Otwór plamki żółtej
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Otwór plamki żółtej (OPŻ) to pełnościenny ubytek siatkówki obejmujący obszar plamki, powstający w wyniku złożonych mechanizmów trakcyjnych i hydrodynamicznych. Kluczową rolę w patogenezie idiopatycznych otworów odgrywają siły dynamiczne generowane przez ruchomą tylną korę ciała szklistego oraz trakcja szklistkowo-plamkowa (VMT), obejmująca zarówno trakcję przednio-tylną, jak i styczną. Proces formowania się otworu przebiega etapowo, począwszy od powstania torbieli dołkowej, przez rozdarcie dachu torbieli, aż do całkowitego oderwania operculum i odśrodkowej retrakcji fotoreceptorów. Błona graniczna zewnętrzna (ELM) oraz stożek komórek Müllera pełnią istotne funkcje strukturalne i regulacyjne, a ich uszkodzenie przyczynia się do progresji ubytku. W patogenezie uwzględnia się także teorię nawodnienia siatkówki, gdzie płyn ciała szklistego penetruje warstwy siatkówki, powodując jej obrzęk i powiększanie otworu. Czynniki ryzyka obejmują wiek powyżej 60 lat, płeć żeńską, wysoką krótkowzroczność oraz zmiany hormonalne, zwłaszcza w okresie pomenopauzalnym.

Patogeneza otworu plamki żółtej

Otwór plamki żółtej (OPŻ) jest pełnościennym ubytkiem siatkówki obejmującym obszar plamki żółtej, który rozciąga się od błony granicznej wewnętrznej do nabłonka barwnikowego siatkówki. Ta patologia stanowi istotny problem kliniczny, prowadząc do upośledzenia widzenia centralnego, metamorfopsji oraz centralnego mroczka.123 Przez lata rozumienie mechanizmów powstawania otworu plamki ewoluowało, prowadząc do współczesnych koncepcji patogenetycznych.

Rola ciała szklistego w patogenezie

Tradycyjnie otwór plamki żółtej postrzegany był jako zaburzenie na granicy szklistkowo-siatkówkowej, powstające w wyniku nieprawidłowej trakcji ciała szklistego spowodowanej niecałkowitym odłączeniem tylnej części ciała szklistego.12 Obecnie wiadomo, że w powstawaniu idiopatycznego otworu plamki żółtej kluczową rolę odgrywają siły dynamiczne oraz trakcja szklistkowo-plamkowa.

Badania wykazały, że siły dynamiczne wywołane przez ruchomą tylną korową część ciała szklistego z prądami płynowymi są obecne już we wczesnych stadiach rozwoju otworu plamki. W oczach z elastycznym ciałem szklistym, udział sił trakcyjnych wynikających z kurczenia się ciała szklistego jest mało prawdopodobny. Wskazuje to, że w rozwoju idiopatycznych otworów plamki żółtej istnieje większy wkład sił dynamicznych niż wcześniej sądzono.12

Adhezja szklistkowo-plamkowa (VMA) może być ogniskowa lub szeroka, obejmując jedynie dołeczek lub szerszy obszar plamki i tarczy nerwu wzrokowego. Kiedy ta adhezja wywiera siły trakcyjne (określane jako trakcja szklistkowo-plamkowa, VMT), prowadzi to do zniekształcenia i uszkodzenia siatkówki. Co istotne, zwiększanie szerokości VMA związane jest ze zmniejszoną siłą trakcyjną, a tym samym mniejszym odkształceniem dołka.1

Mechanizmy trakcyjne

W patogenezie otworu plamki żółtej wyróżnia się dwa główne typy sił trakcyjnych:

  • Trakcja przednio-tylna (anteroposterior) – powstaje w wyniku dynamicznych sił trakcyjnych na nieprawidłowo utrzymującej się adhezji szklistkowo-dołkowej po odłączeniu ciała szklistego wokół dołka.1
  • Trakcja styczna (tangential) – może wynikać z kurczenia się przedplamkowej części kory ciała szklistego po inwazji i proliferacji komórek Müllera.23

Dowodem na rolę przyczepu tylnej części ciała szklistego w rozwoju otworów plamki żółtej jest zwiększone ryzyko rozwoju otworu plamki w drugim oku u osób z jednostronnym otworem plamki oraz związek z późniejszym powiększaniem się już istniejących otworów.3

Etapy formowania otworu plamki

Formowanie się otworu plamki żółtej zwykle przebiega w kilku etapach:12

  1. Trakcja szklistkowo-dołkowa może prowadzić do oddzielenia stożka komórek Müllera od leżących pod nim fotoreceptorów dołeczka, powodując powstanie schizy lub torbieli dołkowej.
  2. Rozdarcie w dachu torbieli dołkowej rozszerza się poprzez ekspansję centryczną lub peri-centryczną, tworząc półksiężycowaty otwór, który postępuje do rozdarcia w kształcie podkowy.
  3. Następnie całkowite oderwanie dachu torbieli prowadzi do całkowicie odłączonego operculum, które jest zawieszone na tylnej korze ciała szklistego w płaszczyźnie przedplamkowej.
  4. Warstwa fotoreceptorów, która nie jest już zakotwiczona przez stożek komórek Müllera w dołeczku, ulega biernej retrakcji odśrodkowej, tworząc pełnościenny otwór siatkówki z odśrodkowym przemieszczeniem ksantofilu.
  5. Brzeg otworu staje się stopniowo uniesiony przez mankiet płynu podsiatkówkowego, często z towarzyszącym pogrubieniem siatkówki neurosensorycznej, co może wynikać z nawodnienia siatkówki przez rekrutację płynu szklistego przez otwór, powodując dalsze uniesienie brzegów otworu.

Koncepcja komórek Müllera i stożka centralnego

W 1999 roku Gass podkreślił znaczenie stożka komórek Müllera w dołeczku, opisanego wcześniej przez Yamadę i Hogana w badaniach histologicznych normalnego dołeczka ludzkiego. Gass zasugerował, że stożek komórek Müllera pełni trzy ważne funkcje w powstawaniu otworu plamki:1

  • Glejowe komórki zawierają skoncentrowany powierzchniowy ksantofil, który migruje odśrodkowo podczas tworzenia pełnościennego otworu plamki i może być widoczny jako żółta plamka lub żółty pierścień.
  • Stożek Müllera zapewnia wsparcie strukturalne dla promieniujących wewnętrznych segmentów czopków w dołeczku, a jego przerwanie może prowadzić do uszkodzenia i atrofii komórek czopkowych znajdujących się w tym obszarze.
  • Komórki Müllera w stożku wnikają do przedołkowej kory ciała szklistego i inicjują przebudowę komórkową i kurczenie się. Powoduje to trakcję styczną na dołeczku, odśrodkową migrację fotoreceptorów i ksantofilu, powodując dalsze przerwanie stożka Müllera i ostatecznie rozejście się pępka.

Błona graniczna zewnętrzna (ELM) stanowi połączenie między komórkami glejowymi Müllera a komórkami fotoreceptorowymi i służy jako bariera przed makrocząsteczkami. ELM został ustalony jako pierwsza strukturalna bariera siatkówki.1

Teoria nawodnienia

Teoria nawodnienia, zaproponowana przez Tornambe w 2003 roku na podstawie obrazów OCT 3, sugeruje, że patogeneza otworu plamki zaczyna się od początkowego zdarzenia trakcyjnego: trakcja przednio-tylna na dołeczku tworzy ubytek wewnętrznej siatkówki, przez który płyn ciała szklistego wnika do siatkówki.12

Zgodnie z tą teorią, w oczach podatnych istnieje stabilny punkt przylegania między tylną powierzchnią ciała szklistego a centralną plamką. Jeśli trakcja tylna ciała szklistego rozdziera wewnętrzną siatkówkę dołkową, OCT 3 sugeruje, że płyn ciała szklistego wsiąka w warstwy plamki, początkowo tworząc jamę w wewnętrznej siatkówce, a następnie penetrując głębiej, gromadząc się bocznie w zewnętrznej warstwie splotowatej. W miarę narastania obrzęku otwór się powiększa.3

