Materiały źródłowe

• #1 Dyspraxia: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/23963-dyspraxia-developmental-coordination-disorder-dcd

  Dyspraxia, also known as developmental coordination disorder, is a neurodevelopmental condition that begins in childhood that makes it difficult to perform motor skills. It also causes issues with coordination. […] Dyspraxia, also known as developmental coordination disorder (DCD), is a chronic condition that begins in childhood that causes difficulties with motor (movement) skills and coordination. […] Dyspraxia can cause a wide range of issues with movement and coordination. […] Researchers aren’t sure of the exact cause of dyspraxia. But being born pre-term (before 37 weeks of pregnancy) and having a low birth weight put children at higher risk for having dyspraxia.

• #1 Developmental Coordination Disorder (Dyspraxia) – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK603724/

  Developmental coordination disorder, also known as dyspraxia or DCD, is a prevalent condition often underrecognized by healthcare and educational professionals. […] The population of children with this condition is heterogeneous, and the etiology remains unknown. […] DCD’s etiology is not fully understood, but research has provided insights into potential factors contributing to the condition. […] Children with this disorder comprise a heterogeneous population, justifying the premise that multiple mechanisms may contribute to DCD. […] For example, studies suggest that DCD may be related to abnormal neurological maturation processes, including the under-activation of motor learning-associated brain regions and altered development of motor and sensory pathways. […] Psychological factors may also play a role. […] DCD is hypothesized to have a genetic predisposition. However, the specific genes that may be linked to this condition have not been identified as shared genetic susceptibility with various neuropsychiatric disorders may lead to erroneous DNA analysis results.

• #1 Developmental Coordination Disorder (Dyspraxia) | Treatment & Management | Point of Care

  https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/148754

  DCD’s etiology is not fully understood, but research has provided insights into potential factors contributing to the condition. Children with this disorder comprise a heterogeneous population, justifying the premise that multiple mechanisms may contribute to DCD. For example, studies suggest that DCD may be related to abnormal neurological maturation processes, including the under-activation of motor learning-associated brain regions and altered development of motor and sensory pathways. Psychological factors may also play a role. […] Accurate motor execution requires the harmonic integration of strength, balance, and proprioceptive, vestibular, visuospatial, and procedural learning. Studies show that children with DCD tend to present with abnormal brain activation patterns and white matter connections on functional MRI. Parietal, frontal, and cerebellar cortex areas are those mainly implicated in DCD. […] DCD is hypothesized to have a genetic predisposition. However, the specific genes that may be linked to this condition have not been identified as shared genetic susceptibility with various neuropsychiatric disorders may lead to erroneous DNA analysis results.

• #1 Dyspraxia: Causes, symptoms, and treatments

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/151951

  Dyspraxia is a neurodevelopmental condition that affects coordination and movement. Healthcare professionals typically refer to this condition as developmental coordination disorder (DCD). […] Scientists do not yet know what causes DCD. Experts believe the condition may occur when motor neurons (the nerve cells that control a persons muscles) do not develop correctly. If motor neurons cannot form proper connections for any reason, the brain will take much longer to process data. […] According to the Disability and Dyslexia Service at the Queen Mary University of London, United Kingdom, studies suggest that DCD may be caused by an immaturity of neuron development in the brain, rather than by any specific brain damage. […] A child may have an increased risk of developing DCD if they: were born prematurely, have a low birth weight, have a family history of DCD, have a birthing parent who used drugs or consumed alcohol during pregnancy. […] Researchers have not yet found the causes of DCD, but factors such as premature birth, low birth weight, and family history of the condition can increase a childs risk of developing it.

• #1 Dyspraxia: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment

  https://patient.info/childrens-health/dyspraxia-developmental-co-ordination-disorder

  Developmental co-ordination disorder (DCD), also known as dyspraxia, is a common condition which mainly affects motor co-ordination – the way the body organises and carries out movement-related tasks. […] Dyspraxia seems to run in families, so it seems to have a genetic component – the way your child is 'made’. This suggests that, in some children, a less effective development of the motor nerves may be something that is pre-programmed into their genes. […] Premature babies, particularly those of very low birth weight, seem to be at greater risk of dyspraxia. […] There is evidence that exposure to high levels of alcohol, or to illegal drugs during pregnancy, can cause dyspraxia.

• #1 What is Dyspraxia? – Disability and Dyslexia Service

  https://www.qmul.ac.uk/disability-and-dyslexia-service/dyslexia/whatisdyspraxia/

  Dyspraxia, also known as Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD), is thought to affect up to 10% of the population and up to 2% severely. […] Dyspraxia/DCD can run in families. […] For the majority of those with the condition there is no known cause, however, current research suggests that it is the unresponsive or varied development of neurones in the brain, rather than brain damage, which form the foundations of dyspraxia. People with dyspraxia have no clinical neurological abnormality to explain their condition.

