Angina
Patofizjologia i mechanizm

Angina, będąca zapaleniem migdałków podniebiennych, stanowi około 1,3% wizyt ambulatoryjnych i jest najczęściej wywoływana przez infekcje wirusowe (70-95%), z dominującymi patogenami takimi jak rinowirusy, wirus RSV, adenowirusy, koronawirusy, wirusy grypy i paragrypy oraz enterowirusy. Infekcje bakteryjne odpowiadają za 15-30% przypadków, z paciorkowcem beta-hemolizującym grupy A (Streptococcus pyogenes) jako głównym czynnikiem etiologicznym, szczególnie u dzieci w wieku 5-15 lat. Patogeneza anginy obejmuje penetrację patogenu przez barierę śluzową migdałków, adhezję do komórek nabłonkowych, kolonizację i penetrację do wnętrza komórek, co prowadzi do lokalnej odpowiedzi zapalnej z udziałem cytokin i aktywacji dopełniacza. Nawracające zapalenie migdałków wiąże się z tworzeniem biofilmu bakteryjnego, który chroni patogeny przed układem odpornościowym i antybiotykami, co utrudnia leczenie i sprzyja przewlekłości choroby. Czynniki genetyczne, niedobór witaminy D (obniżony poziom 25(OH)D), stan odżywienia oraz warunki środowiskowe wpływają na podatność i przebieg anginy.

Angina – Patogeneza i mechanizm

Angina (zapalenie migdałków podniebiennych) to powszechna choroba zapalna, stanowiąca około 1,3% wizyt ambulatoryjnych. Jest ona wynikiem infekcji, która może mieć pochodzenie wirusowe lub bakteryjne, przy czym etiologia wirusowa jest najczęstsza.12 Zrozumienie patogenezy i mechanizmów rozwoju anginy jest kluczowe dla właściwego postępowania terapeutycznego oraz zapobiegania powikłaniom.

Etiologia anginy

Angina jest najczęściej wywoływana przez infekcje wirusowe, które stanowią 70-95% wszystkich przypadków.34 Najczęstszymi wirusowymi czynnikami etiologicznymi są:

  • Rinowirusy
  • Wirus RSV (syncytialny wirus oddechowy)
  • Adenowirusy
  • Koronawirusy
  • Wirusy grypy i paragrypy
  • Enterowirusy

123

Wirusy te mają zazwyczaj niską zjadliwość i rzadko prowadzą do powikłań. Inne wirusy mogące wywołać zapalenie migdałków to wirus Epsteina-Barr (powodujący mononukleozę), cytomegalowirus, wirus zapalenia wątroby typu A, różyczki oraz HIV.1

Infekcje bakteryjne stanowią 15-30% przypadków anginy, przy czym odsetek ten jest wyższy u dzieci w wieku 5-15 lat (15-30%) niż u dorosłych (5-15%).23 Najczęstszym patogenem bakteryjnym jest paciorkowiec beta-hemolizujący grupy A (GABHS, Streptococcus pyogenes).12 Innymi bakteriami mogącymi wywoływać anginę są Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae oraz Haemophilus influenzae.12

Warto zaznaczyć, że w przypadku pacjentów niezaszczepionych należy również uwzględnić możliwość zakażenia Corynebacterium diphtheriae powodującego błonicę.12

Mechanizm inicjacji zakażenia

Proces patogenetyczny anginy można podzielić na kilka kluczowych etapów. Pierwszym zasadniczym stadium w etiopatogenezie anginy jest penetracja patogenu przez warstwę śluzową pokrywającą migdałki podniebienne.1 Skuteczne pokonanie tej bariery ochronnej jest warunkiem koniecznym do rozwoju infekcji.

Następnym istotnym etapem jest adhezja patogenicznych mikroorganizmów do komórek nabłonkowych. W przypadku Streptococcus pyogenes, bakteria ta przyłącza się do receptorów adhezyjnych znajdujących się na nabłonku migdałkowym.1 Pokrycie immunoglobulinami patogenów może mieć znaczenie w początkowej indukcji bakteryjnego zapalenia migdałków.1

Po przytwierdzeniu do komórek nabłonkowych, bakterie mogą tworzyć kolonie na powierzchni komórek nabłonkowych, ale również posiadają zdolność do penetracji do wnętrza komórek, co wykazano zarówno w badaniach in vitro, jak i in vivo.1 Badania z wykorzystaniem skaningowego mikroskopu elektronowego (SEM) wykazały, że łańcuchy bakterii paciorkowcowych tworzą kolonie bakteryjne składające się z bakterii o różnych rozmiarach.2

Rozprzestrzenianie się infekcji

Lokalne rozprzestrzenianie się infekcji S. pyogenes na powierzchni migdałków jest kluczowym etapem w patogenezie ostrego zapalenia migdałków.1 W przypadku infekcji bakteryjnej, S. pyogenes i taksonomicznie podobne bakterie infiltrują nabłonek migdałkowy, skutecznie penetrując ochronne filmy śluzowe w jamie ustnej i nosowej.12

W przypadku Staphylococcus aureus, który jest główną przyczyną nawracającego bakteryjnego zapalenia migdałków, po inwazji bakteria jest internalizowana przez komórki niefagocytarne poprzez białko wiążące fibronektynę i integryny beta.12 Inwazja komórek nie-eukariotycznych prowadzi do zwiększonej regulacji cytokin, co skutkuje zapaleniem migdałków.12

Reakcja zapalna

Przytwierdzenie mikroorganizmów S. pyogenes do nabłonka powierzchniowego migdałków podniebiennych wywołuje reakcję zapalną w tkankach leżących poniżej, najwyraźniej poprzez uwolnienie cytokin i/lub aktywację dopełniacza.1

W migdałkach białe krwinki układu odpornościowego niszczą wirusy lub bakterie, produkując cytokiny zapalne, takie jak fosfolipaza A2, co prowadzi również do gorączki.1 Infiltracja migdałków przez patogeny powoduje odpowiedź zapalną w postaci zwiększonej regulacji cytokin, co prowadzi do zapalenia migdałków.12

Lokalne mechanizmy immunologiczne są istotne w przewlekłym zapaleniu migdałków. Dystrybucja komórek dendrytycznych i komórek prezentujących antygen ulega zmianie podczas choroby, z mniejszą liczbą komórek dendrytycznych na nabłonku powierzchniowym i większą w kryptach i obszarach pozafolikularnych.1

Rola biofilmu w patogenezie

Nawracające zapalenie migdałków definiuje się jako wielokrotne ataki zapalenia migdałków w ciągu roku. Przyczyna takich nawracających infekcji została zidentyfikowana jako mikroorganizmy, które często tworzą biofilmy i stanowią rezerwuar infekcji w wilgotnych i ciepłych fałdach migdałków.12

Biofilm jest uważany za główny czynnik mikrobiologiczny prowadzący do przewlekłych infekcji, ponieważ chroni bakterie przed odpowiedzią obronną gospodarza i prowadzi do powstania oporności na stosowaną terapię. Tkanka migdałkowa i migdałki są predysponowane do tworzenia biofilmu ze względu na kryptyczną strukturę tkanki i bezpośrednią, powtarzającą się ekspozycję na patogeny bakteryjne układu oddechowego.1