Połączona teoria trakcyjno-nawodnieniowa sugeruje, że torbielowate nawodnienie siatkówki odgrywa centralną rolę w rozwoju pełnościennego otworu plamki, a odwodnienie siatkówki jest kluczowe dla zamknięcia otworu. Kilka badań obserwacyjnych sugeruje, że leczenie pełnościennego otworu plamki miejscowymi steroidami, inhibitorami anhydrazy węglanowej i/lub NLPZ może ułatwić odwodnienie torbielowate.1

Czynniki ryzyka i predyspozycje

Istnieje kilka czynników, które mogą predysponować do rozwoju otworu plamki żółtej:

  • Wiek – otwory plamki częściej występują u osób starszych, zwłaszcza po 60. roku życia1
  • Płeć – kobiety są bardziej narażone, szczególnie w okresie pomenopauzalnym12
  • Zmiany inwolucyjne plamki – ścieńczenie dołkowe związane z wiekiem może być czynnikiem predysponującym1
  • Wysoka krótkowzroczność – prowadzi do nieprawidłowej fizyki szklistkowo-siatkówkowej i ścieńczenia siatkówki w centrum1
  • Zmiany hormonalne – wahania stężenia estrogenów, szczególnie nagły spadek ich poziomu w okresie menopauzy, może wpływać na komórki czopkowe i komórki Müllera, prowadząc do uszkodzenia struktury dołka12

Otwory plamki pourazowe

Otwory plamki pourazowe mają odmienną patogenezę niż otwory idiopatyczne. Uważa się, że powstają w wyniku przekazania siły wstrząsu w sposób contrecoup, co prowadzi do natychmiastowego pęknięcia plamki w jej najcieńszym punkcie.12

Mechanizm formowania się otworu plamki po tępym urazie jest kontrowersyjny. Główne rozważane hipotezy to:1

  • Rozciągnięcie siatkówki, spowodowane deformacją gałki ocznej lub siłą uderzenia w biegun tylny w momencie urazu, może spowodować pęknięcie plamki
  • Torbielowata degeneracja plamki w wyniku bezpośredniego urazu może prowadzić do późniejszego utworzenia otworu
  • Odłączenie tylnego ciała szklistego z powodu urazu może spowodować rozejście się plamki

Według Gassa, mechanizmy, dzięki którym tępy uraz powoduje otwór plamki, mogą być jednym lub kombinacją następujących czynników: martwica i degeneracja torbielowata po stłuczeniu, krwotok poddołkowy spowodowany pęknięciem naczyniówki oraz trakcja przednio-tylna ciała szklistego.2

Najnowsze koncepcje patogenetyczne

Współczesne badania z wykorzystaniem zaawansowanych technik obrazowania, w tym spektralnej optycznej koherentnej tomografii (SD-OCT) i ultrasonografii, pozwoliły na lepsze zrozumienie procesów patogenetycznych prowadzących do powstania otworu plamki żółtej.

Rola trakcji dynamicznych

Guyer i Green oraz Johnson zasugerowali, że dynamiczne siły trakcyjne generowane przez ruch tylnej kory ciała szklistego podczas rotacji oka mogą odgrywać ważną rolę w rozwoju otworu plamki. Mori i wsp. również opisali mobilność tylnej kory ciała szklistego, używając systemu śledzenia OCT.1

Badania wykazały, że siły dynamiczne, spowodowane ruchomą tylną korą ciała szklistego z prądami płynowymi, istnieją już na wczesnych etapach rozwoju otworu plamki. W oczach z elastycznym ciałem szklistym, udział sił trakcyjnych wynikających z kurczenia się ciała szklistego jest mało prawdopodobny. Wskazuje to, że w rozwoju idiopatycznych otworów plamki jest większy wkład sił dynamicznych niż wcześniej sądzono.1

Rola badań obrazowych w zrozumieniu patogenezy

Optyczna koherentna tomografia (OCT) dostarczyła ważnych informacji na temat patogenezy rozwoju otworu plamki i mechanizmu naprawy chirurgicznej.12

Wprowadzenie optycznej koherentnej tomografii pozwoliło naukowcom badać dokładną relację między ciałem szklistym a dołkiem w rozwoju otworów plamki. Dowody OCT sugerują, że w większości otworów plamki pierwszym krokiem jest faktycznie utworzenie pseudotorbieli dołkowej (rozdzielenie siatkówki w dołku). Postuluje się, że przednie siły trakcyjne z przedplamkowej kory ciała szklistego powodują powstanie tej pseudotorbieli.1

Szybka OCT oferuje trójwymiarowe obrazowanie otworów plamki, co ułatwia zrozumienie nieprawidłowości w interfejsie szklistkowo-dołkowym.2

Teoria multifaktorialna

W rzeczywistości etiologia otworu plamki jest prawdopodobnie wieloczynnikowa, a określenie, które zdarzenie jest pierwotne, jest mniej ważne niż rozpoznanie, że trakcja szklistkowo-plamkowa, rozejście się dołeczka i inne czynniki odgrywają rolę.1

Teoria VTM (vitreo-macular traction) dotycząca patogenezy otworu plamki zyskała na popularności wraz z rozpoznaniem, że obwodowe przedarcia siatkówki występują wtórnie do trakcji szklistkowo-siatkówkowej oraz że istnieje silna adhezja między ciałem szklistym a dołkiem.1

Istnieją dowody, że trakcja przednio-tylna może nie być jedynym czynnikiem w powstawaniu otworu plamki. Badacze udokumentowali tworzenie się otworu plamki po całkowitym PVD/witrektomii, a także spontaniczne zamknięcie otworu plamki w oczach bez PVD (udokumentowane przez OCT). Takie obserwacje doprowadziły do opracowania innych teorii patogenezy otworu plamki, takich jak model hydrodynamiczny, w którym otwór plamki jest formowany lub utrzymywany przez przepływ płynu spowodowany przez pompę nabłonka barwnikowego siatkówki plamki.2

Implikacje patogenezy dla leczenia

Zrozumienie mechanizmów patogenetycznych ma kluczowe znaczenie dla opracowania skutecznych strategii leczenia otworów plamki żółtej.

Witrektomia jako podstawa leczenia

Podstawową metodą leczenia otworów plamki jest witrektomia z peelingiem błony granicznej wewnętrznej (ILM), osiągająca wskaźniki zamknięcia wynoszące 80-100%.1

Skuteczne zamknięcie anatomiczne otworu plamki po chirurgicznym usunięciu ciała szklistego pośrednio dowodzi jego patologicznej roli.1

W przypadku większych otworów plamki (zdefiniowanych jako otwór z MLD ≥400 μm) wskaźniki zamknięcia są niższe. Wskaźnik zamknięcia wynosi 90% dla otworów mniejszych niż 650 mikronów i 76% dla otworów większych niż 650 mikronów.1

Nowoczesne podejścia terapeutyczne

W przypadku trudnych do zamknięcia otworów plamki opracowano nowsze techniki, takie jak technika odwróconego płatka ILM, gdzie ILM jest częściowo zdjęta, a następnie odwrócona i użyta do pokrycia otworu. Ta technika jest zarezerwowana dla większych otworów.12

Najnowsze badania koncentrują się również na wykorzystaniu koncentratów płytkowych jako obiecującej interwencji adjuwantowej. Płytki działają jako naturalny rezerwuar czynników wzrostu, w tym czynnika wzrostu śródbłonka naczyniowego (VEGF), płytkopochodnego czynnika wzrostu (PDGF) i naskórkowego czynnika wzrostu (EGF). Po zetknięciu się ze zmienionym lub uszkodzonym tkanką, taką jak warstwy siatkówki otworu plamki, te czynniki wzrostu są uwalniane przez płytki. W konsekwencji mogą one odgrywać kluczową rolę w regeneracji ubytków plamki.1

Mechanizm zamknięcia FTMH poprzez leczenie medyczne nie jest w pełni zrozumiały, ale badacze wysuwają hipotezę, że leki mogą ułatwić zamknięcie otworu plamki poprzez zmniejszenie stanu zapalnego, redukcję obrzęku i odwodnienie siatkówki.1

