Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Nasopharyngeal Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459256/

  Nasopharyngeal carcinoma is a distinct subtype of head and neck cancer. […] This activity aims to broaden the understanding of nasopharyngeal carcinoma, shedding light on its association with the Epstein-Barr virus and distinguishing it from oropharyngeal cancers linked to other viruses. […] The most common subsite of origin is the fossa of Rosenmuller, accounting for 50% of nasopharyngeal carcinomas. […] There are distinct geographic and ethnic risk factors for nasopharyngeal carcinoma. In Asia, mainly China, there is a high incidence of disease. […] Most cases in areas with a high disease incidence are related to Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection. […] The association between EBV and WHO type 2 and 3 tumors is definitive. […] Other risk factors include Asian ancestry, particularly Chinese ancestry, remaining an independent risk factor even outside of Asia.

• #2 Epidemiology, etiology, and diagnosis of nasopharyngeal carcinoma – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/epidemiology-etiology-and-diagnosis-of-nasopharyngeal-carcinoma

  Nasopharyngeal carcinoma is the predominant tumor type arising in the nasopharynx, the tubular passage behind the nasal cavity that connects to the oropharynx below. It differs from other head and neck squamous cell carcinomas in epidemiology, histology, natural history, and response to treatment. […] This topic discusses the epidemiology, etiology, diagnosis, and staging of nasopharyngeal carcinoma. […] ETIOLOGY AND RISK FACTORS: Epstein-Barr virus, Human papillomavirus, Diet, Heredity, Molecular pathogenesis.

• #3 Nasopharyngeal Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459256/

  Nasopharyngeal carcinoma is a distinct subtype of head and neck cancer. […] This activity aims to broaden the understanding of nasopharyngeal carcinoma, shedding light on its association with the Epstein-Barr virus and distinguishing it from oropharyngeal cancers linked to other viruses. […] The most common subsite of origin is the fossa of Rosenmuller, accounting for 50% of nasopharyngeal carcinomas. […] There are distinct geographic and ethnic risk factors for nasopharyngeal carcinoma. In Asia, mainly China, there is a high incidence of disease. […] Most cases in areas with a high disease incidence are related to Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection. […] The association between EBV and WHO type 2 and 3 tumors is definitive. […] Other risk factors include Asian ancestry, particularly Chinese ancestry, remaining an independent risk factor even outside of Asia.

• #4 Nasopharyngeal carcinoma – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasopharyngeal_carcinoma

  Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC), or nasopharynx cancer, is the most common cancer originating in the nasopharynx, most commonly in the postero-lateral nasopharynx or pharyngeal recess (fossa of Rosenmüller), accounting for 50% of cases. […] NPC differs significantly from other cancers of the head and neck in its occurrence, causes, clinical behavior, and treatment. It is vastly more common in certain regions of East Asia and Africa than elsewhere, with viral, dietary and genetic factors implicated in its causation. […] NPC is caused by a combination of factors: viral, environmental influences, and heredity. […] The viral influence is associated with infection with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). […] Other likely causes include genetic susceptibility and consumption of preserved meats and salted fish containing carcinogenic volatile nitrosamines.

• #5 Nasopharyngeal Cancer Causes | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/nasopharyngeal-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/what-causes.html

  Epstein-Barr virus infection […] The exact cause of most cases of nasopharyngeal cancer (NPC) is not known. But scientists have found links with certain diets, infections, and inherited factors. […] Scientists have studied how the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) may cause cells in the nasopharynx to become cancer, but there’s still a lot to learn. […] In some cases, pieces of EBV DNA mix with the DNA of cells in the nasopharynx. […] When a cell is infected with the EBV virus, the viral DNA may mix with the normal human DNA. Then the EBV DNA may tell the cells of the nasopharynx to divide and grow in an abnormal way. Still, EBV infection rarely leads to NPC, so other factors, such as smoking and genetic factors, probably play a role in whether or not it causes cancer. […] Eating a diet high in salt-cured fish and meat seems to increase the ability of EBV to cause NPC. Studies show that foods preserved in this way may produce chemicals that can damage DNA. The damaged DNA then changes a cells ability to control its growth and reproduction. […] Some studies suggest that inheriting certain tissue types may contribute to a persons risk of developing NPC. Because the tissue type plays a role in the function of the immune system, some scientists suspect that an abnormal immune reaction to EBV infection may be involved.

• #6 Risks and causes of nasopharyngeal cancer | Cancer Research UK

  https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/nasopharyngeal-cancer/risks-causes

  Nasopharyngeal cancer is rare in the UK. Smoking certain substances and a history of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) are some of the risks and causes of nasopharyngeal cancer. […] Epstein Barr virus (EBV) is a very common virus that can increase the risk of nasopharyngeal cancer. Most people carry EBV and it does them no harm. […] In the UK, 80 out of 100 cases of nasopharyngeal cancer (80%) are caused by EBV. […] People who smoke or used to smoke are at an increased risk of nasopharyngeal cancer. In the UK, 25 out of 100 cases of nasopharyngeal cancer (25%) are caused by smoking. […] The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) lists eating salted fish (Chinese style) as a cause of nasopharyngeal cancer. […] The risk of nasopharyngeal cancer is higher in people who have a close relative who has had it. […] People exposed to wood dust through their work have an increased risk of nasopharyngeal cancer. […] People exposed to formaldehyde also have a small increased risk of nasopharyngeal cancer. […] Human papilloma virus (HPV) may be a risk factor for developing nasopharyngeal cancer.

• #7 Risks and causes of nasopharyngeal cancer | Cancer Research UK

  https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/nasopharyngeal-cancer/risks-causes

  Nasopharyngeal cancer is rare in the UK. Smoking certain substances and a history of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) are some of the risks and causes of nasopharyngeal cancer. […] Epstein Barr virus (EBV) is a very common virus that can increase the risk of nasopharyngeal cancer. Most people carry EBV and it does them no harm. […] In the UK, 80 out of 100 cases of nasopharyngeal cancer (80%) are caused by EBV. […] People who smoke or used to smoke are at an increased risk of nasopharyngeal cancer. In the UK, 25 out of 100 cases of nasopharyngeal cancer (25%) are caused by smoking. […] The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) lists eating salted fish (Chinese style) as a cause of nasopharyngeal cancer. […] The risk of nasopharyngeal cancer is higher in people who have a close relative who has had it. […] People exposed to wood dust through their work have an increased risk of nasopharyngeal cancer. […] People exposed to formaldehyde also have a small increased risk of nasopharyngeal cancer. […] Human papilloma virus (HPV) may be a risk factor for developing nasopharyngeal cancer.

• #8 Nasopharyngeal cancer

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/nasopharyngeal-cancer/

  Nasopharyngeal cancer is a rare type of cancer that affects the part of the throat connecting the back of the nose to the back of the mouth (the pharynx). […] The exact cause of nasopharyngeal cancer is unknown, but a number of things can increase your risk of developing the condition. […] These include: being of south Chinese or north African descent, having a diet very high in salt-cured meats and fish, coming into contact with the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), a common virus that causes glandular fever, having a job where you regularly come into contact with hardwood dust or a chemical called formaldehyde, having a first-degree relative, such as a parent, who’s had the condition. […] The human papilloma virus (HPV) is also thought to be a risk factor for developing nasopharyngeal cancer.

