Materiały źródłowe

• #1

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00787-018-1264-3

  Foetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs) are a leading cause of developmental disability. Prenatal alcohol use is the sole necessary cause of FASD, but it is not always sufficient. […] Multiple factors influence a child’s susceptibility to FASD following prenatal alcohol exposure. […] The aetiology of FASD is multifaceted and complex. FASD risk is determined by a range of lifestyle, sociodemographic, maternal, social, gestational, and genetic factors. […] Causal knowledge is important for identifying effective mechanisms for prevention and intervention programmes. […] Alcohol interacts with multiple factors in a complex process to determine offspring outcome. […] The term risk factor obscures the distinction between a predictor variable and a cause. […] Causal diagrams, known as directed acyclic graphs (DAGs), are gaining popularity as a gold standard method for supporting causal inference and reducing bias in epidemiological studies.

• #2 Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: neurodevelopmentally and behaviorally indistinguishable from other neurodevelopmental disorders | BMC Psychiatry | Full Text

  https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-019-2289-y

  Exposure to alcohol prenatally is the etiological cause of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) a term that is used to cover a range of diagnoses, including: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS), Partial FAS (pFAS), Alcohol-Related Neurodevelopmental Disorder (ARND), and depending on the diagnostic guideline, Alcohol-Related Birth Defects. […] Although prenatal alcohol exposure is a necessary cause of FASD, the genetic etiology of FASD remains unknown. Advances in the understanding of genetics and its role in neurodevelopmental disorder risk have created a paradigm shift, such that neurodevelopmental disorders are no longer viewed as having a psychogenic etiology but rather a genetic etiology. […] Prenatal alcohol exposure leads to epigenetic changes (i.e., altered gene expression). These changes may contribute to the spectrum of effects and different phenotypes observed in children with FASD. […] The discovery of reliable genetic and epigenetic markers for FASD would have significant implications for its diagnosis.

• #3 Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders and Inadequacy of Care: Importance of Raising Awareness in Clinical Practice

  https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9067/11/1/5

  Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders are an umbrella term used to describe a pattern of disabilities and abnormalities that result from fetal exposure to ethanol during pregnancy and are the most common non-heritable causes of intellectual disability. The effects on the fetus may include physical, mental, behavioral, and/or learning disabilities, with possible lifelong implications, and encompass a phenotypic range that can greatly vary between individuals but reliably include one or more of the following: facial dysmorphism, fetal growth deficiency, central nervous system dysfunction, and neurobehavioral impairment. […] Despite many public education programs regarding alcohol consumption during pregnancy, the percentage of pregnant women consuming alcohol is increasing. High rates of alcohol consumption during pregnancy allow us to suspect a high prevalence of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. The global prevalence of FASDs in children and youth in the general population is 7.7 per 1000 people.

• #4 Fetal alcohol syndrome – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/fetal-alcohol-syndrome/symptoms-causes/syc-20352901

  Fetal alcohol syndrome is a condition in a child that results from alcohol exposure during the mother’s pregnancy. […] Drinking alcohol during pregnancy can cause the child to have disabilities related to behavior, learning and thinking, and physical development. […] Fetal alcohol syndrome is on the severe end of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD). FASD is a range of conditions in the child caused by the mother drinking alcohol during pregnancy. […] There is no amount of alcohol that’s known to be safe to drink during pregnancy. If you drink during pregnancy, you place your baby at risk of fetal alcohol syndrome. […] Alcohol goes into your bloodstream. Inside the womb, the placenta provides oxygen and nutrients to a developing baby. The alcohol reaches your baby by passing through the placenta.

• #5 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Symptoms, Causes, Treatments

  https://www.webmd.com/baby/fetal-alcohol-syndrome

  Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is the most severe fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. These are a group of conditions present at birth that can happen when a pregnant person drinks alcohol. […] Alcohol — including wine, beer, and liquor — is the leading preventable cause of birth defects in the U.S. […] In the womb, a baby doesn’t have a fully developed liver that can process or break down alcohol, so it can easily get to and damage the baby’s organs. […] Some of the most severe problems happen when a pregnant person drinks in the first trimester, when the baby’s brain starts to develop. But the second and third trimesters aren’t safe either. The brain is still developing then, and even moderate amounts of alcohol can disturb this process. […] There is no „safe” amount of alcohol you can drink during pregnancy. And there is no time during pregnancy when it’s considered safe to drink alcohol, either.

• #6 Fetal alcohol syndrome – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/fetal-alcohol-syndrome/symptoms-causes/syc-20352901

  Alcohol causes a higher blood alcohol level in your developing baby than in your body. That’s because a baby breaks down and gets rid of alcohol slower than an adult does. […] Alcohol is toxic to the baby’s cells. Exposure to alcohol before birth can harm how the body develops and cause permanent brain damage in the developing baby. […] The more you drink while pregnant, the greater the risk to your unborn baby. But any amount of alcohol puts your baby at risk. Your baby’s brain, heart and blood vessels begin to develop in the early weeks of pregnancy, before you may know you’re pregnant. […] During the first three months of pregnancy, important stages of development happen with the face and organs such as the heart, bones, brain and nerves. Drinking alcohol during this time can cause damage to how body parts develop. And as the baby continues to develop in the womb, it’s damaging to drink at any time during pregnancy.