Badania wykazały obecność biofilmu u 70,8% pacjentów z przewlekłym zapaleniem migdałków.1 Inne badanie ujawniło, że biofilmy zostały zidentyfikowane na nabłonku powierzchniowym migdałków i migdałków gardłowych u wielu pacjentów oczekujących na adenotonsillektomię z powodu przewlekłego zapalenia migdałków i zapalenia migdałków gardłowych.2

Teoria tworzenia biofilmu wyjaśnia, że podstawowym czynnikiem nawracającego/przewlekłego zapalenia migdałków jest bakteryjny biofilm na powierzchni migdałków.1 Bakterie mogą istnieć w kilku formach: swobodnie pływające, indywidualne planktoniczne lub w organizacji biofilmu zawierającej miliony bakterii. Bakterie biofilmu mają alternatywne modele ekspresji genów w porównaniu z bakteriami planktonicznymi, i wiele nowych genów zostało zgłoszonych w formacjach biofilmu.2

Obecność biofilmu wyjaśnia nieaktywność antybiotyków, a tym samym nawroty infekcji.1 Chlorheksydyna w formie płynu do płukania jamy ustnej wydaje się być skuteczna w znacznym zmniejszaniu liczby mikrokolonii bakteryjnych istniejących w kryptach u pacjentów z nawracającym zapaleniem migdałków.1

Czynniki predysponujące

Przeludnione warunki i niedożywienie sprzyjają wystąpieniu zapalenia migdałków.1 Ponadto, u pacjentów pediatrycznych z historią nawracającego przewlekłego zapalenia migdałków u obojga rodziców może wystąpić nadmierna odpowiedź immunologiczna ze względu na dziedziczenie genetyczne.1 Historia rodzinna w mechanizmie obronnym immunologicznym predysponuje do zaburzeń migdałków.1

Dziedziczenie genetyczne determinuje nasilenie uszkodzenia migdałków z odpowiedzią immunologiczną u pacjentów pediatrycznych z historią nawracającego przewlekłego zapalenia migdałków u obojga rodziców.1 Badanie z 2019 roku wykazało, że genetyka może powodować niewystarczającą odpowiedź immunologiczną na bakterie paciorkowca grupy A, które powodują anginę paciorkowcową i zapalenie migdałków.1

Migdałki są pierwszą linią obrony układu odpornościowego przeciwko bakteriom i wirusom, które wnikają do jamy ustnej. Ta funkcja może czynić migdałki szczególnie podatnymi na infekcje i zapalenie. Jednak funkcja odpornościowa migdałków zmniejsza się po okresie dojrzewania – czynnik, który może tłumaczyć rzadkie przypadki zapalenia migdałków u dorosłych.1

Rola witaminy D

W patogenezie anginy coraz większą uwagę zwraca się na rolę witaminy D. Badania wykazały znacząco niższy poziom 25(OH)D w surowicy u pacjentów z przewlekłym zapaleniem migdałków w porównaniu do grupy leczonej witaminą D. Niedobór witaminy D był znacząco częściej wykrywany u dzieci z przewlekłym zapaleniem migdałków w porównaniu do dzieci leczonych witaminą D. Ta hipowitaminoza D zwiększała ryzyko przewlekłego zapalenia migdałków.1

Wyniki badań pokazały potencjalne efekty witaminy D u pacjentów z przewlekłym zapaleniem migdałków. Witamina D odgrywa ważną rolę w utrzymaniu odporności, immunomodulując zarówno wrodzone, jak i adaptacyjne odpowiedzi immunologiczne. W odniesieniu do wpływu witaminy D na migdałki, niedobór może zwiększać nawracające infekcje.1

Powikłania anginy

Chociaż większość przypadków anginy to łagodne epizody infekcyjne, które całkowicie ustępują dzięki leczeniu zachowawczemu lub antybiotykom, istnieją znaczące powikłania, które mogą wystąpić, szczególnie w przypadku infekcji wywołanych przez Streptococcus pyogenes.12

Powikłania ropne

Nieleczone infekcje bakteryjne mogą się nasilać i rozprzestrzeniać po całym organizmie.1 Jednym z częstszych powikłań jest ropień okołomigdałkowy (peritonsillar abscess, PTA). PTA to zaawansowany stan zapalny, w którym dochodzi do gromadzenia się ropy w przestrzeni pomiędzy torebką migdałka a mięśniem zwieraczem gardła.1

Bakteryjna infekcja migdałków może rozwinąć się w infekcję wtórną ucha środkowego.1 Jeśli angina paciorkowcowa lub zapalenie migdałków nie ustępuje (samo lub w wyniku leczenia), infekcja może przekształcić się w zakażenie zwane zapaleniem tkanki łącznej migdałków.2

Rzadkim powikłaniem infekcji jamy ustnej i gardła jest choroba Lemierrea. Zwykle objawia się jako posocznica po bólu gardła z towarzyszącą zakrzepicą żyły szyjnej wewnętrznej i zatorami septycznymi. Najczęściej związana jest z Fusobacterium necrophorum, chociaż wystąpiła również w przypadku infekcji gronkowcowych i paciorkowcowych.12

Powikłania nieropne

Angina wywołana przez paciorkowca beta-hemolizującego grupy A, w rzadkich przypadkach, może powodować gorączkę reumatyczną i reumatyczną chorobę serca. Gorączka reumatyczna to zapalna, immunologiczna choroba, która występuje po zakażeniu paciorkowcem grupy A. Najczęściej występuje u pacjentów w wieku od 5 do 18 lat.12

Patogeneza gorączki reumatycznej jest złożona i może trwać do miesiąca. Spośród czynników patogenetycznych największe znaczenie ma białko M. Białko M na niektórych szczepach paciorkowca grupy A indukuje tworzenie przeciwciał, które reagują krzyżowo z niektórymi tkankami gospodarza. Przeciwciała reagują na antygeny „własne” prezentowane przez tkanki gospodarza, co prowadzi do uszkodzenia normalnych tkanek, zwłaszcza przy powtarzających się infekcjach.1

Postreptokokowe kłębuszkowe zapalenie nerek (PSGN) to immunologiczne zaburzenie nerek, które może rozwinąć się po infekcji paciorkowcem grupy A.123

Innym potencjalnym powikłaniem jest zespół Guillaina-Barrégo, który jest ostrą lub podostrą poliradikuloneuropatią, czasem następującą po chorobie zakaźnej lub zabiegach chirurgicznych. Dokładny mechanizm nie jest jasny, ale zaburzenie prawdopodobnie ma podłoże immunologiczne.1 Zaangażowanie ośrodkowego układu nerwowego w ostre zapalenie migdałków jest zwykle wykrywane po utworzeniu ropnia przestrzeni okołogardzielowej. Zwykle prawdopodobnym mechanizmem jest embolizacja ogniska zakaźnego przez dostęp żylny i/lub limfatyczny lub przez tętnicę szyjną wewnętrzną z upośledzeniem nerwów czaszkowych (9. i 12.) i łańcucha współczulnego.2