• #9 Nasopharyngeal cancer | Macmillan Cancer Support

  https://www.macmillan.org.uk/cancer-information-and-support/head-and-neck-cancer/nasopharyngeal-cancer

  Nasopharyngeal cancer is sometimes called nasopharyngeal carcinoma or cancer of the post-nasal space. It is a type of head and neck cancer that develops in the nasopharynx. […] The exact cause of nasopharyngeal is not known. But there are risk factors that can increase the chances of developing it. […] The most common risk factor for nasopharyngeal cancer is a virus called the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). This virus causes glandular fever. Almost everyone is infected with EBV at some time during their life. The body’s immune system is normally able to get rid of the virus, and usually the infections do not cause any problems. […] Only a very small number of people who have had EBV develop nasopharyngeal cancer. Most people with EBV will not develop nasopharyngeal cancer. […] As with other cancers, nasopharyngeal cancer is not infectious and cannot be passed on to other people.

• #10 Nasopharyngeal Cancer Causes | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/nasopharyngeal-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/what-causes.html

  Epstein-Barr virus infection […] The exact cause of most cases of nasopharyngeal cancer (NPC) is not known. But scientists have found links with certain diets, infections, and inherited factors. […] Scientists have studied how the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) may cause cells in the nasopharynx to become cancer, but there’s still a lot to learn. […] In some cases, pieces of EBV DNA mix with the DNA of cells in the nasopharynx. […] When a cell is infected with the EBV virus, the viral DNA may mix with the normal human DNA. Then the EBV DNA may tell the cells of the nasopharynx to divide and grow in an abnormal way. Still, EBV infection rarely leads to NPC, so other factors, such as smoking and genetic factors, probably play a role in whether or not it causes cancer. […] Eating a diet high in salt-cured fish and meat seems to increase the ability of EBV to cause NPC. Studies show that foods preserved in this way may produce chemicals that can damage DNA. The damaged DNA then changes a cells ability to control its growth and reproduction. […] Some studies suggest that inheriting certain tissue types may contribute to a persons risk of developing NPC. Because the tissue type plays a role in the function of the immune system, some scientists suspect that an abnormal immune reaction to EBV infection may be involved.

• #11 Nasopharyngeal Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459256/

  Dietary risk factors, such as diets high in preserved foods containing nitrosamines (particularly salted preserved fish), have also been postulated to confer additional risk of nasopharyngeal carcinoma. […] Some epidemiologic studies establish family clusters of nasopharyngeal cancer in endemic and nonendemic areas, suggesting ancestral genetics and environmental factors likely play an etiologic role. […] High circulating levels of EBV DNA are associated with poorer treatment response and higher rates of distant metastasis and mortality. […] The precise etiology of nasopharyngeal carcinoma is complex and not fully understood. Carcinogenesis is most likely due to hereditary genetics, environmental factors, and viral factors. […] In areas where EBV is not endemic, such as the US, smoking and alcohol have been identified as risk factors for nasopharyngeal carcinoma. […] This difference is reflected by WHO type 1 tumors, which are more variable in etiology and unrelated to EBV.

• #12 Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Treatment (PDQ®) – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/head-and-neck/hp/adult/nasopharyngeal-treatment-pdq

  Differentiating HPV-related nasopharyngeal carcinoma requires identification of p16 immunohistochemical staining, in situ hybridization, and/or PCR similar to the method for differentiating HPV-related oropharyngeal cancer. Less than 10% of nonkeratinizing nasopharyngeal carcinomas are associated with HPV infection. […] Major prognostic factors that adversely influence treatment outcome include the following: WHO grade I, a higher tumor (T) stage, the presence of involved cervical lymph nodes (N), high plasma/serum EBV DNA levels before and after treatment, large tumor volume.

• #13 Nasopharyngeal carcinoma – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasopharyngeal_carcinoma

  The association between Epstein-Barr virus and nasopharyngeal carcinoma is unequivocal in World Health Organization (WHO) types II and III tumors but less well-established for WHO type I (WHO-I) NPC, where preliminary evaluation has suggested that human papillomavirus (HPV) may be associated. […] The cause of NPC (particularly the endemic form) seems to follow a multi-step process, in which EBV, ethnic background, and environmental carcinogens all seem to play an important role. […] It is also being investigated as to whether or not chronic sinusitis could be a potential cause of cancer of the nasopharynx.

• #14 Nasopharyngeal Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459256/

  Nasopharyngeal carcinoma is a distinct subtype of head and neck cancer. […] This activity aims to broaden the understanding of nasopharyngeal carcinoma, shedding light on its association with the Epstein-Barr virus and distinguishing it from oropharyngeal cancers linked to other viruses. […] The most common subsite of origin is the fossa of Rosenmuller, accounting for 50% of nasopharyngeal carcinomas. […] There are distinct geographic and ethnic risk factors for nasopharyngeal carcinoma. In Asia, mainly China, there is a high incidence of disease. […] Most cases in areas with a high disease incidence are related to Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection. […] The association between EBV and WHO type 2 and 3 tumors is definitive. […] Other risk factors include Asian ancestry, particularly Chinese ancestry, remaining an independent risk factor even outside of Asia.

• #15 Nasopharyngeal Cancer Treatment – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/head-and-neck/patient/adult/nasopharyngeal-treatment-pdq

  Risk factors for nasopharyngeal cancer include: being infected with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), living in or having ancestry in certain parts of Asia, North Africa, and the Arctic, having a family member with nasopharyngeal cancer, using tobacco or breathing in secondhand smoke, frequent and heavy alcohol use, having a diet high in salt-cured fish and meats because these foods may contain cancer-causing chemicals, such as nitrosamine. […] In rare cases, human papillomavirus (HPV), especially HPV type 16, has been linked to nasopharyngeal cancer.

• #16 Nasopharyngeal cancer

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/nasopharyngeal-cancer/

  Nasopharyngeal cancer is a rare type of cancer that affects the part of the throat connecting the back of the nose to the back of the mouth (the pharynx). […] The exact cause of nasopharyngeal cancer is unknown, but a number of things can increase your risk of developing the condition. […] These include: being of south Chinese or north African descent, having a diet very high in salt-cured meats and fish, coming into contact with the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), a common virus that causes glandular fever, having a job where you regularly come into contact with hardwood dust or a chemical called formaldehyde, having a first-degree relative, such as a parent, who’s had the condition. […] The human papilloma virus (HPV) is also thought to be a risk factor for developing nasopharyngeal cancer.

• #17 What Are the Risk Factors for Nasopharyngeal Cancer? | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/nasopharyngeal-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  In places where NPC is more common, the cancer tends to be seen in younger people. […] Infection with the Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) is very common throughout the world, often occurring in children. […] EBV infection has been linked to the development of NPC, as well as certain lymphomas. […] The link between EBV infection and NPC is complex and still being studied. […] Some research shows that certain high-risk types of HPV may be linked to a small group of NPC cases especially in younger people who dont smoke. […] Family members of people with NPC are more likely to get this cancer. […] Studies have found that people with certain inherited tissue types have an increased risk of developing NPC. […] Many studies have found that smoking may contribute to the development of NPC. […] Some studies have also linked heavy drinking of alcohol to this type of cancer.

• #18 Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Treatment (PDQ®) – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/head-and-neck/hp/adult/nasopharyngeal-treatment-pdq

  Differentiating HPV-related nasopharyngeal carcinoma requires identification of p16 immunohistochemical staining, in situ hybridization, and/or PCR similar to the method for differentiating HPV-related oropharyngeal cancer. Less than 10% of nonkeratinizing nasopharyngeal carcinomas are associated with HPV infection. […] Major prognostic factors that adversely influence treatment outcome include the following: WHO grade I, a higher tumor (T) stage, the presence of involved cervical lymph nodes (N), high plasma/serum EBV DNA levels before and after treatment, large tumor volume.