• #7 An overview of current advances in perinatal alcohol exposure and pathogenesis of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders | Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders | Full Text

  https://jneurodevdisorders.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s11689-024-09537-w

  The multiple hazards brought by the aforementioned PAE and the challenge for treatment of FASD all imply an urgent need for immediate and efficient action to resolve this serious issue. […] The main mechanism of FASD is closely related with alcohol-induced neuroinflammation and oxidative stress, by which potentially result in neural cell apoptosis in the developing embryonic brain, thus impeding the development of the embryonic brain. […] Ethanol neurotoxicity is another major mechanism by which ethanol causes FASD by direct damage to various signaling pathways. […] The damage to the developing nerve system in the womb causes FASD. […] The damage caused by oxidative stress cascade serves as the primary pathogenesis of the process of ROS-induced oxidative insult leading to FASD. […] The damage to DNA and the damage triggered by associated inflammatory factors serve as the primary pathogenesis of the process of ROS-induced oxidative stress leading to FASD.

• #8 What Causes Fetal Alcohol Syndrome?

  https://specialolympicsarizona.org/what-causes-fetal-alcohol-syndrome/

  Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), also commonly referred to as fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs), is a syndrome and spectrum of disorders that occur in babies who were exposed to alcohol while they were in utero. Exposure to alcohol in the womb can cause a number of problems in babies and children, including brain damage, growth problems, intellectual disabilities, developmental delays, and behavioral problems. […] Fetal alcohol syndrome is caused by a pregnant mother consuming alcohol, which then spreads to the fetus through the umbilical cord. Unlike an adult, a fetus is unable to metabolize alcohol, and it will stay in the system longer than is safe. Alcohol will interfere with the normal development of a fetus, particularly the brain and nervous systems. Alcohol can kill cells in various parts of the fetus, resulting in abnormal physical development.

• #9 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) in Adults: Signs, Causes & Treatment

  https://www.therecoveryvillage.com/alcohol-abuse/side-effects/fetal-alcohol-syndrome-affects-adulthood/

  Fetal alcohol syndrome is caused by alcohol entering the bloodstream of an unborn child, which occurs when a woman ingests alcohol during pregnancy. […] When alcohol is consumed during pregnancy, a percentage of it crosses into the placenta and enters the fetus. […] Alcohol can create a variety of side effects in an unborn child because the liver of a fetus cant process alcohol like an adult. […] The presence of alcohol in an unborn child can: […] Kill healthy cells, resulting in abnormal development […] Harm the development of nerve cells […] Slow blood flow to the placenta, depriving the fetus of oxygen and nutrients […] Damage the brain of the fetus with toxic alcohol byproducts.

• #10 Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders and differential diagnosis – Breda Genetics srl

  https://bredagenetics.com/fetal-alcohol-spectrum-disorders-and-differential-diagnosis/

  Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders includes numerous conditions due to exposure to alcohol during pregnancy. Alcohol has a teratogenic effect, it is able to cross the placental barrier and reach the fetus, which however lacks the enzymes necessary to metabolize it. Long exposure to alcohol and its metabolites (such as acetaldehyde) causes harmful events to fetal development, especially as regards the central nervous system. […] The factors that seem to have the greatest influence on the development of pre and postnatal damage are: Duration of exposure to alcohol, Frequency of exposure to alcohol (daily, weekly…), Amount of alcohol consumed, Interaction with other substances (drugs, drugs, tobacco …), Other environmental factors. […] The incidence of FASD is very varied and may depend on economic, social and cultural factors, such as the predisposition to drink. Unfortunately, there are not many studies that investigate this aspect even though it is estimated that in Europe the incidence is 1-3: 10,000, while in the USA it is 2-7: 1000 for the FAS and 2-5% for the FASD.

• #11 Autism Spectrum Disorder and Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder: A Literature Review

  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/12/6/792

  Noticeably, the most critical effects of in utero alcohol exposure were reported to be those on the fetal brain; alcohol may affect every single stage of brain development, from neurogenesis to myelination. […] According to a systematic review, the general population prevalence of FAS is 1.5 cases per 1000 newborns, but this data represents only the tip of an iceberg since the prevalence ratio of FASD to FAS is generally believed to be around 10 to 1. […] Unfortunately, drinking during pregnancy, and even binge drinking, is still quite common, and the need for universal screening with respect to alcohol exposure was previously stressed in the literature. […] Besides environmental factors, such as the levels of alcohol exposure or the drinking pattern of the mother, another important risk factor for FASD is the amount of genetic susceptibility towards the teratogenic effect of alcohol.

• #12 An overview of current advances in perinatal alcohol exposure and pathogenesis of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders | Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders | Full Text

  https://jneurodevdisorders.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s11689-024-09537-w

  Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) is a general term for multiple manifestations of fetal defects that is likely caused by PAE. […] PAE often affects the neurological development of the embryo, resulting in FASD and even FAS, which is indicative of the most typical features, such as morphological changes, cognitive impairment, and behavioral deficit. […] A systematic evaluation and comprehensive analysis of patients has demonstrated a causal relationship between PAE and fetal cognitive, learning, and memory deficits. […] This implied that alcohol has a significant negative impact on neurodevelopment, which is proportional to the severity of PAE. […] Presently, it has been shown that maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy causes FASD, and chronic alcohol consumption by the father also causes FASD.