Zaburzenia oddychania

Zapalenie migdałków może powodować powiększenie migdałków z powodu infekcji i stanu zapalnego, co jest potencjalną przyczyną bezdechu sennego (tymczasowo lub na stałe, jeśli zapalenie migdałków jest nawracające lub powoduje trwały stan zapalny migdałków).1

Przerost migdałków jest obecny w przypadkach anginy i obstrukcja dróg oddechowych jest podejrzewana jako mechanizm śmierci w rzadkich przypadkach.1 Nagłe zatrzymanie krążenia i oddychania może być związane z patogenezą połączenia przerostu migdałków oraz stanu zapalnego nagłośni i obrzęku krtani.1

Podsumowanie patogenezy anginy

Angina jest przede wszystkim wynikiem infekcji wirusowej lub bakteryjnej. Patogeneza anginy obejmuje kilka kluczowych etapów: penetrację patogenu przez barierę śluzową, adhezję do komórek nabłonkowych, kolonizację i/lub penetrację do wnętrza komórek, wywołanie reakcji zapalnej poprzez uwolnienie cytokin i aktywację dopełniacza.123

W przypadku nawracającego zapalenia migdałków kluczową rolę odgrywa tworzenie biofilmu bakteryjnego, który chroni patogeny przed układem odpornościowym gospodarza i działaniem antybiotyków.123

Czynniki genetyczne, stan odżywienia, warunki środowiskowe oraz poziom witaminy D mogą wpływać na podatność na infekcje migdałków oraz przebieg choroby.12

Chociaż większość przypadków anginy ustępuje samoistnie lub po leczeniu, nieleczone infekcje bakteryjne, szczególnie te wywołane przez Streptococcus pyogenes, mogą prowadzić do poważnych powikłań, takich jak ropień okołomigdałkowy, gorączka reumatyczna, kłębuszkowe zapalenie nerek oraz inne zaburzenia immunologiczne.123

Zrozumienie złożonego mechanizmu patogenezy anginy jest kluczowe dla skutecznego leczenia, zapobiegania nawrotom oraz unikania powikłań, które w rzadkich przypadkach mogą zagrażać życiu.12

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  1. 10.04.2026
  2. www.leksykon.com.pl

