been repaired can develop bacterial endocarditis. […] Some people who have already had a heart defect repaired may also need to take precautions against bacterial endocarditis for the rest of their lives, while others may no longer need to observe these precautions.

• #2 Endocarditis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499844/

  Chiefly involves the mitral valve, followed by the aortic valve. […] Congenital heart disease or any defect with high flow tension is susceptible. […] Mitral valve prolapse accounts for about 20% of cases. […] Degenerative heart disease such as the bicuspid aortic valve, Marfan syndrome, or syphilis. […] Early PVE is caused by S aureus and S epidermidis, including MRSA. […] Streptococci usually cause late PVE. […] S.aureus is the most common cause, but MRSA rates are increasing. […] Gram-negative organisms are rarely involved. […] Risk factors include residual valve injury, diabetes, use of steroids, advanced age, and pacemaker intervention.

• #2 Endocarditis – Causes | Health Information from Mediclinic Pharmacy

  https://mediclinicpharmacy.com/nhs_conditions_endocarditis_causes

  Causes of acquired heart valve disease include: a previous heart attack a heart attack can damage the muscles that surround and support the valves, preventing the valves from functioning properly, high blood pressure (hypertension) without treatment, high blood pressure can weaken the tissue around the valves, rheumatic fever a type of bacterial infection that can damage the heart. […] But bacteria can also take root around prosthetic valves, which can occasionally trigger endocarditis. […] People who inject illegal drugs such as heroin or methamphetamine (crystal meth) have an increased risk of developing endocarditis. […] Endocarditis caused by a fungal infection is rarer than bacterial endocarditis, and usually more serious.

• #2 Bacterial Endocarditis | Causes, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/patients/child/encyclopedia/diseases/bacterial-endocarditis

  According to the American Heart Association, heart problems that put children at risk for developing bacterial endocarditis include: Prosthetic (artificial) heart valves, a previous history of endocarditis (even in the absence of other heart disease), complex repaired or unrepaired cyanotic congenital heart disease (due to insufficient oxygen in the blood), surgically constructed systemic pulmonary shunts or conduits with residual defects at the site or adjacent to the site of a prosthetic patch or device, cardiac transplantation recipients who develop valvulopathy acquired valve dysfunction, such as due to rheumatic heart disease or collagen vascular disease. […] Bacterial endocarditis is serious. This infection can cause severe damage to the inner lining of the heart and to the valves. The infection can be treated in most cases with strong antibiotics given through an IV over the course of several weeks. However, heart damage may occur before the infection can be controlled.

• #2 Endocarditis > Fact Sheets > Yale Medicine

  https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/endocarditis

  The exact cause of noninfective endocarditis isnt known, but is thought to occur when an area of the endocardium gets damaged, for instance due to certain cancers or congenital heart defects. […] Several factors increase the risk of infective endocarditis, including: Heart valve disease, Congenital heart disease, Having a prosthetic heart valve or implanted cardiac device, History of infective endocarditis, Recent dental work, Recent surgery, Central venous catheter, Dialysis, Diabetes, HIV infection, Use of IV drugs, Rheumatic heart disease. […] Risk factors for noninfective endocarditis include: Systemic lupus erythematosus, Uremia, Antiphospholipid syndrome, Insertion of catheter in the heart, Cancer, Burns, Tuberculosis, HIV infection. […] Noninfective endocarditis is usually treated with blood thinners to reduce the risk of blood clot formation.

• #2 Endocarditis: Symptoms & Causes | NewYork-Presbyterian

  https://www.nyp.org/heart/heart-inflammation/endocarditis

  Contaminated needles and syringes used for heroin and cocaine injections are a common source of bacterial infections leading to endocarditis. […] People with previous heart valve replacement surgery, implanted heart devices such as a pacemaker, or a heart transplant are at increased risk for developing bacterial infections that can lead to endocarditis.