• #13 An overview of current advances in perinatal alcohol exposure and pathogenesis of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders | Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders | Full Text

  https://jneurodevdisorders.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s11689-024-09537-w

  Neuroinflammation arising from ROS by ethanol metabolism has far more influence on the nervous system. […] The neuroinflammation by alcohol is a long-lasting and irreversible impairment of brain function in children with FASD. […] The summary of oxidative stress injury through multiple molecular mechanism in Table 1. […] The ultimate objective of further investigation of FASD’s pathophysiology is to effectively aid in the early diagnosis and treatment. […] The mechanism of neuroinflammatory damage caused by the metabolism of intake of ethanol resulting in excessive ROS that disrupts the oxidative metabolic balance in the embryo is well established. […] The above-mentioned neurotoxic damage is actually a broad concept. […] In summary, the mechanism by which PAE causes FASD in embryos is a multisystem, multifaceted, synergistic, persistent and lifelong effect, thus mediating neurodevelopmental impairment in the brain.

• #14 About Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASDs) | Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASDs) | CDC

  https://www.cdc.gov/fasd/about/index.html

  FASDs can occur when a person is exposed to alcohol before birth. Alcohol in the mother’s blood passes to the baby through the umbilical cord. […] There is no known safe amount of alcohol during pregnancy or when trying to get pregnant. There is also no safe time to drink during pregnancy. Alcohol can cause problems for a developing baby throughout pregnancy, including before a woman knows she’s pregnant. All types of alcohol are equally harmful, including all wines and beer. […] FASDs are preventable if a developing baby is not exposed to alcohol.

• #15 Fetal alcohol syndrome – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/fetal-alcohol-syndrome/symptoms-causes/syc-20352901

  Fetal alcohol syndrome is a condition in a child that results from alcohol exposure during the mother’s pregnancy. […] Drinking alcohol during pregnancy can cause the child to have disabilities related to behavior, learning and thinking, and physical development. […] Fetal alcohol syndrome is on the severe end of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD). FASD is a range of conditions in the child caused by the mother drinking alcohol during pregnancy. […] There is no amount of alcohol that’s known to be safe to drink during pregnancy. If you drink during pregnancy, you place your baby at risk of fetal alcohol syndrome. […] Alcohol goes into your bloodstream. Inside the womb, the placenta provides oxygen and nutrients to a developing baby. The alcohol reaches your baby by passing through the placenta.

• #16

  https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/chronic/Pages/Fetal-Alcohol-Spectrum-Disorders-FAQs-of-Parents-and-Families.aspx

  Alcohol is a „teratogen,” something known to cause abnormalities in a fetus after prenatal exposure. Alcohol consumed by a pregnant person can reach the fetus and interfere with development of the brain and other body organs. A child exposed to alcohol before birth may face a lifetime of challenges from what are called fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. […] The term fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, or FASDs, describes a broad group of conditions that result from prenatal alcohol exposure. […] FASDs are 100% preventable. The only sure way to prevent FASDs is to completely avoid alcohol use while pregnant. […] There is no safe amount of alcohol when a person is pregnant. […] The more alcohol a developing fetus is exposed to, the higher the risk is for the developing fetus to have alcohol-related brain and organ damage.

• #17 Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder

  https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/fetal-alcohol-spectrum-disorder/

  If you drink alcohol during pregnancy you risk causing harm to your baby. Sometimes this can result in mental and physical problems in the baby, called fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD). […] FASD can happen when alcohol in the mother’s blood passes to her baby through the placenta. […] Alcohol can damage their brain and body and stop them from developing normally in the womb. […] The type of FASD symptoms a baby has and how severe they are is different depending on how often, and how much, the mother drank during pregnancy. The greater the amount of alcohol consumed, the more severe the symptoms tend to be. […] FASD is completely avoidable if you do not drink alcohol while you’re pregnant. […] The risk of FASD is higher the more you drink. There’s no proven „safe” level of alcohol in pregnancy. Not drinking at all is the safest approach.

• #18 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/974016-overview

  Numerous studies demonstrated that the risk of alcohol-related effects increases according to maternal consumption in a dose-dependent fashion. […] Furthermore, heavy episodic, or binge, drinking is the riskiest pattern of consumption. […] Therefore, women who have the potential to become pregnant and who are binge drinkers may continue this pattern of consumption in the early weeks of an unrecognized pregnancy and therefore be at risk for fetal alcohol syndrome or fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. […] Evidence indicates that alcohol primarily affects brain development. […] Therefore, drinking in all three trimesters poses a risk. […] As a consequence, women can reduce their risk for alcohol-related birth outcomes by reducing the dose or by discontinuing the consumption of alcohol as soon as possible in the pregnancy.

• #19 Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder – Wikipedia

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetal_alcohol_spectrum_disorder

  The risk of FASD increases with the amount consumed, the frequency of consumption, and a longer duration of alcohol consumption during pregnancy. Blood alcohol concentration has been identified as a relevant factor. All forms of alcohol, such as beer, wine, and liquor, pose similar risk. Binge drinking increases the chances and severity of FASD to such an extent that Svetlana Popova has stated that „binge drinking is the direct cause of FAS or FASD”. Small amounts of alcohol may not cause an abnormal appearance, however, small amounts of alcohol consumption while pregnant may cause behavioral problems and also increases the risk of miscarriage. Quasi-experimental studies provide moderately strong evidence that prenatal alcohol exposure causes detrimental cognitive outcomes, and some evidence of reduced birthweight, although no study was fully rated at low risk of bias and quantity of studies was limited.