• #1 Causes & Identification

  https://www.canchild.ca/en/diagnoses/developmental-coordination-disorder/causes-identification

  Movement difficulties can occur for many reasons and may take place at a number of different stages as a child takes in information and uses it to perform a motor task. […] Although there are many theories, it is not yet possible to offer a clear answer about what causes DCD. […] Most recently, researchers have suggested a possible link between the cerebellum and the challenges seen with DCD, as the cerebellum is critical for developing automatic movement control and the ongoing monitoring of movements, both of which are affected in DCD. […] Children with DCD make up what is called a 'heterogeneous’ group, which means that they are not all alike. […] DCD can have a negative affect on many aspects of a child’s life. […] Identifying DCD at an early age and developing appropriate management strategies can help to improve the physical, social, and emotional outcomes for children with DCD.

• #1

  https://mentalhealthcenterkids.com/blogs/articles/dyspraxia-in-children

  Dyspraxia, named developmental coordination disorder (DCD) in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), affects about 5-6% of school-aged children. […] Multiple factors influence the development of this disorder, such as environmental, genetic, and neurobiological contributions. […] For example, prenatal alcohol exposure and birth complications, such as premature birth or low birth weight, are indicated as environmental risk factors for dyspraxia. […] In the neurobiological dimension, dysfunction in the cerebellar cortex plays a role in dyspraxia as well. […] Finally, studies have also hypothesized that dyspraxia in children may be attributed to genetic influences.

• #1 Pathogenetic Insights into Developmental Coordination Disorder Reveal Substantial Overlap with Movement Disorders

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/13/12/1625

  Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by non-progressive central motor impairments. […] Until now, the etiology of DCD has been unclear. Recent studies suggested a genetic substrate in some patients with DCD, but comprehensive knowledge about associated genes and underlying pathogenetic mechanisms is still lacking. […] Despite the identification of putative risk factors for DCD, including male sex, prematurity, and perinatal oxygen perfusion problems, the underlying etiology remains unknown. […] Recently, the hypothesis of a genetic substrate of DCD was suggested by studies on family aggregation and heritability of DCD, estimated to ≥70% in monozygotic twins. […] These findings suggest a shared genetic etiology between DCD and its comorbid neurodevelopmental disorders. […] Our findings suggest that some patients might have a genetic etiology of DCD, which could be considered part of a pathogenetic movement disorder spectrum.

• #1 Developmental Coordination Disorder DSM-5 315.4 (F82)

  https://www.theravive.com/therapedia/developmental-coordination-disorder-dsm–5-315.4-(f82)

  It is estimated that about 5 per cent of school-age children are affected, although up to 10 per cent of children may be uncoordinated in some way. […] Prematurity and in utero alcohol and drug exposure increase the risk. […] Two studies have estimated the heritability of the disorder at 0.47 and 0.69, suggesting both hereditary and environmental factors, and a genome-wide analysis suggested the involvement of several genes but these have not been identified. […] Neuropsychological evaluations have suggested dysfunction in the parietal lobes, cerebellum, hippocampus, basal ganglia and corpus callosum. […] One study of single-photon emission computed tomography indicated disruption of normal connections between cerebellum and cerebral areas involved in executing planned actions, visual-spatial perception and regulation of affect.

• #1

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/developmental-coordination-disorder-dyspraxia/

  Developmental co-ordination disorder (DCD), also known as dyspraxia, is a condition affecting physical co-ordination. It causes a child to perform less well than expected in daily activities for their age, and appear to move clumsily. […] It’s not usually clear why co-ordination doesn’t develop as well as other abilities in children with DCD. […] However, a number of risk factors that can increase a child’s likelihood of developing DCD have been identified. […] These include: being born prematurely, before the 37th week of pregnancy; being born with a low birth weight; having a family history of DCD, although it is not clear exactly which genes may be involved in the condition; the mother drinking alcohol or taking illegal drugs while pregnant.

• #1 Assessment, diagnosis, and management of developmental coordination disorder | Canadian Paediatric Society

  https://cps.ca/documents/position/developmental-coordination-disorder

  Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a neurodevelopmental condition that affects 5% to 6% of school-aged children. […] A diagnosis of DCD can only be confirmed when motor difficulties are not the result of a medical condition or disease, such as cerebral palsy (CP) or visual impairment, yet the individual has low scores on standardized motor testing and a history of motor problems from the early developmental period. […] DCD prevalence is higher in males than in females (2:1 to 7:1). Preterm birth is a significant risk factor, with the odds of DCD increasing with decreasing gestational age. […] Common co-occurring conditions associated with DCD include attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), specific learning disabilities, and language impairments.