Większość FTMH wymaga interwencji chirurgicznej w celu zamknięcia; jednak istnieją pewne otwory, które mogą być bardziej podatne na zamknięcie poprzez postępowanie medyczne. Oczy bez istniejącej wcześniej trakcji szklistkowo-plamkowej mogą lepiej reagować na leczenie miejscowe niż na witrektomię. Otwory z resztkową trakcją z warstw szklistkowo-siatkówkowych i nadbłonkowych również są mniej podatne na zamknięcie za pomocą leczenia medycznego i mogą wymagać interwencji chirurgicznej w celu usunięcia trakcji na otworze.2

Rokowanie i czynniki prognostyczne

Pomyślny wynik pooperacyjny zamknięcia otworu plamki koreluje z przedoperacyjnym rozmiarem otworu.1

Wskaźnik powodzenia witrektomii wynosi ponad 90%. Operacja jest najbardziej skuteczna, gdy otwór jest mniejszy i bardziej świeży. Jeśli leczenie nastąpi wcześniej lub jeśli otwór jest mały, rokowanie jest dobre.1

Badania wykazały również, że spontaniczne zamknięcie się otworu następuje po ustąpieniu adhezji szklistkowo-dołkowej i uwolnieniu tylnego ciała szklistego. Inni twierdzą, że mechanizmy zapalne umożliwiają przebudowę i spontaniczne zamknięcie otworu plamki.1

Pacjenci pediatryczni, z wielu powodów, są bardziej narażeni na spontaniczne zamknięcie i dobre rokowanie wzrokowe, co dodatkowo potwierdza rolę obserwacji u pacjentów pediatrycznych z urazem przed podjęciem interwencji chirurgicznej i opieki pooperacyjnej, która wymaga pozycjonowania.2

Podsumowanie i perspektywy

Historia patogenezy otworów plamki jest interesująca, ponieważ pod wieloma względami teoria patogenezy zatoczyła pełne koło. Początkowo uważano, że trakcja przednio-tylna powoduje bezpośrednie tworzenie się otworu plamki. Następnie zaproponowano etiologie zwyrodnieniowe, a potem trakcyjne styczne. Obecne badania obrazowe znacznie poprawiły nasze zrozumienie cech anatomicznych pełnościennych otworów i wczesnych stanów otworów pełnościennych. Są one najbardziej zgodne z mechanizmem trakcji przednio-tylnej ogniskowej, ale niektóre niespójności w przypadkach klinicznych sugerują rolę zwyrodnienia wewnętrznych warstw siatkówki.1

Zwyrodnienie wewnętrznych warstw siatkówki w centralnym dołku może predysponować oko do tworzenia się otworu plamki. Siły trakcyjne, które w przeciwnym razie mogłyby być incydentalne, wydają się inicjować otwór. Te elementy trakcyjne są zorientowane prostopadle do powierzchni siatkówki, a nie stycznie. Dalsze obserwacje, zwłaszcza z sekwencyjnymi obserwacjami z optycznej koherentnej tomografii, mogą dostarczyć dalszych informacji na temat patogenezy otworów plamki, a także implikacji dotyczących najlepszych technik naprawy.1

Kluczowym aspektem teorii Gassa jest to, że otwory plamki powstają w wyniku odśrodkowego przemieszczenia fotoreceptorów, a nie zwykłej utraty tych komórek. Ta koncepcja wyjaśnia przywrócenie ostrości wzroku do prawie normalnych poziomów po operacji otworu plamki.1

Oceny histopatologiczne operculów (tkanki pokrywającej otwory plamki) chirurgicznie usuniętych wykazały, że często zawierają one elementy glejowe, chociaż niekoniecznie oznacza to utratę czopków dołkowych. Jednak nowsze odkrycia sugerują, że w niektórych przypadkach otworów plamki znaczne ilości tkanki dołkowej, w tym czopki, mogą zostać oderwane od regionu dołka.2

Po przeprowadzeniu kompleksowego przeglądu literatury i uwzględnieniu doświadczenia klinicznego, można stwierdzić, że rozwój otworu plamki to złożona interakcja różnych czynników. Współdziałanie trakcji tylno-przedniej ciała szklistego, w połączeniu z trakcją styczną warstw wewnętrznych, w szczególności ILM, przyczynia się do tego procesu.1

Kolejne rozdziały

Zapraszamy do dalszego czytania naszego leksykonu.

Wybierz kolejny rozdział z menu poniżej, aby otworzyć nową podstronę kompedium wiedzy i uzyskać szczegółowe informację o leku, substancji lub chorobie.