• #20 How Much Drinking Causes Fetal Alcohol Syndrome?

  https://twilightrecoverycenter.com/how-much-drinking-causes-fetal-alcohol-syndrome/

  Studies suggest that binge drinking, which is when someone consumes four or more drinks at a time, is particularly harmful. […] The safest approach is complete abstinence from alcohol during pregnancy to avoid any risk of harm to the developing fetus. […] Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder is a range of conditions that are associated with prenatal alcohol exposure, causing lifelong physical, behavioral, and cognitive impairments. […] FASD is caused by alcohol crossing the placenta and affecting fetal development, particularly the brain, which can happen when a woman engages in alcohol use during pregnancy. […] Prevention is entirely possible by abstaining from alcohol during pregnancy, making awareness and education crucial for reducing the incidence of FASD. […] Any amount of alcohol during pregnancy can potentially cause Fetal Alcohol Syndrome or other Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders.

• #21 Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) – familydoctor.org

  https://familydoctor.org/condition/fetal-alcohol-spectrum-disorders-fasd/

  FASDs can occur when a developing baby is exposed to alcohol before birth. This can happen even prior to a person recognizing that they are pregnant. Even small amounts of alcohol will pass across the placenta and to the fetus. The baby’s liver is not developed enough to be able to process the alcohol. The alcohol can damage the baby’s organs or cause other harm. Because no amount of alcohol can be considered safe, pregnant people should avoid all alcohol during the entire pregnancy. […] “Binge drinking” (having 4 or more drinks at a time) is especially dangerous for your baby. It makes the level of alcohol in your blood (and the baby’s blood) go very high very quickly. Even if you don’t drink every day, you may put your baby at risk for FASD if you drink alcohol. […] While drinking alcohol in the first three months of pregnancy can be the most dangerous, alcohol exposure remains unsafe throughout the entire nine months of pregnancy. Alcohol can interfere with development and cause birth defects. Drinking at any time during pregnancy is not safe and can harm your baby.

• #22 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Symptoms, Causes, Treatments

  https://www.webmd.com/baby/fetal-alcohol-syndrome

  Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is the most severe fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. These are a group of conditions present at birth that can happen when a pregnant person drinks alcohol. […] Alcohol — including wine, beer, and liquor — is the leading preventable cause of birth defects in the U.S. […] In the womb, a baby doesn’t have a fully developed liver that can process or break down alcohol, so it can easily get to and damage the baby’s organs. […] Some of the most severe problems happen when a pregnant person drinks in the first trimester, when the baby’s brain starts to develop. But the second and third trimesters aren’t safe either. The brain is still developing then, and even moderate amounts of alcohol can disturb this process. […] There is no „safe” amount of alcohol you can drink during pregnancy. And there is no time during pregnancy when it’s considered safe to drink alcohol, either.

• #23 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/974016-overview

  Numerous studies demonstrated that the risk of alcohol-related effects increases according to maternal consumption in a dose-dependent fashion. […] Furthermore, heavy episodic, or binge, drinking is the riskiest pattern of consumption. […] Therefore, women who have the potential to become pregnant and who are binge drinkers may continue this pattern of consumption in the early weeks of an unrecognized pregnancy and therefore be at risk for fetal alcohol syndrome or fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. […] Evidence indicates that alcohol primarily affects brain development. […] Therefore, drinking in all three trimesters poses a risk. […] As a consequence, women can reduce their risk for alcohol-related birth outcomes by reducing the dose or by discontinuing the consumption of alcohol as soon as possible in the pregnancy.

• #24

  https://www.txhealthsteps.com/static/courses/fasd/sections/section-1-1.html

  Prenatal alcohol exposure can cause FASD. […] No amount of alcohol consumption is safe during pregnancy or while a woman is trying to become pregnant. A fetus can be affected by alcohol before a woman knows she is pregnant. […] The quantity, frequency, and timing of alcohol use during pregnancy can affect possible FASD outcomes. […] Drinking in first trimester elevates FASD likelihood 12 times. […] Drinking in first and second trimesters elevates FASD likelihood 61 times. […] Drinking in all three trimesters elevates FASD likelihood 65 times.

• #25 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

  https://www.health.com/fetal-alcohol-syndrome-overview-7501556

  Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is a permanent condition that causes brain damage and developmental delays in a fetus due to prenatal (before birth) alcohol exposure (PAE). FAS is the most severe fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD), a group of conditions caused by PAE. […] Fetal alcohol syndrome is caused by drinking alcohol while pregnant. When a pregnant person drinks alcohol, the alcohol enters the bloodstream and can reach the bloodstream of the developing fetus. Exposure to alcohol can affect the fetus’s growth and development. […] Alcohol exposure can damage facial features in the first three months of pregnancy and affect growth and brain development at any point during pregnancy. […] Binge drinking or heavy drinking throughout pregnancy might increase the risk of fetal alcohol syndrome. However, drinking any amount of alcohol during pregnancy can potentially increase the risk of developmental delays and birth defects.