• #1 Signs of Dyspraxia in Children | Causes & Diagnosis

  https://cpdonline.co.uk/knowledge-base/care/dyspraxia-children/

  A child, who experiences difficulties with fine motor tasks such as fastening buttons, handwriting, or tying shoelaces, and gross motor tasks such as catching a ball, climbing stairs and riding a bike, may have an underlying movement difficulty such as Dyspraxia. […] The cause of Dyspraxia is still unclear. It is believed that both genetic and environmental factors may play a role. Research suggests that Dyspraxia is caused by an immaturity of neurone development and neural pathways in the central nervous system. […] Children born prematurely, or with low birth weight are at a higher risk of developing Dyspraxia as these factors can affect brain development in ways that impair motor coordination. […] There may also be a genetic component to Dyspraxia, as it can run in families. Children with a family history of Dyspraxia or other developmental disorders are more likely to have the condition themselves. […] Dyspraxia can often co-occur with other developmental or learning conditions such as ADHD, Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), or Dyslexia. Although these conditions do not cause Dyspraxia, the presence of these co-occurring conditions may indicate shared underlying neurological differences.

• #1 Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) – Children’s Integrated Therapies

  https://www.oxfordhealth.nhs.uk/cit/resources/dcd/

  Developmental co-ordination disorder (DCD) also known as dyspraxia, is a condition affecting physical co-ordination. It affects both fine and gross motor movements. DCD causes children to perform less well than expected in daily activities for their age and appear to move clumsily. […] It is thought to be around 3 or 4 times more common in boys than girls, and the condition sometimes runs in families. […] Many different nerves and parts of the brain are involved in producing complex and co-ordinated movements. […] Any problem in this process could potentially lead to difficulties with movement and co-ordination. Its not usually clear why a child with DCDs co-ordination skills do not develop as well as other children. […] However, several risk factors that can increase a childs likelihood of developing DCD have been identified. […] These include: Being born prematurely, before the 37th week of pregnancy. Being born with a low birth weight. Having a family history of DCD, although it is not clear exactly which genes may be involved in the condition. The mother drinking alcohol or taking illegal drugs while pregnant.

• #1

• #1 Developmental Coordination Disorder: Causes & Remedies

  https://www.verywellmind.com/developmental-coordination-disorder-causes-and-remedies-5220409

  Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a neurodevelopmental condition. Otherwise known as dyspraxia, this disorder affects the development of motor skills and functions. […] Despite an increase in dyspraxia research, there is yet to be a conclusive agreement on the causes of this condition. One suggestion claims that children with dyspraxia experience challenges with the cerebellum—a part of the brain responsible for balance and coordination. […] Certain risk factors like premature births and low birth weight may increase the odds of dyspraxia. Research also suggests that postnatal exposure to steroids can be responsible for a child’s difficulties with motor coordination. […] Male children are more likely to live with this disorder. It is believed by some estimates that boys are 1.7 times more likely to live with dyspraxia than girls.

• #1 Addressing and Caring for Dyspraxia in Children | PX Docs

  https://pxdocs.com/motor-milestones/dyspraxia/

  The second factor is birth trauma and interventions. Procedures such as forceps delivery, vacuum extraction, and cesarean section can cause physical trauma to the delicate tissues of the neck and spine, leading to misalignments and tension that interfere with normal neurological function. […] Early exposure to toxins, antibiotics, and disruptive substances can harm the developing gut-brain axis. […] The cumulative effect of various factors leads to dysautonomia, where the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) becomes imbalanced and stuck in a “fight or flight” mode. This chronic stress impairs the brain’s ability to process sensory input and execute coordinated movements, contributing to dyspraxia.

• #1 Addressing and Caring for Dyspraxia in Children | PX Docs

  https://pxdocs.com/motor-milestones/dyspraxia/

  Dyspraxia, also known as Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD), is a neurological condition that affects the planning and execution of physical movements. It is present from birth, although signs may not be noticeable until a child is old enough to begin reaching developmental milestones. […] Dyspraxia is rooted in a disruption of the complex interplay between the brain, spinal cord, and muscles that enables smooth, coordinated movement. This dysfunction can be traced back to the developing nervous system’s exposure to physical, chemical, and emotional stressors, particularly during prenatal and early childhood periods. […] The first factor in this “Perfect Storm” is often prenatal stress. When a mother has fertility challenges and/or chronic stress, anxiety, or trauma during pregnancy, her body releases high levels of cortisol and other stress hormones that can cross the placenta and impact the developing fetus. This exposure can alter the programming of the baby’s nervous system, making it more susceptible to dysregulation and sensitivity to future stressors.

• #1 Developmental Coordination Disorder

  https://canchild.ca/en/diagnoses/developmental-coordination-disorder

  Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a motor skills disorder that affects five to six percent of all school-aged children. DCD occurs when a delay in the development of motor skills, or difficulty coordinating movements, results in a child being unable to perform common, everyday tasks. By definition, children with DCD do not have an identifiable medical or neurological condition that explains their coordination problems. […] DCD is commonly associated with other developmental conditions, including attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), learning disabilities (LD), speech-language delays and emotional and behavioural problems. […] While it was once thought that children with DCD would simply outgrow their motor difficulties, research tells us that DCD persists throughout adolescence into adulthood.