Materiały źródłowe

  • #1 Tonsillitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544342/
    Tonsillitis, or inflammation of the tonsils, is a common disease and makes up approximately 1.3% of outpatient visits. It is predominantly the result of a viral or bacterial infection and, when uncomplicated, presents as a sore throat. Acute tonsillitis is a clinical diagnosis. Differentiation between bacterial and viral causes can be difficult; however, this is crucial to prevent the overuse of antibiotics. […] Tonsillitis is generally the result of an infection, which may be viral or bacterial. Viral etiologies are the most common. The most common viral causes are usually those that cause the common cold, including rhinovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, adenovirus, and coronavirus. These typically have low virulence and rarely lead to complications. Other viral causes such as Epstein-Barr (causing mononucleosis), cytomegalovirus, hepatitis A, rubella, and HIV may also cause tonsilitis.
  • #1 Tonsillitis – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf
    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544342/
    Bacterial infections are typically due to group A beta-hemolytic Streptococcus (GABHS), but Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Haemophilus influenza have also been cultured. Bacterial tonsillitis can result from both aerobic and anaerobic pathogens. In unvaccinated patients, Corynebacterium diphtheriae causing diphtheria should even merit consideration as an etiology. […] Acute tonsillitis caused by group A beta-hemolytic streptococci, in rare cases, causes rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease. Rheumatic fever is an inflammatory, immunological disease that occurs following infection with group A Streptococcus. […] Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis is an immune-mediated disorder following infection with Group A streptococcus. […] Lemierre disease is a rare complication of oropharyngeal infections. It commonly presents as sepsis following a sore throat with associated thrombosis of the internal jugular vein and septic emboli.
  • #1
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7173150/
    Bacterial and epithelial cell samples were obtained, within 24 h of onset of pharyngeal symptoms, from the palatine tonsils of nine patients (four female and five male; age range 10-40 years, median age 23) with acute tonsillitis, culture-positive for Streptococcus pyogenes. […] S. pyogenes can apparently penetrate the mucous barrier, attach to the epithelial cells, spread from cell to cell and possibly penetrate into the outermost layer of the epithelial cells. These events in turn provoke cytokine production and/or complement activation, which induce inflammatory reaction in the tonsillar tissue. […] The first essential stage in the etiopathogenesis of AT must therefore be the penetration of the mucous film covering the palatine tonsils. […] The next important stage in the etiopathogenesis of AT is the subsequent attachment of the pathogenic microorganisms to the epithelial cells.
  • #1 Tonsillitis and Peritonsillar Abscess: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology and Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/871977-overview
    Viral or bacterial infections and immunologic factors lead to tonsillitis and its complications. Overcrowded conditions and malnourishment promote tonsillitis. Most episodes of acute pharyngitis and acute tonsillitis are caused by viruses such as the following: […] Bacteria cause 15-30% of cases of pharyngotonsillitis. Anaerobic bacteria play an important role in tonsillar disease. Most cases of bacterial tonsillitis are caused by group A beta-hemolytic Streptococcus pyogenes (GABHS). S pyogenes adheres to adhesin receptors that are located on the tonsillar epithelium. Immunoglobulin coating of pathogens may be important in the initial induction of bacterial tonsillitis. […] A polymicrobial flora consisting of both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria has been observed in core tonsillar cultures in cases of recurrent pharyngitis, and children with recurrent GABHS tonsillitis have different bacterial populations than children who have not had as many infections. Other competing bacteria are reduced, offering less interference to GABHS infection.
  • #1
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7173150/
    When attached to the epithelial cells, the bacteria can form colonies on the epithelial cell surface, but they also have the ability to penetrate into the cell, as has been shown in both in vitro and in vivo studies. […] Local spreading of S. pyogenes infection on the tonsillar surface is ultimately an important stage in the etiopathogenesis of AT. […] The SEM studies in this paper showed that the coccal chains ended up in a bacterial colony consisting of variously sized bacteria. […] The present study did show, however, that attachment of S. pyogenes microorganisms to the surface epithelium of the palatine tonsils can definitely provoke an inflammatory reaction of the underlying tissues, apparently via cytokine release and/or complement activation.
  • #1 Tonsillitis pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Tonsillitis_pathophysiology
    Tonsillitis develops when the pathogen, viral or bacterial, infects the tonsils and elicits an inflammatory response. […] It develops when the viruses infiltrate the tonsils and cause an inflammatory response of up-regulated cytokines. […] Bacterial tonsillitis considered acute is primarily caused by group A -hemolytic streptococcus (GABHS) Streptococcus pyogenes infection. […] S. pyogenes and taxonomically-similar bacteria infiltrate the tonsillar epithelium, successfully penetrating the protective mucosal films in the oral and nasal cavity. […] This results in an inflammatory response of up-regulated cytokines, leading to tonsillitis. […] Following invasion, S. aureus is internalized by non-phagocytic cells through fibronectin-binding protein and beta-integrins. […] Invasion of non-eukaryotic cells results in the up-regulation of cytokines, resulting in tonsillitis.
  • #1 Tonsillitis – Wikipedia
    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonsillitis
    Tonsillitis is most commonly caused by a viral infection and about 5% to 40% of cases are caused by a bacterial infection. […] Bacterial infection of the tonsils usually follows the initial viral infection. […] Within the tonsils, white blood cells of the immune system destroy the viruses or bacteria by producing inflammatory cytokines like phospholipase A2, which also lead to fever. […] Anaerobic bacteria have been implicated in tonsillitis, and a possible role in the acute inflammatory process is supported by several clinical and scientific observations.
  • #1 Tonsillitis and Peritonsillar Abscess: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology and Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/871977-overview
    A polymicrobial bacterial population is observed in most cases of chronic tonsillitis, with alpha- and beta-hemolytic streptococcal species, S aureus, H influenzae, and Bacteroides species having been identified. […] Local immunologic mechanisms are important in chronic tonsillitis. The distribution of dendritic cells and antigen-presenting cells is altered during disease, with fewer dendritic cells on the surface epithelium and more in the crypts and extrafollicular areas. Study of immunologic markers may permit differentiation between recurrent and chronic tonsillitis. […] A polymicrobial flora is isolated from peritonsillar abscesses (PTAs). Predominant organisms are the anaerobes Prevotella, Porphyromonas, Fusobacterium, and Peptostreptococcus species. Major aerobic organisms are GABHS, S aureus, and H influenzae.
  • #1 Study Report on Tonsillitis Pathology
    https://www.jrmds.in/articles/study-report-on-tonsillitis-pathology-89096.html
    Repetitive tonsillitis is depicted as when an individual experiences a few assaults of tonsillitis for each year. […] The reason for such repetitive contaminations have been recognized as microorganisms which regularly make biofilms and a store of disease in the wet and warm overlays of the tonsils. […] Microbial biofilms are a significant reason for rehashed tonsillitis in both pediatric and grown-up companions, and more research is expected to grow new treatment methodologies. […] Treatment modalities ought to jednak be founded on cautious determination and individual thought of the potential impact biofilmów on przypadkach intermittent tonsillitis. […] As opposed to tworzenie or utilizing increasingly intense antimicrobials, specialists ought to zapewnić they are in the know regarding research and the treatment of biofilms, including the use of topical operators, the physical evacuation of biofilms, and other imaginative medicines.
  • #1 Analysis of Tonsil Tissues from Patients Diagnosed with Chronic Tonsillitis—Microbiological Profile, Biofilm-Forming Capacity and Histology
    https://www.mdpi.com/2079-6382/11/12/1747