  1. 10.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Macular Hole – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559200/
    Macular hole (MH) is a vitreoretinal interface disease characterized by a partial or full-thickness neurosensory retinal defect in the center of the macula. […] A new classification system based on morphology and vitreoretinal interface pathology has convincingly revealed the pathways related to the formation of a macular hole. […] The exact pathophysiology behind the development of idiopathic macular holes is unknown. But recent advances in the section of ocular diagnostics in the form of spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) have made a big impact. Vitreo-retinal interface abnormality along with its tractional forces play a major role in the development of macular holes. Involutional foveal thinning also plays a role. […] This tractional force may be tangential traction by pre-existing epi-retinal membrane or vertical by vitreomacular traction.
  • #1 Pathogenesis and Management of Macular Hole: Review of Current Advances
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6525843/
    Macular hole has been believed to be a disorder of vitreomacular interface, which forms as a result of abnormal vitreous traction from incomplete vitreous detachment. However, our recent studies demonstrated that dynamic forces, caused by mobile posterior cortical vitreous with fluid currents, exist already at early stages of macular hole development. Therefore, in eyes with flexible vitreous, the contributions of tractional forces due to vitreous shrinkage are unlikely. These facts indicate that in the development of idiopathic macular holes, there is a greater contribution of dynamic forces than has been previously reported. […] In the MH formation, an important role is on the vitreous traction. […] There has been a controversy in the origin of vitreous traction in the pathogenesis of MH formation. Guyer and Green and Johnson suggested that dynamic tractional forces that are generated by posterior cortical vitreous movement during the rotations of the eye may play an important role in the development of MH. Mori et al. also described the mobility of posterior cortical vitreous, using the OCT tracking system. […] Therefore, they proposed that role of dynamic forces to the development of idiopathic MH is greater than that has been thought previously.
  • #1 Idiopathic vitreomacular traction and macular hole: a comprehensive review of pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment | Eye
    https://www.nature.com/articles/eye2013212
    Normal age-related PVD may be complicated by persistent vitreomacular adhesions (VMA) between the vitreous cortex and the macular area following synaeresis. Such adhesions can be focal or broad, encompassing the foveola only, or a wider region of the macular area and the optic disc. Simple (asymptomatic) VMA is not associated with structural distortion of the macular architecture. However, such adhesions may exert tractional forces on the macula (vitreomacular traction; VMT), increased during ocular saccades, causing retinal distortion and disruption. Increasing width of the VMA is associated with a decreased tractional force and therefore reduced foveal deformation. For example, the smallest adhesions at the fovea may result in focal inner retinal cavitation (foveal cyst), while larger vitreoretinal adhesions (1500μm) can lead to more generalised foveal profile flattening (ie, a loss of foveal depression) and detachment. VMA and VMT may be differentiated by clinical symptoms (chiefly, visual loss, blurred vision, and metamorphopsia) and with OCT. However, some cases of VMT may not demonstrate obvious deleterious effects on vision.
  • #1 Macular holes: vitreoretinal relationships and surgical approaches | Eye
    https://www.nature.com/articles/eye200823
    Idiopathic full-thickness macular holes develop as a result of anteroposterior and tangential traction exerted by the posterior vitreous cortex at the fovea. […] The pathogenesis of idiopathic full-thickness macular holes is not clearly understood but is believed to involve anteroposterior traction and/or tangential traction exerted by the posterior vitreous cortex at the fovea. It has been suggested that involutional macular thinning is a predisposing factor. […] Anteroposterior traction may be a result of dynamic tractional forces on an abnormally persistent vitreofoveal attachment following perifoveal vitreous separation. […] Tangential traction may result from contraction of prefoveal vitreous cortex following invasion and proliferation of Mller cells. […] Evidence for the role of posterior vitreous attachment in the development of macular holes includes its association with an increased risk of macular hole development in the fellow eyes of individuals with unilateral macular holes and with the subsequent enlargement of established holes.
  • #1 Macular holes: vitreoretinal relationships and surgical approaches | Eye
    https://www.nature.com/articles/eye200823
    Vitreofoveal traction may result in disinsertion of the Mller cell cone from the underlying foveolar photoreceptor cells, resulting in the formation of a foveal schisis or cyst. […] A dehiscence in the roof of the foveal cyst extends by centric expansion or in a peri-centric manner to form a crescentic hole that progresses to a horseshoe tear. […] Subsequently, complete avulsion of the cyst roof results in a fully detached operculum that is suspended on the posterior vitreous cortex in the prefoveal plane. […] The photoreceptor layer, which is no longer anchored by the Mller cell cone at the foveola, undergoes passive centrifugal retraction to form a full-thickness retinal dehiscence with centrifugal displacement of xanthophyll. […] The edge of the hole becomes progressively elevated by a cuff of subretinal fluid, often accompanied by thickening of the neurosensory retina, which may be due to retinal hydration by recruitment of vitreous fluid via the hole, causing further elevation of the hole edges.
  • #1 Macular Hole | Ento Key
    https://entokey.com/macular-hole/
    Muller Cell Cone: In 1999, Gass emphasized the importance of the foveal Muller cell cone, originally described by Yamada and Hogan et al. in histological studies of the normal human foveola. Gass suggested that the Muller cell cone has three important roles in the formation of a macular hole: Glia contain concentrated superficial xanthophyll, which migrates centrifugally during the formation of a full thickness macular hole and may be seen as a yellow spot or a yellow ring. The Muller cone provides structural support for the radiating inner cone segments at the foveola and its disruption may lead to damage and atrophy of the cone cells located in this area. Muller cells within the cone invade the prefoveolar vitreous cortex and initiate cellular remodeling and contraction. This results in tangential traction on the foveola, centrifugal migration of photoreceptors and xantophyll, causing further disruption of the Muller cone and eventually umbo dehiscence.
  • #1
    https://journals.lww.com/ijo/fulltext/2024/72010/pathoanatomical_aspects_of_macular_hole_closure_.29.aspx
    Macular hole (MH) is a full-thickness opening in the foveal center involving all the retinal layers between the internal limiting membrane (ILM) and the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Older age and female gender are important risk factors for MH. A large number of cases are seen after trauma, but the most important cause remains idiopathic. The patient presents with visual impairment, metamorphopsia, and central scotoma. […] Tangential vitreous traction is primarily involved in the pathogenesis of idiopathic MH. […] A successful MHS involves the recovery of inner and outer retinal layers. […] The ELM is defined as the junction between the glial Mller cells and photoreceptor cells, which serves as a barrier against macromolecules. […] ELM has been established as the first structural retinal barrier. […] To conclude, sequential restoration of outer retinal layers occurs after successful MHS. ELM is a retinal structural barrier and is a prerequisite for EZ regeneration. Muller glial cells proliferate to produce new retinal neurons. EZ regeneration correlates with final BCVA.
  • #1 Medical Management of Full-Thickness Macular Holes – Retina Today
    https://retinatoday.com/articles/2022-apr/medical-management-of-full-thickness-macular-holes
    An idiopathic full-thickness macular hole (FTMH) is a defect in the central fovea generally associated with marked vision impairment. The IVTS classification system reflects the current understanding of macular hole pathogenesis, which gives vitreofoveal traction a principal role. The traction theory for macular hole pathogenesis assigns a critical role to anteroposterior traction from the posterior vitreous cortex and (to a lesser extent) tangential traction from the vitreous cortex and ILM. […] The hydration theory suggests that a defect in the inner retina allows vitreous fluid to accumulate into the middle and outer retinal tissues, ultimately leading to an FTMH. Medical management of FTMHs is based on the combined tractional-hydration theory. According to this theory, macular hole pathogenesis begins with an initial tractional event: anteroposterior traction on the foveola creates an inner retinal defect, through which vitreous fluid enters the retina.
  • #1 Medical Management of Full-Thickness Macular Holes – Retina Today
    https://retinatoday.com/articles/2022-apr/medical-management-of-full-thickness-macular-holes
    The combined tractional-hydration theory of macular hole pathogenesis suggests that cystoid hydration of the retina plays a central role in FTMH development; in turn, dehydration of the retina is critical for FTMH closure. Several observational studies suggest that treatment of FTMH with topical steroids, CAIs, and/or NSAIDs may facilitate cystoid dehydration.
  • #1 Macular Hole: Symptoms, Causes, & Treatment
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/14208-macular-hole
    A macular hole is a full-thickness defect in your macula, part of your retina. […] A macular hole generally happens in just one eye, but it can happen in both eyes. […] Sometimes, the jelly-like substance that fills your eye the vitreous humor changes its consistency and, as it shrinks, it can pull on the central macula and cause a macular hole to form. […] In most people, macular holes are due to vitreous traction that’s more likely to happen with aging. […] Sometimes a macular hole is the result of an injury or a medical condition that affects the eye, including being very nearsighted. […] A primary macular hole is one that develops without any eye injury and isn’t due to another medical condition. A secondary macular hole is one that occurs with or due to another disease or condition, such as trauma or eye inflammation (uveitis).