• #1 Developmental Coordination Disorder | Psychology Today

  https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/conditions/developmental-coordination-disorder

  Developmental coordination disorder, sometimes referred to as motor clumsiness or developmental dyspraxia, is a movement condition that manifests during child development and is marked by difficulty learning fine and gross motor skills compared to children of the same age. […] The root cause of developmental coordination disorder is unknown. Like other neurodevelopmental disorders, current evidence points to a combination of genes and environment. Those born into families with a history of DCD are at greater risk, and prenatal developmental setbacks such as being born early or being small for one’s gestational age appear to play a substantial role in the later development of DCD. […] Researchers also know that there is a consistent problem with rhythmic coordination and timing among children with developmental coordination disorder, as well as deficits in executive functioning that affect working memory, inhibition, and attention. Researchers have noted that dysfunction in these areas mimics that of ADHD and that the disorders frequently co-occur, suggesting a potential overlap between the two conditions, though the exact connection between the two remains the subject of debate.

• #1 What is Dyspraxia? Clumsy Child Syndrome Symptoms & TreatmentFooterLogo

  https://www.additudemag.com/what-is-dyspraxia-clumsy-child-syndrome/?srsltid=AfmBOoqFd0iOQ1gnUT7nELYUIjZavr2DiCyBvNQqL0KaO2rNwAJT-35g

  Dyspraxia is a motor skills disorder with symptoms that can be recognized in children as young as 1 or 2 years old. […] Dyspraxia is a neurological disorder that affects a child’s ability to plan and process motor tasks. […] Dyspraxia is sometimes called “clumsy child syndrome” and is often considered ubiquitous with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD), a unique but very similar diagnosis also associated with poor eye-hand coordination, posture, and balance. […] Up to 50 percent of children with DCD, which is more common in boys than it is in girls, meet the diagnostic criteria for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD or ADD). […] Though dyspraxia research is growing, the condition is often misunderstood or diagnosed improperly. […] A dyspraxia diagnosis is warranted if motor skills are significantly below the age-expected level. […] Lack of motor skills is not better explained by a general learning disability or rare medical condition.

• #1 Developmental coordination disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_coordination_disorder

  People with developmental coordination disorder may also have one or more of these other co-morbid conditions: fetal alcohol spectrum disorder, dyscalculia, dysgraphia, dyslexia, hypermobility, hypotonia, nonverbal learning disorder, sensory processing disorder, visual perception deficits. […] However, a person with DCD is unlikely to have all of these conditions. […] The pattern of difficulty varies widely from person to person; an area of major weakness for one dyspraxic person can be an area of strength or gift for another.

• #1 Developmental coordination disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_coordination_disorder

  Developmental coordination disorder (DCD), also known as developmental motor coordination disorder, developmental dyspraxia, or simply dyspraxia, is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impaired coordination of physical movements as a result of brain messages not being accurately transmitted to the body. […] A diagnosis of DCD is reached only in the absence of other neurological impairments such as cerebral palsy, multiple sclerosis, or Parkinson’s disease. […] It is thought to affect about 5% of the population. […] Evidence from research and clinical practice indicates that DCD is not just a physical disorder, and there may be deficits in executive functions, behavioural organisation and emotional regulation that extend beyond the motor impairments and which are independent of diagnoses of co-morbidities.

• #1

  https://www.healthxchange.sg/children/childhood-conditions/child-problems-coordination-balance

  Children with developmental dyspraxia face problems with coordination and motor skills. Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) affects 4-6 per cent of children, and affects their coordination and balance. The primary cause of DCD is unknown. Risk factors include premature birth, low birth weight, family history of DCD and maternal drug abuse during pregnancy. DCD is commonly seen with other developmental conditions including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), learning difficulties (LD), speech/language disorders and behavioural disorders. Recently, researchers have suggested a possible link between the cerebellum and the challenges seen with DCD. The cerebellum is the part of the brain responsible for motor movement coordination, balance, equilibrium and muscle tone. […] Children with DCD will normally outgrow their clumsiness and motor difficulties; however they may have difficulty in learning new, complex tasks as they grow into adulthood.

• #1 Developmental Coordination Disorder: Dyspraxia in Children | Child Mind Institute

  https://childmind.org/article/problems-coordination-dyspraxia/

  Children with poor motor skills may have developmental coordination disorder, or dyspraxia. […] When children are notably uncoordinated, compared to their peers, and fail to meet milestones for motor development, they may have a disorder called developmental coordination disorder (DCD), or dyspraxia. […] But there’s nothing wrong with their muscles. “It’s actually a disconnect between the brain and the body,” observes occupational therapist Lindsey Biel, MA, OTR/L, who has worked with many children with DCD. […] Kids who are on the most severely impaired end, Dr. Cruger adds, “we’ll send to a neurologist who will probably find a neurological problem that leads to the motor problems.” […] DCD can also affect motor planning, which is what experts call the process of figuring out how to carry out the movement you need to accomplish something.