• #19 Nasopharyngeal carcinoma – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasopharyngeal_carcinoma

  Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC), or nasopharynx cancer, is the most common cancer originating in the nasopharynx, most commonly in the postero-lateral nasopharynx or pharyngeal recess (fossa of Rosenmüller), accounting for 50% of cases. […] NPC differs significantly from other cancers of the head and neck in its occurrence, causes, clinical behavior, and treatment. It is vastly more common in certain regions of East Asia and Africa than elsewhere, with viral, dietary and genetic factors implicated in its causation. […] NPC is caused by a combination of factors: viral, environmental influences, and heredity. […] The viral influence is associated with infection with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). […] Other likely causes include genetic susceptibility and consumption of preserved meats and salted fish containing carcinogenic volatile nitrosamines.

• #20 Nasopharyngeal carcinoma – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/nasopharyngeal-carcinoma/symptoms-causes/syc-20375529

  Nasopharyngeal carcinoma is a kind of cancer that starts in the upper part of the throat, called the nasopharynx. It happens when cells in the nasopharynx develop changes in their DNA. […] The exact cause of nasopharyngeal carcinoma often isn’t known. […] The cancer cells might form a growth called a tumor. The tumor can grow to invade and destroy healthy body tissue. […] Researchers have found some factors that seem to raise the risk of getting nasopharyngeal carcinoma. […] Certain ancestries. Nasopharyngeal carcinoma is more common in parts of China, Southeast Asia, northern Africa and the Arctic. […] Epstein-Barr virus. This common virus most often causes mild symptoms like those of a cold. Sometimes it can cause infectious mononucleosis. The Epstein-Barr virus also is linked to some cancers, including nasopharyngeal carcinoma. […] Heavy alcohol intake and tobacco use can raise your risk of nasopharyngeal carcinoma.

• #21 What Are the Risk Factors for Nasopharyngeal Cancer? | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/nasopharyngeal-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  NPC is found in males two to three more times more often than it is in females. […] NPC is most common in Asia, specifically eastern and southern China (including Hong Kong), Singapore, Vietnam, and the Philippines. […] People of south China have a lower risk of NPC if they move to another area that has lower rates of NPC (like the US or Japan), but their risk is still higher than for people who are native to areas with lower risk. […] People who live in parts of Asia, northern Africa, and the Arctic region where NPC is common, typically eat diets very high in salt-cured fish and meat starting at an early age. The process of cooking the salted food seems to make chemicals, such as nitrosamine, which is a probable carcinogen. […] In areas of the world where NPC is not common, older age is a risk factor.

• #22 Nasopharyngeal Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459256/

  Nasopharyngeal carcinoma is a distinct subtype of head and neck cancer. […] This activity aims to broaden the understanding of nasopharyngeal carcinoma, shedding light on its association with the Epstein-Barr virus and distinguishing it from oropharyngeal cancers linked to other viruses. […] The most common subsite of origin is the fossa of Rosenmuller, accounting for 50% of nasopharyngeal carcinomas. […] There are distinct geographic and ethnic risk factors for nasopharyngeal carcinoma. In Asia, mainly China, there is a high incidence of disease. […] Most cases in areas with a high disease incidence are related to Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection. […] The association between EBV and WHO type 2 and 3 tumors is definitive. […] Other risk factors include Asian ancestry, particularly Chinese ancestry, remaining an independent risk factor even outside of Asia.

• #23 What Are the Risk Factors for Nasopharyngeal Cancer? | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/nasopharyngeal-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  NPC is found in males two to three more times more often than it is in females. […] NPC is most common in Asia, specifically eastern and southern China (including Hong Kong), Singapore, Vietnam, and the Philippines. […] People of south China have a lower risk of NPC if they move to another area that has lower rates of NPC (like the US or Japan), but their risk is still higher than for people who are native to areas with lower risk. […] People who live in parts of Asia, northern Africa, and the Arctic region where NPC is common, typically eat diets very high in salt-cured fish and meat starting at an early age. The process of cooking the salted food seems to make chemicals, such as nitrosamine, which is a probable carcinogen. […] In areas of the world where NPC is not common, older age is a risk factor.

• #24 Nasopharyngeal Cancer – Ear, Nose, and Throat Disorders – Merck Manual Professional Edition

  https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/ear-nose-and-throat-disorders/tumors-of-the-head-and-neck/nasopharyngeal-cancer

  Nasopharyngeal cancer can occur in any age group, including adolescents, and is common in the South China Sea region. […] Although rare in the United States and Western Europe, it is common in Asia and is one of the most common cancers among Chinese immigrants in the United States, especially those of southern Chinese and Southeast Asian ancestry. […] Over several generations, the prevalence among Chinese-Americans gradually decreases to that among non-Chinese Americans, suggesting an environmental component to etiology. […] Dietary exposure to nitrites and salted fish also is thought to increase risk. […] Epstein-Barr virus is a significant risk factor, and there is hereditary predisposition.

• #25 Nasopharyngeal Cancer: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/988165-overview

  Nasopharyngeal carcinoma is a rare tumor arising from the epithelium of the nasopharynx. It accounts for approximately 1% of all childhood malignancies. […] The detection of the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) nuclear antigen and viral DNA in nasopharyngeal carcinoma has revealed that EBV can infect epithelial cells and is associated with their malignant transformation. […] Viral DNA in nasopharyngeal carcinoma has revealed that Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) can infect epithelial cells and is associated with their transformation to cancer. Genetic and environmental factors have been implicated in the development of this disease. A genetic etiology has been considered due to the higher rates of disease within specific ethnic groups, patients with first-degree relatives with the disease, patients with A2 HLA haplotypes, and cytogenetic abnormalities identified within tumor samples. […] Environmental causes must be considered due to the geographical distribution of the disease, bimodal age distribution, and association seen in patients who consume a large amount of preserved foods and/or salted fish.

• #26 Nasopharyngeal carcinoma: A review of current updates

  https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/etm.2018.5878

  This magnitude of association is among the highest of any malignancy, suggesting that environmental factors themselves cannot fully explain the observed association. Genes and environmental exposures likely play a combined role in the etiology of NPC. […] An inheritance pattern that cannot be explained by activation of a single major susceptibility gene is supported by results from a complex segregation analysis of familial NPC showing that the etiology of NPC involves interaction of multiple genetic and environmental factors.

• #27 Nasopharyngeal carcinoma: A review of current updates

  https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/etm.2018.5878

  However, despite establishing lifelong latency in the majority of humans, only a small proportion of individuals infected with EBV develop cancer. This indicates that EBV alone is not a sufficient cause for this malignancy. Environmental exposures and/or genetic risk factors likely also play a role in the pathogenesis of this tumor. […] To date, established risk factors for type III NPC include Cantonese ethnicity, male sex, EBV infection, a family history of NPC, high consumption of salt-preserved fish, low intake of fresh vegetables and fruits intake, smoking, and some human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I alleles. […] The link between EBV and NPC was first proposed in 1966 when NPC patients were reported to have higher antibody response against an antigen that was later demonstrated as a product of EBV.