  • #1 Macular Hole – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559200/
    The successful anatomical closure of the macular hole after surgical removal of the vitreous indirectly proves its pathologic role. […] Myopia is another cause leading to abnormal vitreoretinal physics, which causes the macular holes in a setting of retinal thinning in the center. […] Other pathologies of macula or retina associated with macular hole formation are usually related to vitreoretinal interface abnormality. […] The loss of photoreceptors in the area of hole formation is another characteristic feature.
  • #1 Etiology of Idiopathic Macular Holes in the Light of Estrogen Hormone
    https://www.mdpi.com/1467-3045/45/8/400
    The aim of this review was to identify a new potential explanation for the development of macular holes in relation to the female sex and to explain the possible underlying pathways. […] The findings showed that estrogen exerts a protective effect on the neuroretina and may influence Müller and cone cells. […] However, this protection may be lost due to the sudden decrease in estrogen levels during menopause. […] In conclusion, the fovea cones, through its sensitivity to estrogen and high energy consumption, may be very vulnerable to damage caused by a sudden changes in the concentration of estrogen in menopausal females. […] Such changes may result in cone degeneration, and thus a destroyed structure of the fovea, and may lead to the development of a hole in the fovea, as in the case of macular holes.
  • #1 Macular Hole: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1224320-overview
    A macular hole is a defect of the foveal retina involving its full thickness from the internal limiting membrane (ILM) to the outer segment of the photoreceptor layer. […] The causes underlying trauma-related macular holes and idiopathic macular holes are understandably divergent. […] Trauma-related macular holes are suspected to be related to the transmission of concussive force in a contrecoup manner, which results in the immediate rupture of the macula at its thinnest point. […] The underlying pathophysiology for formation of these holes is not well understood, though epiretinal membrane formation, foveal photoreceptor atrophy, and hydraulic forces may play a role. […] While the vitreous was suspected to be involved in the causation of idiopathic macular holes by Lister in 1924, Johnson and Gass, in 1988, first described a classification system that focused on anteroposterior and tangential vitreous traction on the fovea as a primary underlying cause for idiopathic macular holes.
  • #1 Traumatic macular hole: Clinical aspects and controversies – Latin American Journal of Ophthalmology
    https://latinamericanjo.com/traumatic-macular-hole-clinical-aspects-and-controversies/
    The pathogenesis of macular hole formation after blunt trauma is today controversial. […] The main hypotheses considered are as follows: The resulting retinal stretch, either from the deformation of the eyeball or the force of the impact on the pole posterior to the moment of the trauma, could cause the macular rupture. […] The cystic macular degeneration due to direct injury would generate in later time the formation of the hole. […] The detachment of the posterior vitreous due to trauma could cause macular dehiscence. […] Gass proposes that the mechanisms by which the blunt trauma causes the macular hole can be one or the combination of: Necrosis and post-contusional cystoid degeneration. […] Subfoveal hemorrhage caused by a choroidal rupture. […] Anterior-posterior vitreous traction.
  • #1 Pathogenesis and Management of Macular Hole: Review of Current Advances. – Document – Gale Academic OneFile
    https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA613203549&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=2090004X&p=AONE&sw=w
    Macular hole has been believed to be a disorder of vitreomacular interface, which forms as a result of abnormal vitreous traction from incomplete vitreous detachment. […] However, our recent studies demonstrated that dynamic forces, caused by mobile posterior cortical vitreous with fluid currents, exist already at early stages of macular hole development. […] Therefore, in eyes with flexible vitreous, the contributions of tractional forces due to vitreous shrinkage are unlikely. […] These facts indicate that in the development of idiopathic macular holes, there is a greater contribution of dynamic forces than has been previously reported.
  • #1 Macular holes: vitreoretinal relationships and surgical approaches | Eye
    https://www.nature.com/articles/eye200823
    In the event of vitreofoveal separation during the development of macular hole, the relief of traction can result in regression of a cyst, but spontaneous closure of an established full-thickness macular hole is relatively uncommon. […] While the majority of age-related macular holes are idiopathic in aetiology, full-thickness macular holes may also occur in association with high myopia, following posterior segment surgery such as scleral buckling and pneumatic retinopexy, and following ocular trauma. […] Spontaneous resolution of small full-thickness macular holes following trauma in young patients is not uncommon and can be associated with good visual recovery. […] Optical coherence tomography (OCT) has yielded important insights into the pathogenesis of macular hole development and the mechanism of surgical repair. […] High-speed OCT offers three-dimensional imaging of macular holes that facilitates the understanding of abnormalities in the vitreofoveal interface.
  • #1 Volume 3, Chapter 21. Macular Hole
    http://www.oculist.net/downaton502/prof/ebook/duanes/pages/v3/v3c021.html
    The vitreous theory of macular hole formation was initially proposed by Lister. Lister theorized that anteroposterior fibrous vitreous traction bands were the cause of macular holes. Beginning in the 1960s, clinical and histopathologic studies began to highlight the relationship of the vitreous and macula in eyes with macular holes. Current theories of macular hole pathogenesis continue to be altered and refined, but nearly all continue to recognize the predominant role of the vitreous in macular hole formation. […] In 1988, Gass proposed a classification system for idiopathic macular holes, as well as a new hypothesis concerning their pathogenesis, suggesting that tangential vitreoretinal traction is responsible for hole formation. […] Recently, the introduction of optical coherence tomography (OCT) has allowed researchers to study the exact relationship between the vitreous and fovea in the development of macular holes. OCT evidence suggests that in most macular holes, the first step is actually the formation of a foveal pseudocyst (splitting of the retina at the fovea). It is postulated that anterior tractional forces from the prefoveal vitreous cortex cause this pseudocyst to form. The anterior wall of this cyst serves as a flap in stage 2 holes and as an operculum in stage 3 holes.
  • #1 Revisiting Macular Holes
    https://www.reviewofophthalmology.com/article/revisiting-macular-holes
    The exact cause of macular hole remains unknown. The first reported macular holes in the late 19th century were believed to result from trauma that caused cystoid changes in the macula. Concurrent with the discovery around 1970 that the majority of macular holes were not associated with trauma, the predominant thought was that macular hole etiology was related to the presence of cystoid macular edema (CME), including any condition that may lead to CME. The vitreomacular traction theory of macular hole pathogenesis gained in popularity with the recognition that peripheral retinal breaks occur secondary to vitreoretinal traction and that strong adhesion exists between the vitreous and fovea. The recognition of a temporal association between posterior vitreous detachment (PVD) and full-thickness macular hole assisted J. Donald M. Gass, MD, in the development of his grading scheme. There is evidence that A-P traction may not be the only factor in macular hole formation. Researchers have documented macular hole formation after complete PVD/vitrectomy as well as spontaneous closure of macular hole in eyes without PVD (documented by OCT). Such observations led to the development of other theories of macular hole pathogenesis such as the hydrodynamic model, in which the macular hole is formed or maintained by fluid flow caused by the macular retinal pigment epithelium pump. In reality, the etiology of macular hole is probably multifactorial, and determining which is the primary event is less important than the recognition that vitreomacular traction, foveolar dehiscence and other factors likely play a role.
  • #1 Clinical imaging of macular holes
    https://www.optometrytimes.com/view/clinical-imaging-macular-holes
    The firm attachment of the vitreous to the basal lamina in the perifoval area may be important in the pathogenesis of hole formation. […] The exact cause of macular hole remains unknown. […] Concurrent with the discovery around 1970 that the majority of macular holes were not associated with trauma, the predominant thought was that macular hole etiology was related solely to the presence of cystoid macular edema (CME). […] In reality, the etiology of macular hole is probably multifactorial, and determining which is the primary event is less important than the recognition that VTM, foveolar dehiscence, and other factors play a role. […] The VTM theory of macular hole pathogenesis gained in popularity with the recognition that peripheral retinal breaks occur secondary to vitreoretinal traction on the posterior vitreous hyaloid and that strong adhesion exists between the vitreous and fovea. […] The VTM theory of macular hole pathogenesis gained in popularity with the recognition that peripheral retinal breaks occur secondary to vitreoretinal traction and that strong adhesion exists between the vitreous and fovea.
  • #1 Persistent Macular Hole Management Options | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/1165329