• #1 Dyspraxia or developmental coordination disorder? Unravelling the enigma

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2066137/

  The terminology of coordination disorders has been confused, but in practice dyspraxia and DCD should be regarded as synonymous; DCD is the authors’ preferred term. […] DCD should only be diagnosed once an underlying neurological disorder has been considered and excluded and in the presence of nonprogressive coordination difficulties arising in early life and falling distinctly outside the age-related norms using appropriate assessments.

• #1 Dyspraxia/DCD Teens – Dyspraxia DCD America

  https://www.dyspraxiadcdamerica.org/dyspraxia-dcd-teens/

  While it was once believed that children with DCD would outgrow their motor difficulties, evidence suggests that these difficulties persist into adolescence and adulthood. […] A formal diagnosis will use criteria for Code 315.4 Developmental Coordination Disorder from The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-5) or for Code 6A04 Developmental Motor Coordination Disorder (Developmental Dyspraxia) in the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11), the global standard for diagnostic health information. […] Symptoms were present early in life. […] Difficulties with motor skills are not better explained by other medical conditions such as intellectual disability, neurological conditions or visual impairment.

• #1 Sensory Mom – What is Dyspraxia and How Does it Impact my Child?

  https://www.sensorymom.com/dyspraxia-and-developmental-coordination-disorder-what-you-need-to-know/

  Dyspraxia can be officially diagnosed by a pediatrician, pediatric neurologist or a child psychiatrist. Other professionals including physical and occupational therapists, child psychologists, and educational psychologists can assess for and identify DCD, but can’t make an official diagnosis. […] The primary treatment for DCD is occupational therapy (OT), also called Sensory Integration Therapy (OT-SI). Though your child won’t „outgrow” DCD, with the right intervention, he will definitely improve. The earlier he/she is diagnosed, the better and faster his/her improvement will be.

• #1 Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) in Children/Youth: Information for Parents and Caregivers : Frontenac County, ON : eMentalHealth.ca

  https://primarycare.ementalhealth.ca/Frontenac-County/Trouble-developpemental-de-la-coordination-TDC/index.php?m=article&ID=77039

  Developmental coordination disorder (DCD), also known as dyspraxia, occurs when a delay in the development of motor skills, or difficulty coordinating movements, results in a child being unable to perform everyday tasks. […] DCD affects 5-6% of school-aged children and tends to occur more frequently in boys. […] When DCD is identified, it is usually not identified until a child is at least 8 years old. […] Children do not grow out of having DCD. While children do learn to perform certain motor tasks well, they will continue to have difficulty with new, age-appropriate tasks. […] DCD can exist on its own or it may be present in a child who also has learning disabilities, speech/language difficulties, and/or attention deficit disorder.

• #1 Dyspraxia or developmental coordination disorder? Unravelling the enigma

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2066137/

  Therefore, DCD and dyspraxia should be regarded as synonymous. […] The management of children with DCD must begin with an accurate diagnosis. […] An underlying neurological or medical disorder must always be considered and excluded. […] A history of possible epileptic seizures or a sensory disturbance (specifically, a significant visual or hearing deficit) must be sought as a possible cause for impaired coordination. […] Children and adolescents with coordination difficulties clearly appreciate receiving appropriate treatment, and searching for help can be extremely frustrating for families. […] Early diagnosis, treatment and educational support are important. […] Failure to diagnose and address the motor and other commonly associated (comorbid) features seen in children with DCD may have major consequences in adult life, including unemployment, psychiatric disorders, substance misuse, poor interpersonal skills and criminality.

• #1 Dyspraxia/DCD Ireland – What is Dyspraxia/DCD?

  https://www.dyspraxia.ie/What-is-Dyspraxia-DCD

  Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) commonly known as Dyspraxia, is a neurological condition that affects movement and coordination (organisation of bigger and smaller movements) which can affect the performance of day-to-day activities (at home, in school, during play, at work). It’s not related to intelligence, but it can sometimes affect cognitive skills. „Early identification and intervention of children with, or at risk of, DCD is important to help prevent the potential negative developmental trajectories and psychosocial consequences associated with DCD” (Zwicker et al 2021). […] Dyspraxia or Developmental Co-ordination disorder is more common than you would think with research showing that „The prevalence of dyspraxia in school-age populations is about 6% (or 1 in 20 people) and 10% of the overall population” (Farmer et al 2017). […] Currently no biological explanation for Dyspraxia/DCD. Has been linked to genetic predisposition, premature birth and low birth weight.