    Chronic tonsillitis (CT) is a long-term infection that occurs as a result of multiple repeated infections of the tonsils. The pathogenesis of the disease is a consequence of several repeated episodes of acute tonsillitis or as a result of a persistent infection that leads to chronic inflammation that is long-lasting and slowly progressing. […] Biofilm is considered the main microbiological factor that leads to chronic infections because it protects bacteria from the host’s defensive response and leads to the emergence of resistance to the applied therapy. The tonsillar tissue and adenoids are predisposed to biofilm formation due to cryptic tissue structure and direct, repeated exposure to respiratory bacterial pathogens. […] Given the importance of the biofilm in infection establishment, the emergence of resistant strains and difficulties in eradicating them, the aim of this study was to identify bacteria that cause CT, determine their sensitivity to commercial antibiotics, to examine their ability to form biofilm as well as to histologically confirm infection and the presence of bacteria in the tissue itself. […] The presence of biofilm explains the inactivity of antibiotics and thus the recurrence of infection.
  • #1 Chronic tonsillitis and biofilms: a brief overview of treatment modali | JIR
    https://www.dovepress.com/chronic-tonsillitis-and-biofilms-a-brief-overview-of-treatment-modalit-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-JIR
    Recurrent tonsillitis is described as when an individual suffers from several attacks of tonsillitis per year. […] The cause of such recurrent infections have been identified as microorganisms which often create biofilms and a repository of infection in the wet and warm folds of the tonsils. […] Scientists working at Washington University School of Medicine identified that recurrent infections are exacerbated by the creation of biofilms by microorganisms in the wet and warm folds of the tonsils which act as a repository of infection. […] A study utilizing an innovative imagining technique in single sections of human mucosal tissue reports the presence of biofilms in 70.8% of chronic tonsillitis patients. […] Another study revealed that biofilms were recognized on the surface epithelium of tonsils and adenoids in many of the patients who were waiting for adenotonsillectomy due to chronic tonsillitis and adenoiditis.
  • #1 Clinical Importance of Family History in Recurrent Chronic Tonsillitis Pediatric Patients: Mini-Review
    https://www.pediatricsresearchjournal.com/articles/clinical-importance-of-family-history-in-recurrent-chronic-tonsillitis-pediatric-patients-mini-review.html
    In pediatric patients with a history of recurrent chronic tonsillitis in both their mother and father, they may show an excessive immune response due to genetic inheritance. […] Family history in immune defense mechanism predispose to tonsil disorders. […] Biofilm formation theory explains that the underlying factor of recurrent/ chronic tonsillitis formation is the bacterial biofilm on the surface of the tonsils. […] Genetic inheritance determines the severity of tonsillar damage with immune response in pediatric patients with a history of recurrent chronic tonsillitis in both parents. […] Biofilm formation theory explains that the underlying factor of recurrent / chronic tonsillitis is the bacterial biofilm on the surface of the tonsils. […] Bacteria can exist in several forms: free-floating, individual planktonic or in biofilm organization containing millions of bacteria. Biofilm bacteria have alternative gene expression models compared to planktonic bacteria, and many novel genes have been reported in biofilm formations.
  • #1 The effect of chlorhexidine mouthwash on bacterial microcolonies in recurrent tonsillitis – Johnston – Australian Journal of Otolaryngology
    https://www.theajo.com/article/view/4409/html
    Chlorhexidine mouthwash appears to be effective in significantly reducing the number of bacterial microcolonies that exist in the crypts of these participants with RT. […] The reduction of bacterial microcolonies in the crypts of patients with RT is essential, as these likely result in the exudative nature of tonsils in disease, leading to symptoms including halitosis, odynophagia and fever. […] Although the mechanism of action is not entirely clear, the fact that chlorhexidine mouthwash significantly reduces the number of bacterial microcolonies is a potentially clinically significant finding. […] Chlorhexidine mouthwash reduces foci of pathogenic bacteria in the crypts of tonsils that have been found to contribute to the chronicity and recurrence of disease in RT.
  • #1 Tonsillitis: Causes, Symptoms, and Diagnosis
    https://www.healthline.com/health/tonsillitis
    A variety of bacterial and viral infections can cause tonsillitis. […] When an infection develops on your tonsils themselves, the condition is called tonsillitis. […] The germs that trigger tonsillitis can be transmitted to others, and a variety of common viruses and bacteria can cause it. Tonsillitis-causing microorganisms include Streptococcal bacteria. Tonsillitis caused by strep throat can lead to serious complications without treatment. […] A virus, such as the common cold, can trigger tonsillitis. Bacterial infections, such as strep throat, are also possible causes of tonsillitis. […] A 2018 review suggests that chronic and recurrent tonsillitis may occur due to biofilms in the folds of the tonsils. Biofilms are communities of microorganisms that have developed antibiotic resistance, and they can cause repeated infections. […] A 2019 study examined the tonsils of children who had recurrent tonsillitis. Researchers found that genetics may cause an insufficient immune response to group A streptococcus bacteria, which cause strep throat and tonsillitis.
  • #1 Tonsillitis – Symptoms & causes – Mayo Clinic
    https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/tonsillitis/symptoms-causes/syc-20378479
    Tonsillitis is most often caused by common viruses, but bacterial infections also can be the cause. […] The most common bacterium causing tonsillitis is Streptococcus pyogenes (group A streptococcus), the bacterium that causes strep throat. Other strains of strep and other bacteria also may cause tonsillitis. […] The tonsils are the immune system’s first line of defense against bacteria and viruses that enter your mouth. This function may make the tonsils particularly vulnerable to infection and inflammation. However, the tonsil’s immune system function declines after puberty a factor that may account for the rare cases of tonsillitis in adults.
  • #1 Impact of vitamin D in children with chronic tonsillitis (immunohistochemical study of CD68 polarisation and proinflammatory cytokines estimation) | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-33970-x
    Inflammatory processes are increasingly attributed to macrophage polarization. Proinflammatory macrophages promote T helper (Th) 1 response, tissue repair, and Th2 responses. […] Our study is focused on the expression of CD68 and the estimation of proinflammatory cytokines in childrens patients with chronic tonsillitis secondary to vitamin D supplementation. […] Low vitamin D may play a role in chronic tonsillitis. Vitamin D supplementation could help reduce the occurrence of chronic tonsillitis in susceptible children. […] The main findings of the present study revealed a significantly lower serum level of 25(OH)D in the Placebo group versus the Vitamin D group. Vitamin D deficiency was significantly more detected in children with chronic tonsillitis compared to children treated with vitamin D. This hypovitaminosis D increased the risk for chronic tonsillitis.
  • #1 Impact of vitamin D in children with chronic tonsillitis (immunohistochemical study of CD68 polarisation and proinflammatory cytokines estimation) | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-33970-x
    Marked mononuclear cellular infiltration could be seen within tonsillar tissue. Also, there was a significant increase in collagen fibers deposition in the subepithelial region and around the lymphatic follicles. […] A common histological characteristic of chronic tonsillitis and tonsillar hypertrophy is immunological parameters, genetic susceptibility, and local lymphocyte dysfunction. […] The results of the current study proved the potential effects of vitamin D in patients with chronic tonsillitis. The tonsillar sections restored their histological structure in the Vitamin D group. Vitamin D has an important role in maintaining immunity. […] Vitamin D immunomodulates both innate and adaptive immune responses. […] In terms of the effects of vitamin D on the adenoids and tonsils, a deficiency may increase recurrent infections.
  • #1 Tonsillitis – Quinsy – Abscess – Antibiotics – TeachMeSurgery
    https://teachmesurgery.com/ent/throat/tonsillitis/
    Tonsillitis is most caused by viral infections (50-80% of cases), including adenovirus, rhinovirus, influenza, and parainfluenza, or secondary to glandular fever, caused by Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). Bacterial causes account for approximately one third of cases (causative organisms include Streptococcus pyogenes, S. Aureus, and M. Catarrhalis). […] Tonsillitis refers to inflammation of the palatine tonsils, most commonly due to infection. […] Whilst most cases of tonsillitis are mild infective episodes and fully resolve with conservative measures or antibiotics, there are significant complications including deep neck space infections and potential airway compromise.
  • #1 Complications That Can Result From Tonsillitis
    https://www.everydayhealth.com/tonsillitis/complications/