• #2 Bacterial Endocarditis | Cedars-Sinai

  https://www.cedars-sinai.org/health-library/diseases-and-conditions/b/bacterial-endocarditis-adult.html

  Bacterial endocarditis, also called infective endocarditis, is an infection caused by bacteria. […] Some kinds of bacteria normally live on and in the body. […] Not all types of bacteria can cause this kind of infection, but many types can. Two kinds of bacteria cause most cases of bacterial endocarditis. These are staphylococci (staph) and streptococci (strep). […] You may be at increased risk for bacterial endocarditis if you have certain heart valve defects. This gives the bacteria an easier place to take hold and grow. […] Risk factors that may increase the chance of getting bacterial endocarditis include: IV (intravenous) drug use, hemodialysis for kidney failure, heart valve disease, such as leaking or narrowed valve, rheumatic heart disease caused by strep bacteria, implantable cardiac device, heart disease present at birth (congenital), past history of endocarditis, poor dental hygiene, artificial heart valves or valve repair or replacement, heart transplant with a leaky heart valve, weak immune system.

• #2

  https://www.singhealth.com.sg/patient-care/conditions-treatments/infective-endocarditis

  Diabetes mellitus: Those with type II diabetes were shown to have higher incidence of IE than patients without. […] Gender: Men are two times more likely to suffer from IE compared to women. […] Immunosuppression: Those with weakened immune systems are more likely to get IE. […] Implanted devices: Bacteria and germs can attach to cardiac devices like pacemakers, thus infecting the lining of the heart. […] Use of illegal IV drugs: Those who consume banned drugs via IV needles are at higher risk of developing IE because of contaminated needles and syringes. […] Poor oral hygiene or dental health: Poor oral hygiene increases the chances of bacteria growing inside the mouth and entering the bloodstream through any wounds on your gums. Certain dental procedures may cause injuries to the gums and allow bacteria to enter the bloodstream, leading to IE.

• #2

  https://www.singhealth.com.sg/patient-care/conditions-treatments/infective-endocarditis

  Infective endocarditis (IE) is caused by germs that enter the bloodstream through a wide variety of ways. […] Certain risk factors can increase one’s chances of getting IE, including: […] Bad oral hygiene, minor injury in the mouth or gums, implanted heart devices, and chronic skin disorders are some of the common ways bacteria enter the bloodstream. […] Age: IE often occurs in older adults, especially those above the age of 60, who make up 25% of all IE patients. […] Artificial heart valves: Artificial or prosthetic heart valves tend to have risks of IE. […] Congenital heart defects: Having certain heart defects from birth such as faulty valves or a hole in the septum can increase one’s risks of having IE. […] Damaged heart valves: Rheumatic fever or other infections can cause scarring to the heart valves, increasing the risk of IE. A history of IE also increases the chances of recurrent infections.

• #2 Infective Endocarditis: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/216650-overview

  Early prosthetic valve endocarditis (PVE), which presents shortly after surgery, has a different bacteriology and prognosis than late PVE, which presents in a subacute fashion similar to NVE. […] Early PVE may be caused by a variety of pathogens, including S aureus and S epidermidis. These nosocomially-acquired organisms often are methicillin-resistant (eg, MRSA). […] Staphylococcus aureus is the most common (50% of cases) etiologic organism in patients with IVDA IE. […] The gram-positive cocci (ie, S aureus, CoNS, enterococci, nonenterococcal streptococci) are the most common pathogens of HCIE. […] Fungal endocarditis is found in IV drug users and intensive care unit patients who receive broad-spectrum antibiotics. […] Many cases are due to inappropriate institution antibiotics prior to obtaining adequately drawn blood cultures. […] The most significant risk factor for IE is residual valvular damage caused by a previous attack of endocarditis.

• #2 Infective Endocarditis: Etiology, Epidemiology and Current Recommendations for the Dental Practitioner | JCDA

  https://jcda.ca/o4

  For IE to occur and progress, bacteria must first enter the bloodstream (bacteremia). When a heart valve is damaged or surgically operated on (typically through prosthetic valves), the bacteria adhere to and colonize it. […] Bacteria involved in the propagation of the initial adherence include Streptococcus viridans, the most common cause of IE in both damaged and abnormal valves, and Staphylococcus aureus, which is found in both normal and damaged valves, most commonly in IV drug users. […] Acute forms of IE are usually caused by the highly virulent Staphylococcus aureus, with mortality higher than the subacute form and characterized by larger vegetations. […] Subacute forms involve the less virulent Streptococcus viridans and are characterized by smaller vegetations on damaged or diseased heart valves.