• #1 DCD Overview – DCD Australia

  https://dcdaustralia.org.au/what-is-dcd-2/

  DCD is thought to affect approximately 5% of the population. On average, that means one child in every classroom could be affected by DCD. […] The causes of DCD are not well understood. Like other neurodevelopmental conditions, the brain is thought to develop differently, impacting on a persons ability to learn, plan and perform movement. […] DCD has gone by many names, but the two labels that have dominated are DCD and dyspraxia. […] In contrast, the term dyspraxia, which means difficult (dys) action (praxis), does not appear as a diagnosis in diagnostic manuals. […] There is a recognised overlap between DCD and a number of other disorders. Some of these include Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD); (Specific) Language Impairment; Autism Spectrum Disorder; and Learning Disorders/Disabilities.

• #1 Developmental coordination disorder – Causes of dyspraxia | Clear Chemist

  https://www.clearchemist.co.uk/az-health/developmental-coordination-disorder/causes-of-dyspraxia

  Little is known about the cause of dyspraxia, a type of developmental co-ordination disorder (DCD). […] Dyspraxia may be caused by motor neurones in the brain not developing properly. […] It is thought that motor neurones in people with dyspraxia fail to form proper connections and are less effective at transmitting electrical signals from the brain to the muscles. […] Although it is not known what causes dyspraxia, there may be a link between dyspraxia and: being born prematurely (before week 37 of pregnancy), being born with a low birth weight, having a family history of dyspraxia, the mother drinking alcohol, smoking or taking illegal drugs while pregnant, which is increasingly being reported.

• #2 Developmental Coordination Disorder

  https://canchild.ca/en/diagnoses/developmental-coordination-disorder

  Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a motor skills disorder that affects five to six percent of all school-aged children. DCD occurs when a delay in the development of motor skills, or difficulty coordinating movements, results in a child being unable to perform common, everyday tasks. By definition, children with DCD do not have an identifiable medical or neurological condition that explains their coordination problems. […] DCD is commonly associated with other developmental conditions, including attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), learning disabilities (LD), speech-language delays and emotional and behavioural problems. […] While it was once thought that children with DCD would simply outgrow their motor difficulties, research tells us that DCD persists throughout adolescence into adulthood.

• #2 Dyspraxia: Causes, symptoms, and treatments

  https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/151951

  Dyspraxia is a neurodevelopmental condition that affects coordination and movement. Healthcare professionals typically refer to this condition as developmental coordination disorder (DCD). […] Scientists do not yet know what causes DCD. Experts believe the condition may occur when motor neurons (the nerve cells that control a persons muscles) do not develop correctly. If motor neurons cannot form proper connections for any reason, the brain will take much longer to process data. […] According to the Disability and Dyslexia Service at the Queen Mary University of London, United Kingdom, studies suggest that DCD may be caused by an immaturity of neuron development in the brain, rather than by any specific brain damage. […] A child may have an increased risk of developing DCD if they: were born prematurely, have a low birth weight, have a family history of DCD, have a birthing parent who used drugs or consumed alcohol during pregnancy. […] Researchers have not yet found the causes of DCD, but factors such as premature birth, low birth weight, and family history of the condition can increase a childs risk of developing it.

• #2 Dyspraxia-

  http://www.developmental-delay.com/page.cfm/253

  Dyspraxia can be defined as a neurological disorder beginning in childhood, with difficulties with muscle tone, motor planning and motor coordination as a result of brain messages not being accurately transmitted to the movement system of the body. […] The theory outlined by Gerald Edelman in 1992 suggests that the condition is caused by the failure of the neurons in the brain to develop correctly. This failure of the neurons to form adequate connections means that the brain takes longer to process information and there is a greater likelihood of the brain losing the suggestion and the child therefore failing to respond to requests given to him.

• #2 What is Dyspraxia? – Disability and Dyslexia Service

  https://www.qmul.ac.uk/disability-and-dyslexia-service/dyslexia/whatisdyspraxia/

  Dyspraxia, also known as Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD), is thought to affect up to 10% of the population and up to 2% severely. […] Dyspraxia/DCD can run in families. […] For the majority of those with the condition there is no known cause, however, current research suggests that it is the unresponsive or varied development of neurones in the brain, rather than brain damage, which form the foundations of dyspraxia. People with dyspraxia have no clinical neurological abnormality to explain their condition.

• #2 Developmental Coordination Disorder (Dyspraxia) | Treatment & Management | Point of Care

  https://www.statpearls.com/point-of-care/148754

  DCD’s etiology is not fully understood, but research has provided insights into potential factors contributing to the condition. Children with this disorder comprise a heterogeneous population, justifying the premise that multiple mechanisms may contribute to DCD. For example, studies suggest that DCD may be related to abnormal neurological maturation processes, including the under-activation of motor learning-associated brain regions and altered development of motor and sensory pathways. Psychological factors may also play a role. […] Accurate motor execution requires the harmonic integration of strength, balance, and proprioceptive, vestibular, visuospatial, and procedural learning. Studies show that children with DCD tend to present with abnormal brain activation patterns and white matter connections on functional MRI. Parietal, frontal, and cerebellar cortex areas are those mainly implicated in DCD. […] DCD is hypothesized to have a genetic predisposition. However, the specific genes that may be linked to this condition have not been identified as shared genetic susceptibility with various neuropsychiatric disorders may lead to erroneous DNA analysis results.