• #28 The etiology of nasopharyngeal carcinoma and challenges for its diagnosis and treatment monitoring – Lung – Annals of Nasopharynx Cancer

  https://anpc.amegroups.org/article/view/6347/html

  Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is an undifferentiated nonkeratinizing epithelial tumor arising from the recesses of the Fossa of Rosenmller of the nasopharynx. Its distinctive worldwide distribution shows that certain regions of the world have higher frequencies of endemic NPC in comparison to other regions of the world, where this cancer is rare. […] Interestingly the development of this cancer appears to be associated with infection with a ubiquitous Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) early in life, as well as other host factors, and exposure to environmental factors such as diet. It is believed that host factors affecting EBV infection and carriage in a restricted latent state are involved in inherent genetic risk for NPC. […] The major histocompatibility leukocyte antigen (HLA) complex was implicated as contributing to NPC risk, with certain HLA subtypes showing higher frequencies in NPC patients compared to other healthy individuals in endemic regions for NPC. A genetic linkage of the chromosome 6p21 HLA region to NPC was reported.

• #29 Epidemiology and Outcomes of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma | IntechOpen

  https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/75804

  Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a rare head and neck neoplasm worldwide. […] The Epstein Barr virus (EBV) is associated closely with NPC. […] Notwithstanding the common burden of NPC in some endemic areas, the etiology and prevention of NPC is relatively unknown. […] The association between Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC), has marked geographic and ethnic differences in its incidence. […] The relationship of NPC to EBV-associated is known and proven, and EBV infection is one of the common infectious agents in the population. […] This relationship concluded the hypothesis that an EBV subtype of NPC plays a role in increasing the incidence of NPC in the epidemic regions. […] It is known that families with a history of cancer, particularly nasopharyngeal carcinoma, are 4 to 10 times more likely to develop nasopharyngeal carcinoma.

• #30 Nasopharyngeal Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459256/

  Dietary risk factors, such as diets high in preserved foods containing nitrosamines (particularly salted preserved fish), have also been postulated to confer additional risk of nasopharyngeal carcinoma. […] Some epidemiologic studies establish family clusters of nasopharyngeal cancer in endemic and nonendemic areas, suggesting ancestral genetics and environmental factors likely play an etiologic role. […] High circulating levels of EBV DNA are associated with poorer treatment response and higher rates of distant metastasis and mortality. […] The precise etiology of nasopharyngeal carcinoma is complex and not fully understood. Carcinogenesis is most likely due to hereditary genetics, environmental factors, and viral factors. […] In areas where EBV is not endemic, such as the US, smoking and alcohol have been identified as risk factors for nasopharyngeal carcinoma. […] This difference is reflected by WHO type 1 tumors, which are more variable in etiology and unrelated to EBV.

• #31 Nasopharyngeal Cancer: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21661-nasopharyngeal-cancer

  Nasopharyngeal cancer (NPC), also known as nasopharyngeal carcinoma, is a rare type of head and neck cancer. […] Nasopharyngeal cancer begins when abnormal cells in your nasopharynx start to grow out of control and form cancerous tumors that can spread to your lymph nodes, liver, lungs and bones. […] Experts arent exactly sure what causes nasopharyngeal cancer. However, certain lifestyle behaviors and medical conditions can increase your chance of developing the disease, including: […] Heavy smoking, or using any tobacco product. […] Frequent and heavy consumption of beverages that contain alcohol. […] Having Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). This is the same virus that causes mononucleosis. EBV is common in people diagnosed with nasopharyngeal cancer. […] Regularly eating salt-cured foods. People who eat diets rich in salt-cured meat and fish have a higher chance of developing nasopharyngeal cancer.

• #32 Nasopharyngeal cancer | World Cancer Research Fund

  https://www.wcrf.org/preventing-cancer/cancer-types/nasopharyngeal-cancer/

  Nasopharyngeal cancer is very rare in the UK but it is more common in some racial and ethnic groups, for example people of Chinese origin. […] We have strong evidence that certain types of salted fish, some of which are more common in Chinese diets, are a cause of nasopharyngeal cancer. […] Eating Cantonese-style salted fish is a cause of nasopharyngeal cancer. […] This means that people who eat a south-east Asian diet are at a higher risk of nasopharyngeal cancer. […] Smoking tobacco is a cause of nasopharyngeal cancer. About 23% of cases are caused by smoking. […] Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection is a cause of nasopharyngeal cancer. However, only a fraction of people infected with EBV develop nasopharyngeal cancer. […] Occupational exposure to wood dust and formaldehyde is a cause of nasopharyngeal cancer.

• #33 What Are the Risk Factors for Nasopharyngeal Cancer? | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/nasopharyngeal-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  NPC is found in males two to three more times more often than it is in females. […] NPC is most common in Asia, specifically eastern and southern China (including Hong Kong), Singapore, Vietnam, and the Philippines. […] People of south China have a lower risk of NPC if they move to another area that has lower rates of NPC (like the US or Japan), but their risk is still higher than for people who are native to areas with lower risk. […] People who live in parts of Asia, northern Africa, and the Arctic region where NPC is common, typically eat diets very high in salt-cured fish and meat starting at an early age. The process of cooking the salted food seems to make chemicals, such as nitrosamine, which is a probable carcinogen. […] In areas of the world where NPC is not common, older age is a risk factor.

• #34 Risk factors for nasopharyngeal cancer | Canadian Cancer Society

  https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/nasopharyngeal/risks

  Rates of nasopharyngeal cancer are high in areas where eating salt-cured foods, especially Chinese-style salted fish, is very common. People who were fed salt-cured fish when they were children, especially when they were weaning, also have a higher risk of developing nasopharyngeal cancer. […] Many people diagnosed with nasopharyngeal cancer have a high level of antibodies to EBV in their blood. […] Although many people with nasopharyngeal cancer have an EBV infection, not all people with an EBV infection develop nasopharyngeal cancer. EBV may cause nasopharyngeal cancer in people who also have other risk factors, such as ancestry or diet. […] Smoking tobacco increases your risk of nasopharyngeal cancer. The risk increases with the amount and length of time you smoke. […] Breathing in formaldehyde at work increases the risk of nasopharyngeal cancer. The longer you come into contact with formaldehyde, the greater your risk for developing the disease.

• #35 Nasopharyngeal carcinoma: A review of current updates

  https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/etm.2018.5878

  However, despite establishing lifelong latency in the majority of humans, only a small proportion of individuals infected with EBV develop cancer. This indicates that EBV alone is not a sufficient cause for this malignancy. Environmental exposures and/or genetic risk factors likely also play a role in the pathogenesis of this tumor. […] To date, established risk factors for type III NPC include Cantonese ethnicity, male sex, EBV infection, a family history of NPC, high consumption of salt-preserved fish, low intake of fresh vegetables and fruits intake, smoking, and some human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I alleles. […] The link between EBV and NPC was first proposed in 1966 when NPC patients were reported to have higher antibody response against an antigen that was later demonstrated as a product of EBV.

• #36 Nasopharyngeal Cancer Symptoms, Causes & Treatments

  https://www.cancercenter.com/cancer-types/head-and-neck-cancer/types/nasopharyngeal-cancer

  Place of residence and ethnicity. This cancer is more common in parts of Asia and Africa, as well as in Greenland and northwest Canada. […] In the United States, nasopharyngeal cancer occurs more frequently among Inuits in Alaska and people of Asian and Pacific Islander descent. […] Diet. Eating a diet higher in salt-cured meat and fish seems to increase the risk of developing nasopharyngeal cancer (while increased consumption of nuts, legumes, fruits and vegetables may be protective). […] Family history. The link between family history and the risk of developing nasopharyngeal cancer may have to do with genetics or shared environmental factorsresearchers arent completely sure. […] Tobacco and alcohol. Smoking tobacco and drinking heavily may play a role. […] Because this cancer is rare, there are still many unanswered questions about its causes.