    The widely accepted gold standard technique for the treatment of Macular holes is pars plana vitrectomy combined with internal limiting membrane peeling, resulting in closure rates of 80-100%. […] Initial theories postulated that MH might stem from a degenerative process, potentially linked to vascular insufficiency. Moreover, certain theories centered on the vitreous role in MH development, suggesting that tangential traction, potentially resulting from Müller cell proliferation and contraction within the vitreoretinal interface, played a substantial part. […] The significance of the vitreous in MH pathogenesis is underscored. This notion is substantiated by the observation that eyes with complete posterior vitreous detachment (PVD) exhibit fewer occurrences of MH. Furthermore, MHs are less prone to enlargement when PVD is evident at the time of diagnosis.
  • #1 Pathogenesis and management of macular holes with video demonstration.pptx
    https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/pathogenesis-and-management-of-macular-holes-with-video-demonstrationpptx/266282618
    Visual acuity: Reported to vary with stages. […] OCT; Gold standard test for confirmation FFA. […] Multifocal electroretinography provides a topographic map of electrophysiological activity in the central retina. mfERG responses show lower amplitudes in the fovea in macular hole Shows loss of retinal function corresponding to the macular hole. […] Surgical treatment involves vitrectomy to relieve traction along with internal limiting membrane peeling which has good outcomes in improving vision. […] The closure rate of 90% for holes smaller than 650 microns 76% closure rate for holes larger than 650 microns. […] Macular hole is one of the retinal problems that causes loss of central vision Early presentation and appropriate intervention will guarantee a better outcome.
  • #1 Macular Holes: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment | Doctor
    https://patient.info/doctor/macular-holes
    Identification of the ILM is a challenging step in surgery. Therefore, staining the ILM is essential and may also decrease surgical trauma to the retina during ILM removal. […] ILM flap formation, where the ILM is partially peeled then inverted and used to cover the hole. This technique is reserved for larger holes.
  • #1
    https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00417-023-06365-x
    The surgical management of macular holes is undergoing continuous evolution, with recent focus on the utilization of platelet concentrates as a promising adjunctive intervention. Currently, they present a valid surgical approach for achieving anatomical and functional success with a non-inferiority comparably to the alternative surgical techniques. […] The therapeutic approaches for managing FTMH and LMH have undergone continuous evolution, with a recent focus on autologous plasma adjuvant treatment as a potentially promising intervention. The development and utilization of platelet concentrate as a surgical adjuvant to promote local healing represents a significant area of research applicable across diverse medical disciplines, with particular relevance in ophthalmology. […] Platelets act as a natural reservoir of growth factors, including vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), and epidermal growth factor (EGF). Upon encountering altered or injured tissue, such as the retinal layers of a MH, these growth factors are released by platelets. Consequently, they could play a crucial role in the regeneration of macular defects.
  • #1 Think Medically About Macular Holes – Ophthalmology Advisor
    https://www.ophthalmologyadvisor.com/features/macular-holes-arent-always-an-indication-for-immediate-surgery/
    Full-thickness macular holes (FTMHs) are full thickness defects of the neurosensory retina involving the internal limiting membrane (ILM) to the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). […] Researchers believe macular holes likely develop from anteroposterior or tangential vitreoretinal traction of the posterior hyaloid on the parafovea. […] The mechanism of closure of FTMH by medical therapy is not fully understood, but researchers hypothesize that medications may facilitate macular hole closure by decreasing inflammation, reducing swelling, and dehydrating the retina. […] The majority of FTMHs do require surgical intervention for closure; however, there are some holes that may be more amenable to closure by medical management. […] Eyes without pre-existing vitreomacular traction may respond better to topical management rather than vitrectomy. […] Holes with residual traction from vitreoretinal and epiretinal layers are also less likely to close with medical treatment and may require surgical intervention to relieve the traction on the hole.
  • #1 Review of Management of Large Macular Holes | Retinal Physician
    https://retinalphysician.com/issues/2019/june/review-of-management-of-large-macular-holes/
    Macular holes (MHs), full-thickness defects in the outer plexiform and photoreceptor layers at the fovea, cause impaired central vision with metamorphopsia. […] A review of the history of MH pathogenesis and management gives us perspective. An improved understanding of the pathogenesis of the condition ushered in the era of MH treatment. Following the pathogenetic theory described by Gass in 1988, […] Observations by Gass regarding the role of disruption of the Mller cell cone in the pathogenesis of MH formation, […] and postsurgery OCT findings of reapposition of the foveal external limiting membrane (ELM) and ellipsoid zones (indicative of photoreceptor integrity) led to appreciation of the macular anatomy, which contributed to advancements in MH surgery. […] The prognosis for optimal postoperative MH closure is correlated with the preoperative size of the MH,
  • #1 Macular Hole: Symptoms, Causes, & Treatment
    https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/14208-macular-hole
    The most common treatment for macular holes is a procedure called a vitrectomy. A vitrectomy is a surgery during which a retina specialist removes the vitreous gel of your eye. […] Your surgeon will put a sterile gas into your eye to keep pressure on the hole until it heals. […] The success rate for vitrectomy surgeries is over 90%. The surgery is most successful when the hole is smaller and more recent. […] If you get treatment sooner, or if the hole is small, your prognosis (outlook) is good.
  • #1 Boy presents with macular hole after trauma
    https://www.ophthalmologytimes.com/view/boy-presents-macular-hole-after-trauma
    Studies suggest that spontaneous closure of traumatic holes occurs following resolution of vitreofoveal adhesion and release of the posterior hyaloid. Others argue that inflammatory mechanisms enable a reformation and spontaneous closure of the macular hole. […] The exact mechanism of resolution is not clear in our patient, however, as reported in many articles. Pediatric patients for a number of reasons are more likely to experience spontaneous closure and good visual prognosis-further proving a role for observation in traumatic pediatric patients before embarking on surgical intervention and postoperative care that requires positioning.
  • #1 Pathogenesis of macular holes and therapeutic implications – EM consulte
    https://www.em-consulte.com/article/509891/pathogenesis-of-macular-holes-and-therapeutic-impl
    To review the literature and identify consistencies and inconsistencies in existing theories of pathogenesis and to consider some of their possible therapeutic implications. […] The history of pathogenesis and macular holes is interesting in that, in many ways pathogenic theory has come full cycle. Initially, anteroposterior traction was thought to cause direct formation of a macular hole. Subsequently, degenerative and then tangential tractional etiologies were proposed. Current imaging studies have greatly advanced our understanding of anatomic features of full-thickness holes and early full-thickness hole conditions. These are most consistent with a focal anteroposterior traction mechanism, but some inconsistences in clinical cases suggest a role for degeneration of the inner retinal layers.
  • #1 Pathogenesis of macular holes and therapeutic implications – EM consulte
    https://www.em-consulte.com/article/509891/pathogenesis-of-macular-holes-and-therapeutic-impl
    Degeneration of the inner retinal layers at the central fovea may predispose the eye to macular hole formation. What may otherwise be incidental tractional forces appear to initiate the hole. These tractional elements are oriented perpendicularly to the retinal surface, rather than tangentially. Further observations, especially with sequential observations from ocular coherence tomography, may yield further insights into the pathogenesis of macular holes as well as implications regarding the best repair techniques.
  • #1 Persistent Macular Hole Management Options | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/1165329
    A pivotal aspect of Gass’s theory is that MHs arise from the centrifugal displacement of photoreceptors, rather than a mere loss of these cells. This concept elucidates the restoration of visual acuity to nearly normal levels following MH surgery. […] Histopathological evaluations of operculae (tissue overlaying MHs) surgically removed have demonstrated their frequent inclusion of glial elements, albeit not necessarily implying a loss of foveal cones. However, more recent findings suggest that, in certain MH cases, substantial amounts of foveal tissue, including cones, can become torn from the foveal region. […] Some studies, including one utilizing binocular kinetic perimetry, have directly substantiated the lateral displacement of photoreceptors during MH development, explaining the typical distortion reported by MH patients.
  • #1 Persistent Macular Hole Management Options | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/1165329
    With the arrival of OCT, Gass’s theory has undergone revision. Recent studies utilizing OCT and ultrasound have unveiled that impending macular holes often encompass perifoveal vitreous detachment with localized vitreous attachment to the foveal umbo. A division emerges between the Müller cell cone (central glial element) and foveal photoreceptors due to posterior-anterior vitreomacular traction, fostering the development of a cystic lesion. […] The progression from an impending MH to a FTMH typically commences with a disruption in the roof of the cystic lesion. Centrifugal traction, the origin of which remains enigmatic, triggers the expansion of the disruption into the photoreceptor layer, resulting in a full-thickness defect. […] After conducting a comprehensive review of the literature and taking clinical experience into account, we posit that MH development is a complex interplay of various factors. The interplay of posterior-anterior vitreous traction, combined with tangential traction of the inner layers, notably the ILM, contributes to this process.
  • #2 Macular Hole: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1224320-overview