• #2 Dyspraxia: Symptoms, Causes & Expert Treatment Solution

  https://www.1specialplace.com/treatments-for-adults/dyspraxia

  Dyspraxia, also known as developmental coordination disorder, is a neurodevelopmental problem that occurs in childhood and causes difficulty performing motor skills. It also interferes with coordination. […] Dyspraxia, or developmental coordination disorder (DCD), is a chronic illness that primarily affects children and causes problems with coordination and motor skills. […] Many different types of movement and coordination problems can be brought on by dyspraxia. […] Several factors have been proposed to raise the likelihood of developing dyspraxia: Since dyspraxia appears to run in families, there may be a genetic component to it. […] Babies born prematurely, especially those with extremely low birth weights, appear to be more susceptible to dyspraxia. […] There is proof that excessive alcohol consumption or use of illegal drugs during pregnancy can result in dyspraxia, albeit these toxins also have a host of other negative effects.

• #2

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/developmental-coordination-disorder-dyspraxia/

  Developmental co-ordination disorder (DCD), also known as dyspraxia, is a condition affecting physical co-ordination. It causes a child to perform less well than expected in daily activities for their age, and appear to move clumsily. […] It’s not usually clear why co-ordination doesn’t develop as well as other abilities in children with DCD. […] However, a number of risk factors that can increase a child’s likelihood of developing DCD have been identified. […] These include: being born prematurely, before the 37th week of pregnancy; being born with a low birth weight; having a family history of DCD, although it is not clear exactly which genes may be involved in the condition; the mother drinking alcohol or taking illegal drugs while pregnant.

• #2 Developmental Coordination Disorder | Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment

  https://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/health/d/developmental-coordination-disorder

  Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a condition that affects how a child plans and carries out movements. Their body is physically able to do a task, but their brain has trouble figuring out how to get started and what steps to take. This is called a motor planning problem. […] The exact cause of DCD is unknown. Research shows it may be related to how the brain develops and functions. Studies using brain imaging (like functional MRIs) have found that kids with DCD use different brain pathways for movement than their peers. […] A few things that may increase the chances of having DCD include: Being born early (before 32 weeks), Being male (boys are about twice as likely to have DCD), Having a family history of motor learning challenges. […] DCD is not caused by an injury, illness or any one thing a parent, teacher or coach does.

• #2 Developmental co-ordination disorder (DCD) (dyspraxia in children) – GPnotebook

  https://gpnotebook.com/pages/paediatrics/developmental-co-ordination-disorder-dcd-dyspraxia-in-children

  Developmental co-ordination disorder (DCD), also known as dyspraxia, is a condition affecting physical co-ordination. It causes a child to perform less well than expected in daily activities for their age, and appear to move clumsily. […] DCD is thought to be around 3 or 4 times more common in boys than girls, and the condition sometimes runs in families. […] DCD affects between 5% to 6% of the paediatric population and is characterised by impaired motor proficiency, which interferes with the performance of activities of daily life, academic/school-based activities, leisure and play. […] for a diagnosis of DCD, these motor proficiency difficulties cannot be explained by other neurological conditions that affect movement. […] doing co-ordinated movements is a complex process that involves many different nerves and parts of the brain.

• #2 Assessment, diagnosis, and management of developmental coordination disorder | Canadian Paediatric Society

  https://cps.ca/documents/position/developmental-coordination-disorder

  Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a neurodevelopmental condition that affects 5% to 6% of school-aged children. […] A diagnosis of DCD can only be confirmed when motor difficulties are not the result of a medical condition or disease, such as cerebral palsy (CP) or visual impairment, yet the individual has low scores on standardized motor testing and a history of motor problems from the early developmental period. […] DCD prevalence is higher in males than in females (2:1 to 7:1). Preterm birth is a significant risk factor, with the odds of DCD increasing with decreasing gestational age. […] Common co-occurring conditions associated with DCD include attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), specific learning disabilities, and language impairments.

• #2 Developmental co-ordination disorder (DCD) (dyspraxia in children) – GPnotebook

  https://gpnotebook.com/pages/paediatrics/developmental-co-ordination-disorder-dcd-dyspraxia-in-children

  any problem in this process could potentially lead to difficulties with movement and co-ordination. […] it’s not usually clear why co-ordination doesn’t develop as well as other abilities in children with DCD. […] however, a number of risk factors that can increase a child’s likelihood of developing DCD have been identified. These include being born prematurely, before the 37th week of pregnancy; being born with a low birth weight; having a family history of DCD, although it is not clear exactly which genes may be involved in the condition; the mother drinking alcohol or taking illegal drugs while pregnant.