• #37 Nasopharyngeal Cancer – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459256/

  Dietary risk factors, such as diets high in preserved foods containing nitrosamines (particularly salted preserved fish), have also been postulated to confer additional risk of nasopharyngeal carcinoma. […] Some epidemiologic studies establish family clusters of nasopharyngeal cancer in endemic and nonendemic areas, suggesting ancestral genetics and environmental factors likely play an etiologic role. […] High circulating levels of EBV DNA are associated with poorer treatment response and higher rates of distant metastasis and mortality. […] The precise etiology of nasopharyngeal carcinoma is complex and not fully understood. Carcinogenesis is most likely due to hereditary genetics, environmental factors, and viral factors. […] In areas where EBV is not endemic, such as the US, smoking and alcohol have been identified as risk factors for nasopharyngeal carcinoma. […] This difference is reflected by WHO type 1 tumors, which are more variable in etiology and unrelated to EBV.

• #38 Risks and causes of nasopharyngeal cancer | Cancer Research UK

  https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/nasopharyngeal-cancer/risks-causes

  Nasopharyngeal cancer is rare in the UK. Smoking certain substances and a history of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) are some of the risks and causes of nasopharyngeal cancer. […] Epstein Barr virus (EBV) is a very common virus that can increase the risk of nasopharyngeal cancer. Most people carry EBV and it does them no harm. […] In the UK, 80 out of 100 cases of nasopharyngeal cancer (80%) are caused by EBV. […] People who smoke or used to smoke are at an increased risk of nasopharyngeal cancer. In the UK, 25 out of 100 cases of nasopharyngeal cancer (25%) are caused by smoking. […] The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) lists eating salted fish (Chinese style) as a cause of nasopharyngeal cancer. […] The risk of nasopharyngeal cancer is higher in people who have a close relative who has had it. […] People exposed to wood dust through their work have an increased risk of nasopharyngeal cancer. […] People exposed to formaldehyde also have a small increased risk of nasopharyngeal cancer. […] Human papilloma virus (HPV) may be a risk factor for developing nasopharyngeal cancer.

• #39 Risk factors for nasopharyngeal cancer | Canadian Cancer Society

  https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/nasopharyngeal/risks

  Rates of nasopharyngeal cancer are high in areas where eating salt-cured foods, especially Chinese-style salted fish, is very common. People who were fed salt-cured fish when they were children, especially when they were weaning, also have a higher risk of developing nasopharyngeal cancer. […] Many people diagnosed with nasopharyngeal cancer have a high level of antibodies to EBV in their blood. […] Although many people with nasopharyngeal cancer have an EBV infection, not all people with an EBV infection develop nasopharyngeal cancer. EBV may cause nasopharyngeal cancer in people who also have other risk factors, such as ancestry or diet. […] Smoking tobacco increases your risk of nasopharyngeal cancer. The risk increases with the amount and length of time you smoke. […] Breathing in formaldehyde at work increases the risk of nasopharyngeal cancer. The longer you come into contact with formaldehyde, the greater your risk for developing the disease.

• #40 Is Nasopharyngeal Cancer Head and Neck Cancer? 7 Causes, 5 Symptoms

  https://www.medicinenet.com/is_nasopharyngeal_cancer_head_and_neck_cancer/article.htm

  NPC is more frequent in people who eat diets that are very high in salt-cured fish and meat. […] People with a family history of NPC have a high likelihood of getting the disease. Whether this is because of inherited genes, diet, or other shared environmental factors is unknown. […] Smoking and alcohol may increase your risk of NPC. […] Exposure to aromatic compounds present in certain incense sticks and workplace exposure to aromatic carbon compounds such as benzene, phenols, and formaldehyde may also cause NPC.

• #41 Nasopharyngeal Cancer ‣ Causes, Signs & Symptoms

  https://thancguide.org/cancer-types/throat/pharyngeal/nasopharyngeal/causes-signs-symptoms/

  There is no single definitive cause of nasopharyngeal cancer. Its a combination of genetics and environmental factors. […] Tobacco use is mainly associated with squamous cell carcinoma. This is one of the largest risk factors for nasopharyngeal cancer in the United States. […] Drinking excessive amounts of alcohol is also related to developing throat cancer. However, this risk is more than doubled when combined with smoking. […] For unknown reasons, people in southeastern China (especially in the Guangdong province) develop nasopharyngeal cancer more than people anywhere else in the world. […] A chemical called dimethylnitrosamine found in salted fish can increase the chance of getting cancer. […] This virus has been strongly linked to nasopharyngeal cancer. […] Nasopharyngeal cancer is up to seven times more common in people who have a first degree relative with nasopharyngeal cancer. Additionally, certain genes and ethnicities make a person more prone to developing nasopharyngeal cancer.

• #42 Risk factors for nasopharyngeal cancer | Canadian Cancer Society

  https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/nasopharyngeal/risks

  Rates of nasopharyngeal cancer are high in areas where eating salt-cured foods, especially Chinese-style salted fish, is very common. People who were fed salt-cured fish when they were children, especially when they were weaning, also have a higher risk of developing nasopharyngeal cancer. […] Many people diagnosed with nasopharyngeal cancer have a high level of antibodies to EBV in their blood. […] Although many people with nasopharyngeal cancer have an EBV infection, not all people with an EBV infection develop nasopharyngeal cancer. EBV may cause nasopharyngeal cancer in people who also have other risk factors, such as ancestry or diet. […] Smoking tobacco increases your risk of nasopharyngeal cancer. The risk increases with the amount and length of time you smoke. […] Breathing in formaldehyde at work increases the risk of nasopharyngeal cancer. The longer you come into contact with formaldehyde, the greater your risk for developing the disease.

• #43 Risk factors for nasopharyngeal cancer | Canadian Cancer Society

  https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/nasopharyngeal/risks

  Breathing in wood dust at work increases the risk of nasopharyngeal cancer. The longer you come into contact with wood dust, the greater your risk. […] A diet low in vegetables and fruit is a possible risk factor for nasopharyngeal cancer. This means that it has been linked with nasopharyngeal cancer, but there is not enough evidence to show for sure that it is a risk factor.

• #44 Nasopharyngeal Cancer and the Southeast Asian Patient | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2001/0501/p1776.html

  Occupational hazards, including exposures to formaldehyde, dust and smoke particulates, and certain aromatic hydrocarbons, have been investigated as risk factors for nasopharyngeal cancer. […] Epstein-Barr virus, a herpesvirus, is the causative agent in acute infectious mononucleosis and is also associated with Hodgkin’s disease, Burkitt’s lymphoma, lymphoproliferative disease in the post-transplant setting, and T-cell lymphoma. […] The link between nasopharyngeal cancer and Epstein-Barr virus was first observed in 1966, when the sera of patients with the malignancy were found to manifest precipitating antibodies against cells infected with the virus. […] Genetic susceptibility has also been proposed as a risk factor for the development of nasopharyngeal cancer.