    A macular hole is a defect of the foveal retina involving its full thickness from the internal limiting membrane (ILM) to the outer segment of the photoreceptor layer. […] The causes underlying trauma-related macular holes and idiopathic macular holes are understandably divergent. […] Trauma-related macular holes are suspected to be related to the transmission of concussive force in a contrecoup manner, which results in the immediate rupture of the macula at its thinnest point. […] The underlying pathophysiology for formation of these holes is not well understood, though epiretinal membrane formation, foveal photoreceptor atrophy, and hydraulic forces may play a role. […] While the vitreous was suspected to be involved in the causation of idiopathic macular holes by Lister in 1924, Johnson and Gass, in 1988, first described a classification system that focused on anteroposterior and tangential vitreous traction on the fovea as a primary underlying cause for idiopathic macular holes.
  • #2 Pathogenesis and Management of Macular Hole: Review of Current Advances. – Document – Gale Academic OneFile
    https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA613203549&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=2090004X&p=AONE&sw=w
    Macular hole has been believed to be a disorder of vitreomacular interface, which forms as a result of abnormal vitreous traction from incomplete vitreous detachment. […] However, our recent studies demonstrated that dynamic forces, caused by mobile posterior cortical vitreous with fluid currents, exist already at early stages of macular hole development. […] Therefore, in eyes with flexible vitreous, the contributions of tractional forces due to vitreous shrinkage are unlikely. […] These facts indicate that in the development of idiopathic macular holes, there is a greater contribution of dynamic forces than has been previously reported.
  • #2 Macular holes: vitreoretinal relationships and surgical approaches | Eye
    https://www.nature.com/articles/eye200823
    Idiopathic full-thickness macular holes develop as a result of anteroposterior and tangential traction exerted by the posterior vitreous cortex at the fovea. […] The pathogenesis of idiopathic full-thickness macular holes is not clearly understood but is believed to involve anteroposterior traction and/or tangential traction exerted by the posterior vitreous cortex at the fovea. It has been suggested that involutional macular thinning is a predisposing factor. […] Anteroposterior traction may be a result of dynamic tractional forces on an abnormally persistent vitreofoveal attachment following perifoveal vitreous separation. […] Tangential traction may result from contraction of prefoveal vitreous cortex following invasion and proliferation of Mller cells. […] Evidence for the role of posterior vitreous attachment in the development of macular holes includes its association with an increased risk of macular hole development in the fellow eyes of individuals with unilateral macular holes and with the subsequent enlargement of established holes.
  • #2 Volume 3, Chapter 21. Macular Hole
    http://www.oculist.net/downaton502/prof/ebook/duanes/pages/v3/v3c021.html
    The vitreous theory of macular hole formation was initially proposed by Lister. Lister theorized that anteroposterior fibrous vitreous traction bands were the cause of macular holes. Beginning in the 1960s, clinical and histopathologic studies began to highlight the relationship of the vitreous and macula in eyes with macular holes. Current theories of macular hole pathogenesis continue to be altered and refined, but nearly all continue to recognize the predominant role of the vitreous in macular hole formation. […] In 1988, Gass proposed a classification system for idiopathic macular holes, as well as a new hypothesis concerning their pathogenesis, suggesting that tangential vitreoretinal traction is responsible for hole formation. […] Recently, the introduction of optical coherence tomography (OCT) has allowed researchers to study the exact relationship between the vitreous and fovea in the development of macular holes. OCT evidence suggests that in most macular holes, the first step is actually the formation of a foveal pseudocyst (splitting of the retina at the fovea). It is postulated that anterior tractional forces from the prefoveal vitreous cortex cause this pseudocyst to form. The anterior wall of this cyst serves as a flap in stage 2 holes and as an operculum in stage 3 holes.
  • #2 Macular Hole | Ento Key
    https://entokey.com/macular-hole/
    Hydration Theory: Tornambe in 2003, on the basis of optical coherence tomography (OCT) 3 images and a simple model, proposed the Hydration theory. In this theory, susceptible eyes have a firm point of adherence between the posterior hyaloid face and the central macula. Stages 1A and 1B holes are explained by this foveal traction that lifts the fovea, distorting the foveal depression and displacing deeper yellow pigment. If the posterior hyaloid traction tears the inner foveal retina, OCT 3 suggests that vitreous fluid soaks into the layers of the macula initially creating a cavity in the inner retina, and then dissecting deeper, laterally accumulating in the outer plexiform layer. As the swelling increases, the hole enlarges. Because the internal limiting membrane (ILM) at its junction with the inner retina is a more rigid structure than the deeper retinal tissue, this complex (ILM/inner retina) retracts and elevates as the swelling increases. If the posterior hyaloid separates from the macula, it may pull a tag of inner retinal tissue.
  • #2 Etiology of Idiopathic Macular Holes in the Light of Estrogen Hormone
    https://www.mdpi.com/1467-3045/45/8/400
    The aim of this review was to identify a new potential explanation for the development of macular holes in relation to the female sex and to explain the possible underlying pathways. […] The findings showed that estrogen exerts a protective effect on the neuroretina and may influence Müller and cone cells. […] However, this protection may be lost due to the sudden decrease in estrogen levels during menopause. […] In conclusion, the fovea cones, through its sensitivity to estrogen and high energy consumption, may be very vulnerable to damage caused by a sudden changes in the concentration of estrogen in menopausal females. […] Such changes may result in cone degeneration, and thus a destroyed structure of the fovea, and may lead to the development of a hole in the fovea, as in the case of macular holes.
  • #2 Etiology of Idiopathic Macular Holes in the Light of Estrogen Hormone
    https://www.mdpi.com/1467-3045/45/8/400
    The hydration theory states that the development of IMH may be due to damage to the inner retinal layer, resulting in aggregation of the liquefied vitreous in the middle and outer layer of the retina. […] Müler glial cells have been thought to play a role in the pathogenesis of IMH. […] Lastly, estrogen and the role of sudden changes in hormonal balance are involved in the development of IMH.
  • #2 Traumatic Macular Hole (TMH) – EyeWiki
    https://eyewiki.org/Traumatic_Macular_Hole_(TMH)
    TMH is produced mainly by blunt ocular trauma due to antero-posterior compression with equatorial expansion of the globe causing tangential traction.[9][11][12][13] […] It appears immediately after the injury in most of the cases, nevertheless, in others, it can occur weeks later.
  • #2 Traumatic macular hole: Clinical aspects and controversies – Latin American Journal of Ophthalmology
    https://latinamericanjo.com/traumatic-macular-hole-clinical-aspects-and-controversies/
    The pathogenesis of macular hole formation after blunt trauma is today controversial. […] The main hypotheses considered are as follows: The resulting retinal stretch, either from the deformation of the eyeball or the force of the impact on the pole posterior to the moment of the trauma, could cause the macular rupture. […] The cystic macular degeneration due to direct injury would generate in later time the formation of the hole. […] The detachment of the posterior vitreous due to trauma could cause macular dehiscence. […] Gass proposes that the mechanisms by which the blunt trauma causes the macular hole can be one or the combination of: Necrosis and post-contusional cystoid degeneration. […] Subfoveal hemorrhage caused by a choroidal rupture. […] Anterior-posterior vitreous traction.
  • #2 The Evolution of Macular Hole Surgery – Milestones In Retina
    https://retinahistory.asrs.org/milestones-developments/the-evolution-of-macular-hole-surgery
    Macular hole (MH) is a full-thickness defect of retinal tissue involving the anatomic fovea, thereby affecting central visual acuity. MHs were first described in the medical literature in the late 19th century. However, it was not until the latter half of the 20th century that MHs began to be understood and studied in greater detail. […] In 1988, J. Donald Gass, MD, postulated that contraction of the premacular vitreous cortex and tangential vitreous traction cause detachment of central photoreceptors and subsequent MHs. Gass also defined the stages of MH development, providing a foundation for understanding the condition. His classification relied on biomicroscopic examination with a contact lens and proposed the mechanistic etiology as tangential traction. […] During this era, the development of membrane peeling also became an important topic of discussion. OCT technology in the mid to late 1990s allowed for improved visualization and diagnosis of MHs. OCT technology made it clear that anterior-posterior traction also plays a role in MH formation.
  • #2 Macular holes: vitreoretinal relationships and surgical approaches | Eye
    https://www.nature.com/articles/eye200823
    In the event of vitreofoveal separation during the development of macular hole, the relief of traction can result in regression of a cyst, but spontaneous closure of an established full-thickness macular hole is relatively uncommon. […] While the majority of age-related macular holes are idiopathic in aetiology, full-thickness macular holes may also occur in association with high myopia, following posterior segment surgery such as scleral buckling and pneumatic retinopexy, and following ocular trauma. […] Spontaneous resolution of small full-thickness macular holes following trauma in young patients is not uncommon and can be associated with good visual recovery. […] Optical coherence tomography (OCT) has yielded important insights into the pathogenesis of macular hole development and the mechanism of surgical repair. […] High-speed OCT offers three-dimensional imaging of macular holes that facilitates the understanding of abnormalities in the vitreofoveal interface.