    Tonsillitis can be caused by a viral infection or bacterial infection (like strep throat), and most of the time it goes away in a week or less. […] If bacterial infections do not go away on their own, they can continue to worsen and spread throughout the body. […] Tonsillitis, which can cause the tonsils to become enlarged because of the infection and inflammation, is therefore a potential cause of sleep apnea (either temporarily or permanently, if tonsillitis is recurrent or causes lasting inflammation in the tonsils). […] Another complication is that a tonsil infection can develop into a secondary infection of the middle ear. […] If strep throat or tonsillitis does not go away (either on their own or with tonsillitis treatment), either type of infection can progress into an infection called tonsillar cellulitis.
  • #1 Pharyngitis (Tonsillitis) – Respirology – Diseases – McMaster Textbook of Internal Medicine
    https://empendium.com/mcmtextbook/chapter/B31.II.3.3.
    Streptococcal pharyngitis can result in the following: Suppurative complications (early): Peritonsillar abscess, retropharyngeal abscess, suppurative cervical lymphadenitis, suppurative otitis media and/or mastoiditis, suppurative sinusitis. […] Prognosis is good. Even when untreated, streptococcal pharyngitis usually resolves spontaneously. Complications in adults are rare.
  • #1 Tonsillitis and Rheumatic Fever – ENT Clinic Sydney
    https://ent-surgery.com.au/tonsillitis-and-rheumatic-fever/
    Most commonly, rheumatic fever occurs following tonsillitis, a throat infection with group A Streptococcus. […] Rheumatic fever is an acute infection with an interesting pathogenesis that can take up to one month to present. […] Of these three factors, the one of greatest importance in the pathogenesis of rheumatic fever is the M protein. The M protein on certain strains of group A Streptococcus induce the formation of antibodies which cross-react with certain tissues within the host. The antibodies respond to the “self” antigens presented by the host tissues, which leads to damage of the normal tissues, especially with repeated infections.
  • #1 BJORL – Brazilian Journal of Otorhinolaryngology
    http://oldfiles.bjorl.org/conteudo/acervo/acervo_english.asp?id=543
    Guillain-Barre syndrome is an acute or subacute polyradiculoneuropathy that sometimes follows infective illness or surgical procedures. The precise mechanism is unclear, but the disorder probably has an immunological basis. […] Guillain-Barre syndrome is defined as an acute inflammatory dimyelinizing polyneuropathy characterized by paresis or paralysis that affects more than one limb, normally symmetrical, associated with loss of tendon reflexes. […] Guillain-Barre syndrome is defined as acute or subacute polyneuropathy and it affects 60% of the cases after an infectious disorder, being that 50% of them have viral etiology. Normally, the viral infection precedes the motor deficiency in 2 to 3 weeks. […] The involvement of the central nervous system in acute tonsillitis is normally detected after formation of parapharyngeal space abscess. Normally, the probable mechanism is embolization of the infectious focus via venous and/or lymphatic access or through the internal carotid artery with impairment of cranial nerves (9th and 12th) and the sympathetic chain.
  • #1 Tonsillar hypertrophy and prolapse in a child – is epiglottitis a predisposing factor for sudden unexpected death? | BMC Pediatrics | Full Text
    https://bmcpediatr.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12887-020-1927-3
    Tonsillitis, with associated tonsillar hypertrophy, is a common disease of childhood, yet it is rarely associated with sudden death due to airway obstruction. […] The child was diagnosed with acute tonsillitis 2 days prior to her collapse and was placed on a course of oral antibiotics. […] Tonsillar hypertrophy was present, and obstruction of the airway was suspected to be the mechanism of death. […] Palatine tonsillar hypertrophy in infants is a common feature of both viral and bacterial tonsillitis and has been postulated as a possible risk factor for Sudden and Unexplained Death in Infancy (SUDI), based on the theory of mechanical impediment of breathing by narrowing of the upper airway. […] The epiglottis and proximal laryngeal edema may play a more significant role in asphyxial unexpected deaths in cases of tonsillitis with tonsillar hypertrophy than previously suspected.
  • #1 Tonsillar hypertrophy and prolapse in a child – is epiglottitis a predisposing factor for sudden unexpected death? | BMC Pediatrics | Full Text
    https://bmcpediatr.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12887-020-1927-3
    We postulate that airway obstruction in this case resulted from tonsillar hypertrophy, as well as the contributory effect of epiglottitis, which further compromised the upper airway as a result of mucosal swelling and edema. […] We suggest that particular attention should be paid to the epiglottis both macro and microscopically, as concomitant epiglottal edema may very well offer an explanation for the sudden and unexpected collapse and death of children with tonsillitis and associated tonsillar hypertrophy.
  • #1 Tonsillitis and Tonsilloliths: Diagnosis and Management | AAFP
    https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2023/0100/tonsillitis-tonsilloliths.html
    If a patient tests positive for GABHS infection, antibiotics are the recommended treatment, and penicillin is the first-line agent. […] Treatment of recurrent tonsillitis (i.e., five or more episodes in one year) includes watchful waiting or surgical management with tonsillectomy. […] Although rare in the developed world, suppurative and nonsuppurative complications of tonsillitis can include abscess, acute glomerulonephritis, rheumatic fever, and scarlet fever. […] The exact mechanism of tonsillolith development is not well understood but may be related to recurrent tonsillitis.
  • #2 Tonsillitis and Tonsilloliths: Diagnosis and Management | AAFP
    https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2023/0100/tonsillitis-tonsilloliths.html
    Tonsillitis, or inflammation of the tonsils, makes up approximately 0.4% of outpatient visits in the United States. Tonsillitis is caused by a viral infection in 70% to 95% of cases. […] Bacterial infections caused by group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus (GABHS) account for tonsillitis in 5% to 15% of adults and 15% to 30% of patients five to 15 years of age. […] It is important to differentiate group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus from other bacterial or viral causes of pharyngitis and tonsillitis because of the risk of progression to more systemic complications such as abscess, acute glomerulonephritis, rheumatic fever, and scarlet fever after infection with group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus. […] Tonsillitis is caused by a viral infection in 70% to 95% of cases. […] The most common viral causes include rhinovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, adenovirus, and coronavirus.
  • #2 Tonsillitis and Peritonsillar Abscess: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology and Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/871977-overview
    Viral or bacterial infections and immunologic factors lead to tonsillitis and its complications. Overcrowded conditions and malnourishment promote tonsillitis. Most episodes of acute pharyngitis and acute tonsillitis are caused by viruses such as the following: […] Bacteria cause 15-30% of cases of pharyngotonsillitis. Anaerobic bacteria play an important role in tonsillar disease. Most cases of bacterial tonsillitis are caused by group A beta-hemolytic Streptococcus pyogenes (GABHS). S pyogenes adheres to adhesin receptors that are located on the tonsillar epithelium. Immunoglobulin coating of pathogens may be important in the initial induction of bacterial tonsillitis. […] A polymicrobial flora consisting of both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria has been observed in core tonsillar cultures in cases of recurrent pharyngitis, and children with recurrent GABHS tonsillitis have different bacterial populations than children who have not had as many infections. Other competing bacteria are reduced, offering less interference to GABHS infection.
  • #2 Tonsillitis and Peritonsillar Abscess: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology and Etiology
    https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/871977-overview
    A polymicrobial bacterial population is observed in most cases of chronic tonsillitis, with alpha- and beta-hemolytic streptococcal species, S aureus, H influenzae, and Bacteroides species having been identified. […] Local immunologic mechanisms are important in chronic tonsillitis. The distribution of dendritic cells and antigen-presenting cells is altered during disease, with fewer dendritic cells on the surface epithelium and more in the crypts and extrafollicular areas. Study of immunologic markers may permit differentiation between recurrent and chronic tonsillitis. […] A polymicrobial flora is isolated from peritonsillar abscesses (PTAs). Predominant organisms are the anaerobes Prevotella, Porphyromonas, Fusobacterium, and Peptostreptococcus species. Major aerobic organisms are GABHS, S aureus, and H influenzae.
  • #2 Tonsillitis | Treatment & Management | Point of Care