• #26 UofL researchers studying specific causes of fetal alcohol syndrome | UofL News

  https://www.uoflnews.com/section/science-and-tech/uofl-researchers-studying-specific-causes-of-fetal-alcohol-syndrome/

  The most sensitive window for FASD exposure is before many women even know they’re pregnant, and some 42 percent of U.S. pregnancies are unplanned. […] Early studies have shown there may be some relatively simple ways to protect against FASD, such as by tweaking the formula of prenatal vitamins to lessen risk or developing therapeutics that address the birth defects that do happen. […] FASD is a complicated issue, and we need to address it from many angles, Lovely said. This isn’t as simple as saying don’t drink. We need to develop more ways to help both mom and baby stay safe.

• #27 Drinking during pregnancy can cause FASD.

  https://www.proofalliance.org/article/prevention-keystone-effects-of-drinking-during-pregnancy/

  Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, or FASD, is a disability with a wide range of lifelong effects that can occur when alcohol is consumed during pregnancy. Research shows that even small amounts of alcohol can negatively impact a developing baby’s brain and body. […] It is estimated that at least 1 in 7 in the US are exposed to alcohol. Alcohol is a teratogen, which means it can cause birth defects. Drinking during pregnancy can affect how the fetus grows and develops. It can harm different organs, especially the brain. […] The brain develops throughout the entire pregnancy, so drinking alcohol at any time can cause brain injury. This can lead to the fetus having a smaller head and brain, called microcephaly, and can result in mild to severe disabilities. The safest choice is not to drink any alcohol during pregnancy. […] FASD is a group of conditions caused by prenatal alcohol exposure.

• #28 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/974016-overview

  Several conditions or characteristics may modify risk for fetal alcohol syndrome or fetal alcohol spectrum disorder among women who consume sufficient quantities of alcohol in pregnancy. […] Women older than 30 years and/or those with a long history of alcohol consumption may be most likely to give birth to a child with fetal alcohol syndrome or fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. […] Poor maternal nutritional status may also increase the likelihood of having an alcohol-affected child. […] Having one child with fetal alcohol syndrome further increases the risk of producing subsequent children with fetal alcohol syndrome. […] Genetic susceptibility to fetal alcohol syndrome has been suggested in some studies, with alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) polymorphisms as a risk factor. […] In particular, the ADH 2*2 and 2*3 alleles, which result in rapid metabolism of alcohol to acetaldehyde, were shown to be protective against FAS.

• #29

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00787-018-1264-3

  Foetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs) are a leading cause of developmental disability. Prenatal alcohol use is the sole necessary cause of FASD, but it is not always sufficient. […] Multiple factors influence a child’s susceptibility to FASD following prenatal alcohol exposure. […] The aetiology of FASD is multifaceted and complex. FASD risk is determined by a range of lifestyle, sociodemographic, maternal, social, gestational, and genetic factors. […] Causal knowledge is important for identifying effective mechanisms for prevention and intervention programmes. […] Alcohol interacts with multiple factors in a complex process to determine offspring outcome. […] The term risk factor obscures the distinction between a predictor variable and a cause. […] Causal diagrams, known as directed acyclic graphs (DAGs), are gaining popularity as a gold standard method for supporting causal inference and reducing bias in epidemiological studies.

• #30 The Prevalence of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASDs) | Lompoc Valley Medical Center

  https://www.lompocvmc.com/blogs/2023/february/the-prevalence-of-fetal-alcohol-spectrum-disorde/

  Other risk factors for FASDs include: Poor nutrition; Multiple births and pregnancies; Weight, height, and body mass index (BMI) that are lower than average; Smoking; Older age; Family history of heavy alcohol use; High stress level; Social isolation; Exposure to alcohol misuse; Limited access to prenatal care; Genetics.

• #31 Causes of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder – Canada.ca

  https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/fetal-alcohol-spectrum-disorder/causes.html

  FASD is caused when a mother drinks alcohol during pregnancy. FASD is not hereditary. […] Alcohol is known to harm the normal development of cells. If you’re pregnant and drink alcohol, it passes into your developing fetus. This can cause harm to the baby’s brain and body. […] The impact of alcohol on a developing fetus is influenced by the: amount (how much you drink at once), frequency (how often alcohol was consumed), timing (when alcohol was consumed in pregnancy). […] It can also be affected by other factors such as: stress, the mother’s age, nutrition of the mother, smoking or other drug use.

• #32 Understanding Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: Causes & Prevention | Apollo Cradle

  https://www.apollocradle.com/blog/child-care/understanding-foetal-alcohol-spectrum-disorders-causes-effects-and-prevention

  Foetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) encompass a range of lifelong health challenges that can impact individuals exposed to alcohol during pregnancy. […] The causes and risk factors of Foetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) are rooted in prenatal alcohol exposure, genetic factors, socioeconomic circumstances, and lack of awareness. Understanding these factors is crucial in preventing this condition. […] The main reason for Foetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) is when a baby growing in the belly is exposed to alcohol while the mom is pregnant prenatal alcohol exposure. […] Genetic factors can also play a role in determining an individuals susceptibility to FASD. […] Socioeconomic factors can contribute to the risk of FASD. […] Sometimes, some people dont know that drinking alcohol when they are pregnant is harmful. […] FASD is preventable and linked to alcohol exposure during pregnancy.