• #2 Addressing and Caring for Dyspraxia in Children | PX Docs

  https://pxdocs.com/motor-milestones/dyspraxia/

  The second factor is birth trauma and interventions. Procedures such as forceps delivery, vacuum extraction, and cesarean section can cause physical trauma to the delicate tissues of the neck and spine, leading to misalignments and tension that interfere with normal neurological function. […] Early exposure to toxins, antibiotics, and disruptive substances can harm the developing gut-brain axis. […] The cumulative effect of various factors leads to dysautonomia, where the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) becomes imbalanced and stuck in a “fight or flight” mode. This chronic stress impairs the brain’s ability to process sensory input and execute coordinated movements, contributing to dyspraxia.

• #2 Developmental coordination disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_coordination_disorder

  People with developmental coordination disorder may also have one or more of these other co-morbid conditions: fetal alcohol spectrum disorder, dyscalculia, dysgraphia, dyslexia, hypermobility, hypotonia, nonverbal learning disorder, sensory processing disorder, visual perception deficits. […] However, a person with DCD is unlikely to have all of these conditions. […] The pattern of difficulty varies widely from person to person; an area of major weakness for one dyspraxic person can be an area of strength or gift for another.

• #2 Developmental Coordination Disorder DSM-5 315.4 (F82)

  https://www.theravive.com/therapedia/developmental-coordination-disorder-dsm–5-315.4-(f82)

  It is estimated that about 5 per cent of school-age children are affected, although up to 10 per cent of children may be uncoordinated in some way. […] Prematurity and in utero alcohol and drug exposure increase the risk. […] Two studies have estimated the heritability of the disorder at 0.47 and 0.69, suggesting both hereditary and environmental factors, and a genome-wide analysis suggested the involvement of several genes but these have not been identified. […] Neuropsychological evaluations have suggested dysfunction in the parietal lobes, cerebellum, hippocampus, basal ganglia and corpus callosum. […] One study of single-photon emission computed tomography indicated disruption of normal connections between cerebellum and cerebral areas involved in executing planned actions, visual-spatial perception and regulation of affect.

• #2 SciELO Brazil – Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD): An overview of the condition and research evidence Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD): An overview of the condition and research evidence

  https://www.scielo.br/j/motriz/a/ZBc7trmmqWVmzGs6FjhSBHM/

  Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a neurodevelopmental condition marked by impairments in the development of motor coordination. […] DCD can be explained as difficulties or impairments in the performance of age-appropriate activities, and has also been described as problems in motor coordination despite appropriate levels of intelligence. […] By definition, children with DCD do not have an identifiable medical or neurological condition that explains their coordination problems. […] The core deficit of DCD is on the motor system and the difficulties associated with the condition are visible when the individual tries to perform coordinated skills, but there are many deficits that are also associated with the condition. […] DCD is a chronic condition, but little is known about its effects on adult life, and what types of interventions are effective for individuals that may suffer the consequences of DCD (even without a clear diagnosis). […] However, more studies are needed for the causes of DCD to be fully understood – nonetheless, we believe that the current perspectives enhance our knowledge of the condition, and give important clues about its management and intervention.

• #2 Causes & Identification

  https://www.canchild.ca/en/diagnoses/developmental-coordination-disorder/causes-identification

  Movement difficulties can occur for many reasons and may take place at a number of different stages as a child takes in information and uses it to perform a motor task. […] Although there are many theories, it is not yet possible to offer a clear answer about what causes DCD. […] Most recently, researchers have suggested a possible link between the cerebellum and the challenges seen with DCD, as the cerebellum is critical for developing automatic movement control and the ongoing monitoring of movements, both of which are affected in DCD. […] Children with DCD make up what is called a 'heterogeneous’ group, which means that they are not all alike. […] DCD can have a negative affect on many aspects of a child’s life. […] Identifying DCD at an early age and developing appropriate management strategies can help to improve the physical, social, and emotional outcomes for children with DCD.

• #3 (DOC) Developmental Coordination Disorder of Childhood: Dyspraxia

  https://www.academia.edu/24073733/Developmental_Coordination_Disorder_of_Childhood_Dyspraxia

  Globally, Dyspraxia affects every aspect of the childs life: learning, eating (chewing), activities of daily living like dressing and toileting, coordination, every sport, recess, speech, visual motor tasks, tactile and kinesthetic abilities, social skills (eye contact and making small talk.) There is nothing not affected. […] „The Dyspraxia Foundation says that for most children there is no known cause, although it is thought to be an immaturity of neuron development in the brain rather than brain damage they have no clinical neurological abnormality to explain their condition.” […] Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a neurodevelopmental condition that affects 5% to 6% of school-aged children. DCD can significantly impact early development and life-long functioning. […] Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a common and well-recognized neurodevelopmental disorder affecting approximately 5 in every 100 individuals worldwide.

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