• #45 What Are the Risk Factors for Nasopharyngeal Cancer? | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/nasopharyngeal-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  NPC is found in males two to three more times more often than it is in females. […] NPC is most common in Asia, specifically eastern and southern China (including Hong Kong), Singapore, Vietnam, and the Philippines. […] People of south China have a lower risk of NPC if they move to another area that has lower rates of NPC (like the US or Japan), but their risk is still higher than for people who are native to areas with lower risk. […] People who live in parts of Asia, northern Africa, and the Arctic region where NPC is common, typically eat diets very high in salt-cured fish and meat starting at an early age. The process of cooking the salted food seems to make chemicals, such as nitrosamine, which is a probable carcinogen. […] In areas of the world where NPC is not common, older age is a risk factor.

• #46 Nasopharyngeal Cancer Symptoms, Causes & Treatments

  https://www.cancercenter.com/cancer-types/head-and-neck-cancer/types/nasopharyngeal-cancer

  Nasopharyngeal cancer is relatively rare and starts in the upper throat (pharynx), behind the nose (naso), just above the roof of the mouth. […] While theres no one certain cause of nasopharyngeal cancer, research has linked a few factors to an increased risk of developing this tumor. […] One of the most interesting links is exposure to the very common Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), which causes mononucleosis. […] Many people who develop nasopharyngeal cancer also have evidence of an active EBV infection in their blood. […] Patients with high levels of EBV in their blood dont respond as well to treatment and may be at higher risk for the tumor to spread or become deadly. […] Other known risk factors include: Age. Risk increases slowly through life. […] Gender. Nasopharyngeal tumors are more common in people born male.

• #47 Nasopharyngeal cancer | World Cancer Research Fund

  https://www.wcrf.org/preventing-cancer/cancer-types/nasopharyngeal-cancer/

  Men are more likely to develop nasopharyngeal cancer than women. This is likely because of smoking and exposure to other risk factors rather than gender in and of itself. […] Older people are more at risk of developing nasopharyngeal cancer. […] There is some evidence that red meat may increase the risk of nasopharyngeal cancer. […] There is some evidence that processed meat may increase the risk of nasopharyngeal cancer. […] There is some evidence that preserved non-starchy vegetables may increase the risk of nasopharyngeal cancer. […] There is some evidence that eating more non-starchy vegetables may decrease the risk of nasopharyngeal cancer.

• #48 What Are the Risk Factors for Nasopharyngeal Cancer? | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/nasopharyngeal-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  NPC is found in males two to three more times more often than it is in females. […] NPC is most common in Asia, specifically eastern and southern China (including Hong Kong), Singapore, Vietnam, and the Philippines. […] People of south China have a lower risk of NPC if they move to another area that has lower rates of NPC (like the US or Japan), but their risk is still higher than for people who are native to areas with lower risk. […] People who live in parts of Asia, northern Africa, and the Arctic region where NPC is common, typically eat diets very high in salt-cured fish and meat starting at an early age. The process of cooking the salted food seems to make chemicals, such as nitrosamine, which is a probable carcinogen. […] In areas of the world where NPC is not common, older age is a risk factor.

• #49 What Are the Risk Factors for Nasopharyngeal Cancer? | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/nasopharyngeal-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html

  In places where NPC is more common, the cancer tends to be seen in younger people. […] Infection with the Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) is very common throughout the world, often occurring in children. […] EBV infection has been linked to the development of NPC, as well as certain lymphomas. […] The link between EBV infection and NPC is complex and still being studied. […] Some research shows that certain high-risk types of HPV may be linked to a small group of NPC cases especially in younger people who dont smoke. […] Family members of people with NPC are more likely to get this cancer. […] Studies have found that people with certain inherited tissue types have an increased risk of developing NPC. […] Many studies have found that smoking may contribute to the development of NPC. […] Some studies have also linked heavy drinking of alcohol to this type of cancer.

• #50 The etiology of nasopharyngeal carcinoma and challenges for its diagnosis and treatment monitoring – Lung – Annals of Nasopharynx Cancer

  https://anpc.amegroups.org/article/view/6347/html

  There is an intimate association of EBV with NPC development in high-risk endemic regions of NPC. Early serological studies identified a close correlation of EBV infections in NPC patients. An important role of EBV in NPC pathogenesis was established. […] The incidence of NPC has a peak in individuals in their upper forties and lower fifties, which is much younger than occurs with most other cancer types. […] NPC biomarkers include both host and viral-related genes. Early studies of NPC showed that EBV serology was a useful predictor of NPC. […] Detection of circulating cell-free tumor DNA in blood of NPC patients showed that detection of EBV plasma DNA was useful for early diagnosis, as well as monitoring for relapse after treatment. […] The current immense interest in non-invasive liquid biopsies is based on exciting and robust values of plasma EBV ctDNAs, as a marker for early screening, prognosis and detection of recurrence of NPC. Pre-treatment and post-treatment levels of EBV DNA in plasma specimens of NPC patients are highly predictive of clinical recurrence or distant metastasis. […] Detection of CTCs, miRNAs, and DNA hypermethylation of host genes involved in NPC tumorigenesis have potential to contribute to the NPC detection and patient management.

• #51 Pathogenesis and Etiology of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma | SpringerLink

  https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-540-92810-2_2

  An intermediate incidence has been reported in Alaskan Eskimos and in the Mediterranean basin (North Africa, Southern Italy, Greece, and Turkey), ranging from 15 to 20 cases per 100,000 persons (Chan et al. 2002). […] Overall, NPC can occur in all age groups, but has a bimodal age distribution. The incidence peaks at 5060 years of age, and a small peak is observed during late childhood (Jeyakumar et al. 2006).

• #52 Exploring the influence of age on the causes of death in advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma patients undergoing chemoradiotherapy using machine learning methods | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-86178-6

  Further analysis of CODs revealed that older NPC patients had a higher incidence of CVDs and SMNs as a cause of mortality than their younger counterparts. […] The time-dependent variable importance bar plots revealed that age had the greatest influence on 3-, 5-, and 10-year survival, followed by metastasis and tumor stage. […] These findings highlight the importance of integrating machine learning models into clinical decision-making to improve risk stratification and tailor treatment strategies for NPC patients.

• #53 Exploring the influence of age on the causes of death in advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma patients undergoing chemoradiotherapy using machine learning methods | Scientific Reports

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-86178-6

  The present study analyzed the impact of age on the causes of death (CODs) in patients with nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) undergoing chemoradiotherapy (CRT) using machine learning approaches. […] Mounting evidence has shown that age is an important prognostic factor in patients with NPC, influencing both treatment response and survival outcomes. […] Younger patients typically demonstrate better overall survival (OS) rates than their older counterparts, potentially due to better treatment tolerance and fewer age-related complications. […] Our findings showed that younger patients had longer OS than their older counterparts both before and after IPTW adjustment. […] Moreover, older patients exhibited higher cumulative incidences of NRDs and deaths from other causes, highlighting the complexity of managing NPC in an aging population.

• #54 Nasopharyngeal carcinoma – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasopharyngeal_carcinoma

  Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC), or nasopharynx cancer, is the most common cancer originating in the nasopharynx, most commonly in the postero-lateral nasopharynx or pharyngeal recess (fossa of Rosenmüller), accounting for 50% of cases. […] NPC differs significantly from other cancers of the head and neck in its occurrence, causes, clinical behavior, and treatment. It is vastly more common in certain regions of East Asia and Africa than elsewhere, with viral, dietary and genetic factors implicated in its causation. […] NPC is caused by a combination of factors: viral, environmental influences, and heredity. […] The viral influence is associated with infection with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). […] Other likely causes include genetic susceptibility and consumption of preserved meats and salted fish containing carcinogenic volatile nitrosamines.