• #33 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/974016-overview

  Several conditions or characteristics may modify risk for fetal alcohol syndrome or fetal alcohol spectrum disorder among women who consume sufficient quantities of alcohol in pregnancy. […] Women older than 30 years and/or those with a long history of alcohol consumption may be most likely to give birth to a child with fetal alcohol syndrome or fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. […] Poor maternal nutritional status may also increase the likelihood of having an alcohol-affected child. […] Having one child with fetal alcohol syndrome further increases the risk of producing subsequent children with fetal alcohol syndrome. […] Genetic susceptibility to fetal alcohol syndrome has been suggested in some studies, with alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) polymorphisms as a risk factor. […] In particular, the ADH 2*2 and 2*3 alleles, which result in rapid metabolism of alcohol to acetaldehyde, were shown to be protective against FAS.

• #34 Review and gap analysis: molecular pathways leading to fetal alcohol spectrum disorders | Molecular Psychiatry

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41380-018-0095-4

  Alcohol exposure during pregnancy affects the development of the fetus in various ways and may lead to Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD). […] FASD is one of the leading preventable forms of neurodevelopmental disorders. […] The main deficits in knowledge about FASD are the lack of pathophysiological understanding and doseresponse relationships, together with the lack of reliable biomarkers for either FASD detection or estimation of susceptibility. […] EtOH and its catabolite acetaldehyde are toxic themselves, but according to the current knowledge oxidative stress is the major damage pathway. […] Therefore, the downstream effects of EtOH, oxidative stress towards permanent, and long-term influence in the developing brain needs to be elucidated to understand the etiology thoroughly.

• #35 An overview of current advances in perinatal alcohol exposure and pathogenesis of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders | Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders | Full Text

  https://jneurodevdisorders.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s11689-024-09537-w

  The multiple hazards brought by the aforementioned PAE and the challenge for treatment of FASD all imply an urgent need for immediate and efficient action to resolve this serious issue. […] The main mechanism of FASD is closely related with alcohol-induced neuroinflammation and oxidative stress, by which potentially result in neural cell apoptosis in the developing embryonic brain, thus impeding the development of the embryonic brain. […] Ethanol neurotoxicity is another major mechanism by which ethanol causes FASD by direct damage to various signaling pathways. […] The damage to the developing nerve system in the womb causes FASD. […] The damage caused by oxidative stress cascade serves as the primary pathogenesis of the process of ROS-induced oxidative insult leading to FASD. […] The damage to DNA and the damage triggered by associated inflammatory factors serve as the primary pathogenesis of the process of ROS-induced oxidative stress leading to FASD.

• #36

  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00787-018-1264-3

  The DAG provides a visual description of the hypothesised aetiological context of FASD, based on the evidence synthesis. […] Prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) refers to maternal alcohol use, although it is important to note that maternal alcohol use is just one element of foetal alcohol exposure. […] The impact of PAE varies according to the dose, frequency and timing of exposure. […] Chronic alcohol use impairs the functioning of alcohol metabolising enzymes and can lead to malnutrition due to reduced intake and absorption of key nutrients, thus increasing FASD risk. […] Prenatal nutrition modifies the impact of PAE on FASD, influences maternal BMI, and is influenced by maternal substance use, maternal mental health, stress, antenatal care, whether pregnancy was planned or not, and SES.

• #37 Adjusting key protein could improve brain function in children with fetal alcohol syndrome – Children’s NationalSearchLink to: Pioneering gene therapy as a treatment for sickle cell diseaseLink to: Mission critical: Pentagon awards grant to combine two no

  https://innovationdistrict.childrensnational.org/adjusting-key-protein-could-improve-brain-function-in-children-with-fetal-alcohol-syndrome/

  Researchers at Children’s National are testing whether controlling the level of apolipoprotein E could serve as an effective treatment for the poor neurobehavioral outcomes tied to fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. […] Reduced levels of a protein – called apolipoprotein E – are responsible for the lifelong cognitive and neurological symptoms in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD), according to a new study published in the journal Molecular Psychiatry. […] “The new data shows that we understand the mechanism by which prenatal alcohol exposure causes a decrease of the APOE level in the brain. […] FASD is an umbrella diagnosis for the physical and developmental challenges that face children who are exposed to alcohol in utero, including intellectual disability, delay in motor and language development and other neurological diagnoses.

• #38 Adjusting key protein could improve brain function in children with fetal alcohol syndrome – Children’s NationalSearchLink to: Pioneering gene therapy as a treatment for sickle cell diseaseLink to: Mission critical: Pentagon awards grant to combine two no

  https://innovationdistrict.childrensnational.org/adjusting-key-protein-could-improve-brain-function-in-children-with-fetal-alcohol-syndrome/

  For the first time, researchers found that plasma levels of APOE were reduced in children with FASD, which strongly supports a potential target for therapy. […] In addition, their genomics study found a variant of APOE increases the risk of cognitive problems in subjects who were prenatally exposed to alcohol, especially those of African ancestry. […] The implications offer an exciting glimpse into possible therapies for some of the neurological harms associated with prenatal alcohol exposure and FASD.