• #2 Subacute Bacterial Endocarditis: What Is It, What Causes It, and How Is It Treated?

  https://www.webmd.com/heart-disease/what-is-subacute-bacterial-endocarditis

  Subacute bacterial endocarditis is often caused by a particular group of streptococci bacteria that usually live in your mouth and throat. […] Normally, your immune system destroys any harmful bacteria that enter your bloodstream. Under certain circumstances, these bacteria can cause endocarditis.

• #2 Noninfective Endocarditis – Cardiovascular Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/cardiovascular-disorders/endocarditis/noninfective-endocarditis

  Endocarditis usually refers to infection of the endocardium (ie, infective endocarditis). The term can also include noninfective endocarditis, in which sterile platelet and fibrin thrombi form on cardiac valves and adjacent endocardium. Noninfective endocarditis sometimes leads to infective endocarditis. Both can result in embolization and impaired cardiac function. […] Etiology of Noninfective Endocarditis […] Sterile vegetations form on heart valves in response to factors such as trauma, circulating immune complexes, vasculitis, or a hypercoagulable state. […] The sterile vegetations can embolize or become infected but rarely impair valvular or cardiac function.

• #2 Infective Endocarditis: Etiology, Epidemiology and Current Recommendations for the Dental Practitioner | JCDA

  https://jcda.ca/o4

  The clinical presentation and symptoms of IE vary depending on the causative pathogen. […] The dental practitioner must pay attention to Roth spots and certain cardiac symptoms as indicators of a patient presenting with IE. […] The 2021 revision of the AHA guidelines maintain the grouping of high-risk viridans group streptococcal IE susceptible individuals into the same 4 groups they established in 2007. […] Patients with the underlying cardiac conditions described in Table 3, should be educated by their dental team on the importance of consistent and effective oral hygiene to mitigate the risk of acquiring IE.

• #2 Infective Endocarditis Causes, Symptoms, and Treatments

  https://www.upmc.com/services/heart-vascular/conditions/infective-endocarditis

  Endocarditis is an infection caused by bacteria in the bloodstream. The bacteria settle in your heart’s inner lining or a heart valve, causing an infection. […] Fungi, or other germs from your body that spread to your heart through your bloodstream, can also cause it. […] People are at higher risk of infective endocarditis if they have certain heart problems, including: An artificial heart valve. A prior endocarditis infection. Certain birth defects of the heart. A damaged or abnormal heart valve. […] When left untreated, infective endocarditis can damage or even destroy your heart valves. This can be life-threatening. […] Stroke is also possible if parts of the infection break off and cause blood clots.

• #2 Endocarditis – Diagnosis & treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/endocarditis/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20352582

  Many people with endocarditis are successfully treated with antibiotics. […] The type of medication you receive depends on what’s causing the endocarditis. […] High doses of antibiotics are used to treat endocarditis caused by bacteria. […] If endocarditis is caused by a fungal infection, antifungal medication is given. […] Heart valve surgery may be needed to treat persistent endocarditis infections or to replace a damaged valve. […] Surgery is sometimes needed to treat endocarditis that’s caused by a fungal infection.

• #2

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/endocarditis/causes/

  Endocarditis is caused by bacteria in the bloodstream multiplying and spreading across the inner lining of your heart (endocardium). The endocardium becomes inflamed, causing damage to your heart valves. […] But if your heart valves are damaged or you have an artificial valve, it’s easier for bacteria to take root and bypass your normal immune response to infection. […] There are a number of things that can make your heart more vulnerable to infection and increase your chance of developing endocarditis. […] Two types of heart valve disease known to increase your risk of endocarditis are: valvular stenosis where the valve(s) of the heart become narrowed, disrupting the blood flow through the heart and valvular regurgitation where the valve(s) of the heart do not close properly, causing blood to leak back in the wrong direction. […] But bacteria can also take root around prosthetic valves, which can occasionally trigger endocarditis. […] People who inject illegal drugs such as heroin or methamphetamine (crystal meth) have an increased risk of developing endocarditis.

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