• #55 Nasopharyngeal carcinoma | Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases | Full Text

  https://ojrd.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1750-1172-1-23

  Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a tumor arising from the epithelial cells that cover the surface and line the nasopharynx. […] Etiological factors include Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), genetic susceptibility and consumption of food with possible carcinogens volatile nitrosamines. […] The etiology of NPC (particularly the endemic form) seems to follow a multi-step process, in which EBV, ethnic background, and environmental carcinogens all seem to play an important role. […] In adults, other likely etiological factors include genetic susceptibility, consumption of food (in particular salted fish) containing carcinogenic volatile nitrosamines, and as in children, EBV. […] The detection of nuclear antigen associated with Epstein-Barr virus (EBNA) and viral DNA in NPC type 2 and 3, has revealed that EBV can infect epithelial cells and is associated with their transformation.

• #56 Nasopharyngeal carcinoma: A review of current updates

  https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/etm.2018.5878

  However, despite establishing lifelong latency in the majority of humans, only a small proportion of individuals infected with EBV develop cancer. This indicates that EBV alone is not a sufficient cause for this malignancy. Environmental exposures and/or genetic risk factors likely also play a role in the pathogenesis of this tumor. […] To date, established risk factors for type III NPC include Cantonese ethnicity, male sex, EBV infection, a family history of NPC, high consumption of salt-preserved fish, low intake of fresh vegetables and fruits intake, smoking, and some human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I alleles. […] The link between EBV and NPC was first proposed in 1966 when NPC patients were reported to have higher antibody response against an antigen that was later demonstrated as a product of EBV.

• #57 Etiological factors of nasopharyngeal carcinoma – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24630258/

  Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a common disease among southern Chinese. The major etiological factors proposed for NPC pathogenesis include genetic susceptibility, environment factors and EBV infection. […] In the high risk population, genetic susceptibility to NPC has been mapped to the HLA loci and adjacent genes in MHC region on chromosome 6p21. Consumption of preserved food including salted fish has been implicated in its etiology in earlier studies. Its contribution to pathogenesis of NPC remains to be determined. […] Despite the close association of EBV infection with NPC, the etiological role of EBV in NPC pathogenesis remains enigmatic. EBV infection in primary nasopharyngeal epithelial cells is uncommon and difficult to achieve. EBV does not transform primary nasopharyngeal epithelial cells into proliferative clones, which contrasts greatly with the well-documented ability of EBV to transform and immortalize primary B cells. Genetic alterations identified in premalignant nasopharyngeal epithelium may play crucial roles to support stable EBV infection. Subsequently, latent and lytic EBV gene products may drive clonal expansion and transformation of premalignant nasopharyngeal epithelial cells into cancer cells. […] Understanding the etiological factors and pathogenesis of NPC will contribute effectively to the prevention and treatment of this disease.

• #58 Etiological factors of nasopharyngeal carcinoma – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24630258/

  Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a common disease among southern Chinese. The major etiological factors proposed for NPC pathogenesis include genetic susceptibility, environment factors and EBV infection. […] In the high risk population, genetic susceptibility to NPC has been mapped to the HLA loci and adjacent genes in MHC region on chromosome 6p21. Consumption of preserved food including salted fish has been implicated in its etiology in earlier studies. Its contribution to pathogenesis of NPC remains to be determined. […] Despite the close association of EBV infection with NPC, the etiological role of EBV in NPC pathogenesis remains enigmatic. EBV infection in primary nasopharyngeal epithelial cells is uncommon and difficult to achieve. EBV does not transform primary nasopharyngeal epithelial cells into proliferative clones, which contrasts greatly with the well-documented ability of EBV to transform and immortalize primary B cells. Genetic alterations identified in premalignant nasopharyngeal epithelium may play crucial roles to support stable EBV infection. Subsequently, latent and lytic EBV gene products may drive clonal expansion and transformation of premalignant nasopharyngeal epithelial cells into cancer cells. […] Understanding the etiological factors and pathogenesis of NPC will contribute effectively to the prevention and treatment of this disease.

• #59 Nasopharyngeal carcinoma: A review of current updates

  https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/etm.2018.5878

  This magnitude of association is among the highest of any malignancy, suggesting that environmental factors themselves cannot fully explain the observed association. Genes and environmental exposures likely play a combined role in the etiology of NPC. […] An inheritance pattern that cannot be explained by activation of a single major susceptibility gene is supported by results from a complex segregation analysis of familial NPC showing that the etiology of NPC involves interaction of multiple genetic and environmental factors.

• #60 The etiology of nasopharyngeal carcinoma and challenges for its diagnosis and treatment monitoring – Lung – Annals of Nasopharynx Cancer

  https://anpc.amegroups.org/article/view/6347/html

  There is an intimate association of EBV with NPC development in high-risk endemic regions of NPC. Early serological studies identified a close correlation of EBV infections in NPC patients. An important role of EBV in NPC pathogenesis was established. […] The incidence of NPC has a peak in individuals in their upper forties and lower fifties, which is much younger than occurs with most other cancer types. […] NPC biomarkers include both host and viral-related genes. Early studies of NPC showed that EBV serology was a useful predictor of NPC. […] Detection of circulating cell-free tumor DNA in blood of NPC patients showed that detection of EBV plasma DNA was useful for early diagnosis, as well as monitoring for relapse after treatment. […] The current immense interest in non-invasive liquid biopsies is based on exciting and robust values of plasma EBV ctDNAs, as a marker for early screening, prognosis and detection of recurrence of NPC. Pre-treatment and post-treatment levels of EBV DNA in plasma specimens of NPC patients are highly predictive of clinical recurrence or distant metastasis. […] Detection of CTCs, miRNAs, and DNA hypermethylation of host genes involved in NPC tumorigenesis have potential to contribute to the NPC detection and patient management.

• #61 The etiology of nasopharyngeal carcinoma and challenges for its diagnosis and treatment monitoring – Lung – Annals of Nasopharynx Cancer

  https://anpc.amegroups.org/article/view/6347/html

  There is an intimate association of EBV with NPC development in high-risk endemic regions of NPC. Early serological studies identified a close correlation of EBV infections in NPC patients. An important role of EBV in NPC pathogenesis was established. […] The incidence of NPC has a peak in individuals in their upper forties and lower fifties, which is much younger than occurs with most other cancer types. […] NPC biomarkers include both host and viral-related genes. Early studies of NPC showed that EBV serology was a useful predictor of NPC. […] Detection of circulating cell-free tumor DNA in blood of NPC patients showed that detection of EBV plasma DNA was useful for early diagnosis, as well as monitoring for relapse after treatment. […] The current immense interest in non-invasive liquid biopsies is based on exciting and robust values of plasma EBV ctDNAs, as a marker for early screening, prognosis and detection of recurrence of NPC. Pre-treatment and post-treatment levels of EBV DNA in plasma specimens of NPC patients are highly predictive of clinical recurrence or distant metastasis. […] Detection of CTCs, miRNAs, and DNA hypermethylation of host genes involved in NPC tumorigenesis have potential to contribute to the NPC detection and patient management.