• #39 Fetal alcohol syndrome – Symptoms and causes – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/fetal-alcohol-syndrome/symptoms-causes/syc-20352901

  Fetal alcohol syndrome is a condition in a child that results from alcohol exposure during the mother’s pregnancy. […] Drinking alcohol during pregnancy can cause the child to have disabilities related to behavior, learning and thinking, and physical development. […] Fetal alcohol syndrome is on the severe end of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD). FASD is a range of conditions in the child caused by the mother drinking alcohol during pregnancy. […] There is no amount of alcohol that’s known to be safe to drink during pregnancy. If you drink during pregnancy, you place your baby at risk of fetal alcohol syndrome. […] Alcohol goes into your bloodstream. Inside the womb, the placenta provides oxygen and nutrients to a developing baby. The alcohol reaches your baby by passing through the placenta.

• #40 About FASD | Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders | Proof Alliance NC

  https://www.proofalliancenc.org/about-fasd

  Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) are a range of effects that can occur when a developing embryo is prenatally exposed to alcohol, even before there is a confirmed pregnancy. FASD can include physical, mental, behavioral, and/or learning disabilities with possible lifelong implications. […] Prenatal alcohol exposure is the leading preventable cause of birth defects in the United States. […] The only known cause of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) is alcohol use during pregnancy. […] If a pregnant person does not drink any alcohol throughout their entire pregnancy, their child will not be born with an FASD. […] FASD cannot be “passed down” from a parent with an FASD, and it cannot be caused by a partner’s drinking. FASD can be prevented by not drinking any alcohol throughout pregnancy, from conception to birth. […] There currently is not a cure for fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD). Because prenatal alcohol exposure alters the trajectory of brain development over the lifetime, the effects are lifelong.

• #41 Understanding FASD: Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders

  https://www.thefca.co.uk/resources/blogs/latest-blogs/understanding-fasd/

  FASD is an umbrella term for a range of conditions which are caused when a foetus is exposed to alcohol in the womb. […] When a pregnant woman consumes alcohol, the ethanol in her blood passes into her child through the placenta, causing damage to her developing baby. […] Alcohol exposure in the womb can lead to miscarriage, premature birth, or to a baby being born with a FASD. […] Alcohol exposure can have a severe effect on a childs overall health and wellbeing. […] The damage caused by prenatal alcohol exposure is irreversible, and people effected by FASD will live the effects of the condition for their whole life. […] FASD is completely avoidable if alcohol is not consumed, and it cannot be inherited from a parent who was born with FASD. […] While many assume that only the behaviour of a babys mother can contribute to FASD, recent studies suggest that the amount of alcohol consumed by a babys father pre-conception may also have an impact on the childs development.

• #42

  https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/chronic/Pages/Fetal-Alcohol-Spectrum-Disorders-FAQs-of-Parents-and-Families.aspx

  There is no safe type of alcoholic beverage to consume while pregnant. […] No, there is no point during pregnancy when drinking alcohol is considered safe. […] FASDs can only happen when a pregnant person consumes alcohol. […] There is no evidence that FASDs are genetic or hereditary. FASDs can only happen if someone consumes alcohol while they are pregnant. […] Every major medical organization in the United States, including the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, the American Academy of Family Physicians, the US Surgeon General, and the CDC, agree and consistently state that the best advice is for people not to drink alcohol while they are pregnant or trying to become pregnant.

• #43 Understanding FASD: Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders

  https://www.thefca.co.uk/resources/blogs/latest-blogs/understanding-fasd/

  FASD is an umbrella term for a range of conditions which are caused when a foetus is exposed to alcohol in the womb. […] When a pregnant woman consumes alcohol, the ethanol in her blood passes into her child through the placenta, causing damage to her developing baby. […] Alcohol exposure in the womb can lead to miscarriage, premature birth, or to a baby being born with a FASD. […] Alcohol exposure can have a severe effect on a childs overall health and wellbeing. […] The damage caused by prenatal alcohol exposure is irreversible, and people effected by FASD will live the effects of the condition for their whole life. […] FASD is completely avoidable if alcohol is not consumed, and it cannot be inherited from a parent who was born with FASD. […] While many assume that only the behaviour of a babys mother can contribute to FASD, recent studies suggest that the amount of alcohol consumed by a babys father pre-conception may also have an impact on the childs development.

• #44 An overview of current advances in perinatal alcohol exposure and pathogenesis of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders | Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders | Full Text

  https://jneurodevdisorders.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s11689-024-09537-w

  Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) is a general term for multiple manifestations of fetal defects that is likely caused by PAE. […] PAE often affects the neurological development of the embryo, resulting in FASD and even FAS, which is indicative of the most typical features, such as morphological changes, cognitive impairment, and behavioral deficit. […] A systematic evaluation and comprehensive analysis of patients has demonstrated a causal relationship between PAE and fetal cognitive, learning, and memory deficits. […] This implied that alcohol has a significant negative impact on neurodevelopment, which is proportional to the severity of PAE. […] Presently, it has been shown that maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy causes FASD, and chronic alcohol consumption by the father also causes FASD.

• #45 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK448178/

  From animal models, we know that prenatal alcohol exposure affects all stages of brain development through a variety of mechanisms, the most significant of which result in cognitive, motor, and behavioral dysfunction. […] Given that the CNS damage from prenatal alcohol exposure is permanent, there is no cure for fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. […] Prevention of fetal alcohol syndrome is the responsibility of all healthcare workers. […] Clinicians should be fully aware that fetal alcohol syndrome is preventable.