    https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/30256
    Tonsillitis is generally the result of an infection, which may be viral or bacterial. Viral etiologies are the most common. The most common viral causes are usually those that cause the common cold, including rhinovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, adenovirus, and coronavirus. These typically have low virulence and rarely lead to complications. Other viral causes such as Epstein-Barr (causing mononucleosis), cytomegalovirus, hepatitis A, rubella, and HIV may also cause tonsilitis. […] Bacterial infections are typically due to group A beta-hemolytic Streptococcus (GABHS), but Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Haemophilus influenza have also been cultured. Bacterial tonsillitis can result from both aerobic and anaerobic pathogens. In unvaccinated patients, Corynebacterium diphtheriae causing diphtheria should even merit consideration as an etiology.
  • #2
    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7173150/
    When attached to the epithelial cells, the bacteria can form colonies on the epithelial cell surface, but they also have the ability to penetrate into the cell, as has been shown in both in vitro and in vivo studies. […] Local spreading of S. pyogenes infection on the tonsillar surface is ultimately an important stage in the etiopathogenesis of AT. […] The SEM studies in this paper showed that the coccal chains ended up in a bacterial colony consisting of variously sized bacteria. […] The present study did show, however, that attachment of S. pyogenes microorganisms to the surface epithelium of the palatine tonsils can definitely provoke an inflammatory reaction of the underlying tissues, apparently via cytokine release and/or complement activation.
  • #2 Sandbox:Tonsillitis pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Sandbox:Tonsillitis_pathophysiology
    Tonsillitis develops when the pathogen, viral or bacterial, infects the tonsils and elicits an inflammatory response. […] Tonsillitis develops when the viruses infiltrate the tonsils and cause an inflammatory response of up-regulated cytokines. […] Bacterial tonsillitis develops upon infection of the tonsils with pathogenic bacteria. […] Bacterial tonsillitis considered acute is primarily caused by group A -hemolytic streptococcus (GABHS) Streptococcus pyogenes infection. […] S. pyogenes and taxonomically-similar bacteria infiltrate the tonsillar epithelium, successfully penetrating the protective mucosal films in the oral and nasal cavity. […] This results in an inflammatory response of up-regulated cytokines, leading to tonsillitis. […] Recurrent bacterial tonsillitis is caused primarily by Staphylococcus aureus. […] Following invasion, S. aureus is internalized by non-phagocytic cells through fibronectin-binding protein and beta-integrins. […] Invasion of non-eukaryotic cells results in the up-regulation of cytokines, resulting in tonsillitis.
  • #2 Chronic tonsillitis and biofilms: a brief overview of treatment modali | JIR
    https://www.dovepress.com/chronic-tonsillitis-and-biofilms-a-brief-overview-of-treatment-modalit-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-JIR
    Recurrent tonsillitis is described as when an individual suffers from several attacks of tonsillitis per year. […] The cause of such recurrent infections have been identified as microorganisms which often create biofilms and a repository of infection in the wet and warm folds of the tonsils. […] Scientists working at Washington University School of Medicine identified that recurrent infections are exacerbated by the creation of biofilms by microorganisms in the wet and warm folds of the tonsils which act as a repository of infection. […] A study utilizing an innovative imagining technique in single sections of human mucosal tissue reports the presence of biofilms in 70.8% of chronic tonsillitis patients. […] Another study revealed that biofilms were recognized on the surface epithelium of tonsils and adenoids in many of the patients who were waiting for adenotonsillectomy due to chronic tonsillitis and adenoiditis.
  • #2 Clinical Importance of Family History in Recurrent Chronic Tonsillitis Pediatric Patients: Mini-Review
    https://www.pediatricsresearchjournal.com/articles/clinical-importance-of-family-history-in-recurrent-chronic-tonsillitis-pediatric-patients-mini-review.html
    In pediatric patients with a history of recurrent chronic tonsillitis in both their mother and father, they may show an excessive immune response due to genetic inheritance. […] Family history in immune defense mechanism predispose to tonsil disorders. […] Biofilm formation theory explains that the underlying factor of recurrent/ chronic tonsillitis formation is the bacterial biofilm on the surface of the tonsils. […] Genetic inheritance determines the severity of tonsillar damage with immune response in pediatric patients with a history of recurrent chronic tonsillitis in both parents. […] Biofilm formation theory explains that the underlying factor of recurrent / chronic tonsillitis is the bacterial biofilm on the surface of the tonsils. […] Bacteria can exist in several forms: free-floating, individual planktonic or in biofilm organization containing millions of bacteria. Biofilm bacteria have alternative gene expression models compared to planktonic bacteria, and many novel genes have been reported in biofilm formations.
  • #2 Tonsillitis and Tonsilloliths: Diagnosis and Management | AAFP
    https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2023/0100/tonsillitis-tonsilloliths.html
    If a patient tests positive for GABHS infection, antibiotics are the recommended treatment, and penicillin is the first-line agent. […] Treatment of recurrent tonsillitis (i.e., five or more episodes in one year) includes watchful waiting or surgical management with tonsillectomy. […] Although rare in the developed world, suppurative and nonsuppurative complications of tonsillitis can include abscess, acute glomerulonephritis, rheumatic fever, and scarlet fever. […] The exact mechanism of tonsillolith development is not well understood but may be related to recurrent tonsillitis.
  • #2 Complications That Can Result From Tonsillitis
    https://www.everydayhealth.com/tonsillitis/complications/
    Tonsillitis can be caused by a viral infection or bacterial infection (like strep throat), and most of the time it goes away in a week or less. […] If bacterial infections do not go away on their own, they can continue to worsen and spread throughout the body. […] Tonsillitis, which can cause the tonsils to become enlarged because of the infection and inflammation, is therefore a potential cause of sleep apnea (either temporarily or permanently, if tonsillitis is recurrent or causes lasting inflammation in the tonsils). […] Another complication is that a tonsil infection can develop into a secondary infection of the middle ear. […] If strep throat or tonsillitis does not go away (either on their own or with tonsillitis treatment), either type of infection can progress into an infection called tonsillar cellulitis.
  • #2 Tonsillitis | Treatment & Management | Point of Care
    https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/30256
    Acute tonsillitis caused by group A beta-hemolytic streptococci, in rare cases, causes rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease. Rheumatic fever is an inflammatory, immunological disease that occurs following infection with group A Streptococcus. It most commonly presents in patients between 5 to 18 years old. […] Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis is an immune-mediated disorder following infection with Group A streptococcus. […] Lemierre disease is a rare complication of oropharyngeal infections. It commonly presents as sepsis following a sore throat with associated thrombosis of the internal jugular vein and septic emboli. It is most commonly associated with Fusobacterium necrophorum, though it has also occurred with Staphylococcal and Streptococcal infections.
  • #2 BJORL – Brazilian Journal of Otorhinolaryngology
    http://oldfiles.bjorl.org/conteudo/acervo/acervo_english.asp?id=543
    Guillain-Barre syndrome is an acute or subacute polyradiculoneuropathy that sometimes follows infective illness or surgical procedures. The precise mechanism is unclear, but the disorder probably has an immunological basis. […] Guillain-Barre syndrome is defined as an acute inflammatory dimyelinizing polyneuropathy characterized by paresis or paralysis that affects more than one limb, normally symmetrical, associated with loss of tendon reflexes. […] Guillain-Barre syndrome is defined as acute or subacute polyneuropathy and it affects 60% of the cases after an infectious disorder, being that 50% of them have viral etiology. Normally, the viral infection precedes the motor deficiency in 2 to 3 weeks. […] The involvement of the central nervous system in acute tonsillitis is normally detected after formation of parapharyngeal space abscess. Normally, the probable mechanism is embolization of the infectious focus via venous and/or lymphatic access or through the internal carotid artery with impairment of cranial nerves (9th and 12th) and the sympathetic chain.
  • #2 Impact of vitamin D in children with chronic tonsillitis (immunohistochemical study of CD68 polarisation and proinflammatory cytokines estimation) | Scientific Reports