• #62 The etiology of nasopharyngeal carcinoma and challenges for its diagnosis and treatment monitoring – Lung – Annals of Nasopharynx Cancer

  https://anpc.amegroups.org/article/view/6347/html

  There is an intimate association of EBV with NPC development in high-risk endemic regions of NPC. Early serological studies identified a close correlation of EBV infections in NPC patients. An important role of EBV in NPC pathogenesis was established. […] The incidence of NPC has a peak in individuals in their upper forties and lower fifties, which is much younger than occurs with most other cancer types. […] NPC biomarkers include both host and viral-related genes. Early studies of NPC showed that EBV serology was a useful predictor of NPC. […] Detection of circulating cell-free tumor DNA in blood of NPC patients showed that detection of EBV plasma DNA was useful for early diagnosis, as well as monitoring for relapse after treatment. […] The current immense interest in non-invasive liquid biopsies is based on exciting and robust values of plasma EBV ctDNAs, as a marker for early screening, prognosis and detection of recurrence of NPC. Pre-treatment and post-treatment levels of EBV DNA in plasma specimens of NPC patients are highly predictive of clinical recurrence or distant metastasis. […] Detection of CTCs, miRNAs, and DNA hypermethylation of host genes involved in NPC tumorigenesis have potential to contribute to the NPC detection and patient management.

• #63 The etiology of nasopharyngeal carcinoma and challenges for its diagnosis and treatment monitoring – Lung – Annals of Nasopharynx Cancer

  https://anpc.amegroups.org/article/view/6347/html

  There is an intimate association of EBV with NPC development in high-risk endemic regions of NPC. Early serological studies identified a close correlation of EBV infections in NPC patients. An important role of EBV in NPC pathogenesis was established. […] The incidence of NPC has a peak in individuals in their upper forties and lower fifties, which is much younger than occurs with most other cancer types. […] NPC biomarkers include both host and viral-related genes. Early studies of NPC showed that EBV serology was a useful predictor of NPC. […] Detection of circulating cell-free tumor DNA in blood of NPC patients showed that detection of EBV plasma DNA was useful for early diagnosis, as well as monitoring for relapse after treatment. […] The current immense interest in non-invasive liquid biopsies is based on exciting and robust values of plasma EBV ctDNAs, as a marker for early screening, prognosis and detection of recurrence of NPC. Pre-treatment and post-treatment levels of EBV DNA in plasma specimens of NPC patients are highly predictive of clinical recurrence or distant metastasis. […] Detection of CTCs, miRNAs, and DNA hypermethylation of host genes involved in NPC tumorigenesis have potential to contribute to the NPC detection and patient management.

• #64 Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Treatment (PDQ®) – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/head-and-neck/hp/adult/nasopharyngeal-treatment-pdq

  Less than one person out of 100,000 is diagnosed with nasopharyngeal carcinoma in the world each year, with most cases found in southern China, Southeast Asia, the Arctic, and the Middle East/North Africa. The incidence is higher in males than in females. […] Nonkeratinizing subtypes are associated with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection and account for most cases. […] Risk factors for nasopharyngeal carcinoma include the following: […] Risk factors for nonkeratinizing carcinoma (WHO grades II and III): Asian race, EBV exposure, family history. […] EBV DNA in plasma samples in endemic populations may be useful in screening for early asymptomatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Circulating cancer-derived EBV DNA in plasma is an established tumor marker for nasopharyngeal carcinoma, with a sensitivity of 96% and a specificity of 93%.

• #65 Insights into the etiology of nasopharyngeal carcinoma

  https://medicalxpress.com/news/2021-11-insights-etiology-nasopharyngeal-carcinoma.html

  Nasopharyngeal carcinoma, NPC, is a rare tumor of the head and neck, which originates in the nasopharynx at the very back of the nose. NPC has a particularly high incidence in southern China, Southeast Asia, and North and East Africa and is rare in the rest of the world. Little is known about its etiology but it is believed that genetic predisposition, environmental factors, and infection with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) are involved. […] Some of our findings show that individuals exposed to both residential and occupational risk factors are at increased risk of NPC. We also saw an oral fungal dysbiosis characterized by reduced fungal community richness and diversity, as well as an increased abundance in pathogenic fungi and a decrease in commensal fungi may contribute to the development of NPC. These findings may help better understand the etiology of NPC, and have public health implications for preventing or mitigating the burden of NPC in endemic areas.

• #66 Descriptive epidemiology of nasopharyngeal carcinoma at Tikur Anbessa Hospital, Ethiopia | BMC Cancer | Full Text

  https://bmccancer.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12885-021-08311-8

  Nasopharyngeal cancer is distinguished from other cancers of the head and neck in its epidemiology, histopathology, clinical characteristics, and therapeutic outcome. […] The distinct geographic and ethnic variations of NPC worldwide suggest that both environmental factors and genetic traits contribute to its development. […] The link between NPC and Epstein-Barr virus is well established, as patients with this malignancy were found to have a raised antibody titers against the virus. […] Most notably, the nonkeratinizing neoplasms as evidenced in this study are likely caused by chronic subclinical EBV infection similar to what has been observed in endemic regions. […] Therefore, environmental exposures and/or genetic risk factors are also more likely to play a role in the pathogenesis of EBV related NK NPC in endemic regions of the world. […] Indicating that Ethiopia is still an unexplored region regarding nasopharyngeal carcinoma, large scale studies need to be conducted to study the endemicity, as well as identify the sole etiologic factors in the region.

• #67 Etiological factors of nasopharyngeal carcinoma – PubMed

  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24630258/

  Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a common disease among southern Chinese. The major etiological factors proposed for NPC pathogenesis include genetic susceptibility, environment factors and EBV infection. […] In the high risk population, genetic susceptibility to NPC has been mapped to the HLA loci and adjacent genes in MHC region on chromosome 6p21. Consumption of preserved food including salted fish has been implicated in its etiology in earlier studies. Its contribution to pathogenesis of NPC remains to be determined. […] Despite the close association of EBV infection with NPC, the etiological role of EBV in NPC pathogenesis remains enigmatic. EBV infection in primary nasopharyngeal epithelial cells is uncommon and difficult to achieve. EBV does not transform primary nasopharyngeal epithelial cells into proliferative clones, which contrasts greatly with the well-documented ability of EBV to transform and immortalize primary B cells. Genetic alterations identified in premalignant nasopharyngeal epithelium may play crucial roles to support stable EBV infection. Subsequently, latent and lytic EBV gene products may drive clonal expansion and transformation of premalignant nasopharyngeal epithelial cells into cancer cells. […] Understanding the etiological factors and pathogenesis of NPC will contribute effectively to the prevention and treatment of this disease.

• #68 Nasopharyngeal Cancer and the Southeast Asian Patient | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2001/0501/p1776.html

  Because of a documented increased incidence, nasopharyngeal cancer should be considered when signs or symptoms of ear, nose and throat disease are present in patients from southern China (in particular, Hong Kong and the province of Guangdong) or Southeast Asia. Environmental factors, the Epstein-Barr virus and genetic factors have been associated with the development of nasopharyngeal cancer. […] The consumption of salted fish and other salt-preserved foods, including eggs, leafy vegetables and roots, in early childhood has been documented as a substantial risk factor for the development of nasopharyngeal cancer in Malaysian Chinese. Similarly, salted-fish consumption in early childhood has been correlated with an unusually high incidence of nasopharyngeal cancer in the boat communities of Hong Kong’s harbors.

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