  • #2 Revisiting Macular Holes
    https://www.reviewofophthalmology.com/article/revisiting-macular-holes
    The exact cause of macular hole remains unknown. The first reported macular holes in the late 19th century were believed to result from trauma that caused cystoid changes in the macula. Concurrent with the discovery around 1970 that the majority of macular holes were not associated with trauma, the predominant thought was that macular hole etiology was related to the presence of cystoid macular edema (CME), including any condition that may lead to CME. The vitreomacular traction theory of macular hole pathogenesis gained in popularity with the recognition that peripheral retinal breaks occur secondary to vitreoretinal traction and that strong adhesion exists between the vitreous and fovea. The recognition of a temporal association between posterior vitreous detachment (PVD) and full-thickness macular hole assisted J. Donald M. Gass, MD, in the development of his grading scheme. There is evidence that A-P traction may not be the only factor in macular hole formation. Researchers have documented macular hole formation after complete PVD/vitrectomy as well as spontaneous closure of macular hole in eyes without PVD (documented by OCT). Such observations led to the development of other theories of macular hole pathogenesis such as the hydrodynamic model, in which the macular hole is formed or maintained by fluid flow caused by the macular retinal pigment epithelium pump. In reality, the etiology of macular hole is probably multifactorial, and determining which is the primary event is less important than the recognition that vitreomacular traction, foveolar dehiscence and other factors likely play a role.
  • #2 Review of Management of Large Macular Holes | Retinal Physician
    https://retinalphysician.com/issues/2019/june/review-of-management-of-large-macular-holes/
    Most surgical failures in MH surgery occur in eyes with large MHs (defined as an MH with MLD 400 m). […] The experience with the inverted ILM flap to treat large MHs has not been uniformly positive, however. […] A recent study of 36 patients with MHs with basal diameter 800 m, divided equally into a group of 18 that underwent ILM peeling and 18 eyes that underwent the inverted ILM flap technique treatment, found no statistically significant difference in anatomic closure (16/18 with inverted ILM flap vs 14/18 with ILM peeling); there was also no difference in functional improvement between the two groups. […] Since larger MH basal diameter size is a predictor of surgical success that is independent of MH MLD, we should consider both the MLD and the base diameter when evaluating an MH. […] Good surgical outcomes may be anticipated with the treatment of MHs, with extremely high success rates when the MH MLD is less than 400 m. Larger MHs are the cases most prone to fail with attempted surgery. […] For example, an inverted ILM flap technique surgical approach could be considered.
  • #2 Think Medically About Macular Holes – Ophthalmology Advisor
    https://www.ophthalmologyadvisor.com/features/macular-holes-arent-always-an-indication-for-immediate-surgery/
    Full-thickness macular holes (FTMHs) are full thickness defects of the neurosensory retina involving the internal limiting membrane (ILM) to the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). […] Researchers believe macular holes likely develop from anteroposterior or tangential vitreoretinal traction of the posterior hyaloid on the parafovea. […] The mechanism of closure of FTMH by medical therapy is not fully understood, but researchers hypothesize that medications may facilitate macular hole closure by decreasing inflammation, reducing swelling, and dehydrating the retina. […] The majority of FTMHs do require surgical intervention for closure; however, there are some holes that may be more amenable to closure by medical management. […] Eyes without pre-existing vitreomacular traction may respond better to topical management rather than vitrectomy. […] Holes with residual traction from vitreoretinal and epiretinal layers are also less likely to close with medical treatment and may require surgical intervention to relieve the traction on the hole.
  • #2 Boy presents with macular hole after trauma
    https://www.ophthalmologytimes.com/view/boy-presents-macular-hole-after-trauma
    Studies suggest that spontaneous closure of traumatic holes occurs following resolution of vitreofoveal adhesion and release of the posterior hyaloid. Others argue that inflammatory mechanisms enable a reformation and spontaneous closure of the macular hole. […] The exact mechanism of resolution is not clear in our patient, however, as reported in many articles. Pediatric patients for a number of reasons are more likely to experience spontaneous closure and good visual prognosis-further proving a role for observation in traumatic pediatric patients before embarking on surgical intervention and postoperative care that requires positioning.
  • #2 Persistent Macular Hole Management Options | IntechOpen
    https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/1165329
    A pivotal aspect of Gass’s theory is that MHs arise from the centrifugal displacement of photoreceptors, rather than a mere loss of these cells. This concept elucidates the restoration of visual acuity to nearly normal levels following MH surgery. […] Histopathological evaluations of operculae (tissue overlaying MHs) surgically removed have demonstrated their frequent inclusion of glial elements, albeit not necessarily implying a loss of foveal cones. However, more recent findings suggest that, in certain MH cases, substantial amounts of foveal tissue, including cones, can become torn from the foveal region. […] Some studies, including one utilizing binocular kinetic perimetry, have directly substantiated the lateral displacement of photoreceptors during MH development, explaining the typical distortion reported by MH patients.
  • #3 Macular Holes: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment | Doctor
    https://patient.info/doctor/macular-holes
    A full-thickness macular hole can be defined as an anatomical defect in the fovea with interruption of all neural retinal layers from the internal limiting membrane to the retinal pigment epithelium, causing reduced visual acuity and a central visual field scotoma. […] Most patients with impending macular holes have a perifoveal vitreous detachment with focal attachment of the vitreous to the foveal umbo as well as a cystoid cleavage in the inner part of the umbo. […] Transition from an impending hole to a full thickness hole starts with a dehiscence in the roof of the cystoid lesion. […] Centrifugal traction causes the dehiscence to spread outwards into the photoreceptor layer, causing a full thickness defect. A macular hole can then be associated with a central retinal detachment. […] The internal limiting membrane (ILM) is a thin, transparent acellular membrane on the surface of the retina which may participate in the pathogenesis of maculopathies including macular hole. ILM peeling can improve the hole closure rate.
  • #3 Differential Diagnosis of Macular Holes and Pseudoholes | Retinal Physician
    https://retinalphysician.com/issues/2011/julyaug/differential-diagnosis-of-macular-holes-and-pseudoholes/
    It has been postulated that the various lesions that manifest as macular interface pathology are the result of tractional forces working on the foveal and perifoveal retina. These forces are classically divided into anteroposterior vitreoretinal traction forces, as well as tangential traction forces. These latter tangential forces may result from ERMs or eccentric perifoveal vitreoretinal attachment and partial posterior vitreous detachment. […] Haouchine et al. suggested that the tractional forces on the fovea resulted in the formation of intraretinal spaces (termed pseudocysts) or foveal detachment, and that these were the first steps in LMH or FTMH formation. […] Witkin et al. noted that only 10 of 19 eyes (53%) with LMH had a PVD (which would have been indicative of an abortive FTMH process) on examination or on OCT. They further noted that the remaining nine eyes without PVDs all had ERMs, along with eight of 10 of the eyes with PVDs. ERM contraction was therefore postulated to play a role in LMH formation in many patients, similar to the formation of a MPH.
  • #3 Macular holes: vitreoretinal relationships and surgical approaches | Eye
    https://www.nature.com/articles/eye200823
    Idiopathic full-thickness macular holes develop as a result of anteroposterior and tangential traction exerted by the posterior vitreous cortex at the fovea. […] The pathogenesis of idiopathic full-thickness macular holes is not clearly understood but is believed to involve anteroposterior traction and/or tangential traction exerted by the posterior vitreous cortex at the fovea. It has been suggested that involutional macular thinning is a predisposing factor. […] Anteroposterior traction may be a result of dynamic tractional forces on an abnormally persistent vitreofoveal attachment following perifoveal vitreous separation. […] Tangential traction may result from contraction of prefoveal vitreous cortex following invasion and proliferation of Mller cells. […] Evidence for the role of posterior vitreous attachment in the development of macular holes includes its association with an increased risk of macular hole development in the fellow eyes of individuals with unilateral macular holes and with the subsequent enlargement of established holes.
  • #3 Macular Hole | Ento Key
    https://entokey.com/macular-hole/
    Hydration Theory: Tornambe in 2003, on the basis of optical coherence tomography (OCT) 3 images and a simple model, proposed the Hydration theory. In this theory, susceptible eyes have a firm point of adherence between the posterior hyaloid face and the central macula. Stages 1A and 1B holes are explained by this foveal traction that lifts the fovea, distorting the foveal depression and displacing deeper yellow pigment. If the posterior hyaloid traction tears the inner foveal retina, OCT 3 suggests that vitreous fluid soaks into the layers of the macula initially creating a cavity in the inner retina, and then dissecting deeper, laterally accumulating in the outer plexiform layer. As the swelling increases, the hole enlarges. Because the internal limiting membrane (ILM) at its junction with the inner retina is a more rigid structure than the deeper retinal tissue, this complex (ILM/inner retina) retracts and elevates as the swelling increases. If the posterior hyaloid separates from the macula, it may pull a tag of inner retinal tissue.