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-33970-x
    Inflammatory processes are increasingly attributed to macrophage polarization. Proinflammatory macrophages promote T helper (Th) 1 response, tissue repair, and Th2 responses. […] Our study is focused on the expression of CD68 and the estimation of proinflammatory cytokines in childrens patients with chronic tonsillitis secondary to vitamin D supplementation. […] Low vitamin D may play a role in chronic tonsillitis. Vitamin D supplementation could help reduce the occurrence of chronic tonsillitis in susceptible children. […] The main findings of the present study revealed a significantly lower serum level of 25(OH)D in the Placebo group versus the Vitamin D group. Vitamin D deficiency was significantly more detected in children with chronic tonsillitis compared to children treated with vitamin D. This hypovitaminosis D increased the risk for chronic tonsillitis.
  • #2 Tonsillitis – Quinsy – Abscess – Antibiotics – TeachMeSurgery
    https://teachmesurgery.com/ent/throat/tonsillitis/
    Tonsillitis is most caused by viral infections (50-80% of cases), including adenovirus, rhinovirus, influenza, and parainfluenza, or secondary to glandular fever, caused by Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). Bacterial causes account for approximately one third of cases (causative organisms include Streptococcus pyogenes, S. Aureus, and M. Catarrhalis). […] Tonsillitis refers to inflammation of the palatine tonsils, most commonly due to infection. […] Whilst most cases of tonsillitis are mild infective episodes and fully resolve with conservative measures or antibiotics, there are significant complications including deep neck space infections and potential airway compromise.
  • #3 Tonsillitis and Tonsilloliths: Diagnosis and Management | AAFP
    https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2023/0100/tonsillitis-tonsilloliths.html
    Tonsillitis, or inflammation of the tonsils, makes up approximately 0.4% of outpatient visits in the United States. Tonsillitis is caused by a viral infection in 70% to 95% of cases. […] Bacterial infections caused by group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus (GABHS) account for tonsillitis in 5% to 15% of adults and 15% to 30% of patients five to 15 years of age. […] It is important to differentiate group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus from other bacterial or viral causes of pharyngitis and tonsillitis because of the risk of progression to more systemic complications such as abscess, acute glomerulonephritis, rheumatic fever, and scarlet fever after infection with group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus. […] Tonsillitis is caused by a viral infection in 70% to 95% of cases. […] The most common viral causes include rhinovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, adenovirus, and coronavirus.
  • #3 Tonsillitis – ENT Health
    https://www.enthealth.org/conditions/tonsillitis/
    Tonsillitis is often caused by viral or bacterial infection. […] Up to 70 percent of cases of acute tonsillitis are caused by viruses, which often include adenoviruses, influenza viruses, parainfluenza viruses, enteroviruses, and Mycoplasma. […] Bacteria cause 15 to 30 percent of tonsillitis cases. Group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus (GABHS) is the most common bacteria associated with tonsillitis. […] It is believed that GABHS is spread through airborne droplets when someone who is infected coughs or sneezes, or through shared food or drinks.
  • #3 Tonsillitis and Tonsilloliths: Diagnosis and Management | AAFP
    https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2023/0100/tonsillitis-tonsilloliths.html
    Bacterial infections caused by group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus (GABHS) account for tonsillitis in 5% to 15% of adults and 15% to 30% of patients five to 15 years of age. […] Only one-half to two-thirds of patients with tonsillitis have a detectable pathogen. […] The differential diagnosis of tonsillitis includes pharyngitis, retropharyngeal abscess, epiglottitis, peritonsillar abscess, and submandibular space infections (Ludwig angina). […] It is important to differentiate GABHS pharyngitis and tonsillitis from other bacterial and viral causes due to the risk of complications with GABHS. […] Acute tonsillitis is an inflammatory process of the tonsillar tissues. […] Acute tonsillitis is usually a self-limited disease and rarely results in hospitalization. […] Because acute tonsillitis is often caused by viruses, treatment is primarily supportive, including analgesia with medications such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and maintaining hydration.
  • #3 Complications That Can Result From Tonsillitis
    https://www.everydayhealth.com/tonsillitis/complications/
    If tonsillitis is caused by a strep throat infection, the bacteria can get into the blood system and cause a condition called rheumatic fever an inflammatory disorder primarily found in children between the ages of 6 and 16. […] Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis (PSGN) is an inflammatory disorder of the kidneys that can develop after a strep throat infection. […] While there is no link between tonsillitis and cancer, sometimes they may have similar symptoms.
  • #3 Tonsillitis pathophysiology – wikidoc
    https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Tonsillitis_pathophysiology
    Tonsillitis develops when the pathogen, viral or bacterial, infects the tonsils and elicits an inflammatory response. […] It develops when the viruses infiltrate the tonsils and cause an inflammatory response of up-regulated cytokines. […] Bacterial tonsillitis considered acute is primarily caused by group A -hemolytic streptococcus (GABHS) Streptococcus pyogenes infection. […] S. pyogenes and taxonomically-similar bacteria infiltrate the tonsillar epithelium, successfully penetrating the protective mucosal films in the oral and nasal cavity. […] This results in an inflammatory response of up-regulated cytokines, leading to tonsillitis. […] Following invasion, S. aureus is internalized by non-phagocytic cells through fibronectin-binding protein and beta-integrins. […] Invasion of non-eukaryotic cells results in the up-regulation of cytokines, resulting in tonsillitis.
  • #3 Analysis of Tonsil Tissues from Patients Diagnosed with Chronic Tonsillitis—Microbiological Profile, Biofilm-Forming Capacity and Histology
    https://www.mdpi.com/2079-6382/11/12/1747
    Chronic tonsillitis (CT) is a long-term infection that occurs as a result of multiple repeated infections of the tonsils. The pathogenesis of the disease is a consequence of several repeated episodes of acute tonsillitis or as a result of a persistent infection that leads to chronic inflammation that is long-lasting and slowly progressing. […] Biofilm is considered the main microbiological factor that leads to chronic infections because it protects bacteria from the host’s defensive response and leads to the emergence of resistance to the applied therapy. The tonsillar tissue and adenoids are predisposed to biofilm formation due to cryptic tissue structure and direct, repeated exposure to respiratory bacterial pathogens. […] Given the importance of the biofilm in infection establishment, the emergence of resistant strains and difficulties in eradicating them, the aim of this study was to identify bacteria that cause CT, determine their sensitivity to commercial antibiotics, to examine their ability to form biofilm as well as to histologically confirm infection and the presence of bacteria in the tissue itself. […] The presence of biofilm explains the inactivity of antibiotics and thus the recurrence of infection.
  • #3 Tonsillitis | Treatment & Management | Point of Care
    https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/30256
    Acute tonsillitis caused by group A beta-hemolytic streptococci, in rare cases, causes rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease. Rheumatic fever is an inflammatory, immunological disease that occurs following infection with group A Streptococcus. It most commonly presents in patients between 5 to 18 years old. […] Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis is an immune-mediated disorder following infection with Group A streptococcus. […] Lemierre disease is a rare complication of oropharyngeal infections. It commonly presents as sepsis following a sore throat with associated thrombosis of the internal jugular vein and septic emboli. It is most commonly associated with Fusobacterium necrophorum, though it has also occurred with Staphylococcal and Streptococcal infections.
  • #4 Tonsillitis – ENT Health
    https://www.enthealth.org/conditions/tonsillitis/
    Tonsillitis is often caused by viral or bacterial infection. […] Up to 70 percent of cases of acute tonsillitis are caused by viruses, which often include adenoviruses, influenza viruses, parainfluenza viruses, enteroviruses, and Mycoplasma. […] Bacteria cause 15 to 30 percent of tonsillitis cases. Group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus (GABHS) is the most common bacteria associated with tonsillitis. […] It is believed that GABHS is spread through airborne droplets when someone who is infected coughs or sneezes, or through shared food or drinks.