• #46 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Symptoms, Causes and Treatment

  https://summitmalibu.com/blog/fetal-alcohol-syndrome-symptoms-causes-treatment/

  Fetal Alcohol Syndrome is not a genetic condition, meaning it is not directly inherited, and it is caused primarily by alcohol use during pregnancy. […] There is no known amount, frequency, or timeline of alcohol use during pregnancy that is used as a guideline for developing FASD. […] The good news is Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders are completely preventable by not drinking any alcohol during pregnancy.

• #47 UofL researchers studying specific causes of fetal alcohol syndrome | UofL News

  https://www.uoflnews.com/section/science-and-tech/uofl-researchers-studying-specific-causes-of-fetal-alcohol-syndrome/

  The most sensitive window for FASD exposure is before many women even know they’re pregnant, and some 42 percent of U.S. pregnancies are unplanned. […] Early studies have shown there may be some relatively simple ways to protect against FASD, such as by tweaking the formula of prenatal vitamins to lessen risk or developing therapeutics that address the birth defects that do happen. […] FASD is a complicated issue, and we need to address it from many angles, Lovely said. This isn’t as simple as saying don’t drink. We need to develop more ways to help both mom and baby stay safe.

• #48 Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder | Health and Social Services

  https://www.hss.gov.nt.ca/en/services/ensemble-troubles-causes-alcoolisation-f%C5%93tale

  Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) is a diagnostic term used to describe the impacts on the brain and body of an individual who was exposed to alcohol before birth. It is the leading known cause of developmental disability in Canada. […] Any woman of childbearing age who uses alcohol is at risk of having a child with FASD. It is safest to not drink if you are planning to become or are pregnant. […] However, prevention of FASD is much more than telling people who are pregnant or who may become pregnant to avoid drinking. Research tells us that women do not intentionally seek to harm their unborn children. Some women may be unaware of their pregnancy when drinking heavily. Some women have addictions and mental health challenges and find quitting extremely difficult despite being pregnant. Some women have abusive partners who pressure them to drink while pregnant. Preventing FASD requires work from everyone in a community, not just the pregnant person.

• #49 Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders and Inadequacy of Care: Importance of Raising Awareness in Clinical Practice

  https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9067/11/1/5

  Children with dysmorphic features of FASDs can be identified as early as 9 months of age, with a peak of identification at 18 months of age compared with an unaffected group of children. However, children with severe impairment of dysmorphic features can be identified at birth. The literature notes that although early behavioral and development impairment is usually noted between 18 and 42 months of age, CNS impairment may not be apparent until the child is in school. […] This review presented different aspects of FASDs regarding the concept of the umbrella term and public health, somatic, and psychiatric perspectives. Despite the significant prevalence of FASDs, there is a lack of knowledge about prenatal alcohol consumption and its consequences. Not only the lack of knowledge about prenatal alcohol consumption but also stigma and reluctance to report alcohol use contribute to challenges in prevention and diagnosis.

• #50 Understanding Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: Causes & Prevention | Apollo Cradle

  https://www.apollocradle.com/blog/child-care/understanding-foetal-alcohol-spectrum-disorders-causes-effects-and-prevention

  Foetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) encompass a range of lifelong health challenges that can impact individuals exposed to alcohol during pregnancy. […] The causes and risk factors of Foetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) are rooted in prenatal alcohol exposure, genetic factors, socioeconomic circumstances, and lack of awareness. Understanding these factors is crucial in preventing this condition. […] The main reason for Foetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) is when a baby growing in the belly is exposed to alcohol while the mom is pregnant prenatal alcohol exposure. […] Genetic factors can also play a role in determining an individuals susceptibility to FASD. […] Socioeconomic factors can contribute to the risk of FASD. […] Sometimes, some people dont know that drinking alcohol when they are pregnant is harmful. […] FASD is preventable and linked to alcohol exposure during pregnancy.

• #51 Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders and Inadequacy of Care: Importance of Raising Awareness in Clinical Practice

  https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9067/11/1/5

  The primary prevention goal is to eliminate the causes of FAS/FASDs by not exposing a fetus to alcohol. The data show that there is no safe amount of alcohol for a fetus. All women should abstain from alcohol during pregnancy or before conception; therefore, all childbearing-age women should be educated about alcohol consumption. […] FASDs are highly multidisciplinary conditions that affect many aspects of a child’s physical, somatic, cognitive, emotional, and psychosocial development. Primary prevention strategies for FASDs should be implemented as soon as possible as they are effective. Prenatal and early postnatal diagnosis and individualized interdisciplinary treatment are essential but still underdeveloped. The follow-up care of people with FASDs requires an individually planned, complex, and multidisciplinary approach.

• #52 Review and gap analysis: molecular pathways leading to fetal alcohol spectrum disorders | Molecular Psychiatry

  https://www.nature.com/articles/s41380-018-0095-4

  In short, the main deficits in knowledge about FASD are that there is no clear pathophysiological understanding, no cure, no doseresponse curve for EtOH intake during pregnancy, and no reliable biomarker for FASD detection and assessment criteria of individual susceptibility. […] Given the serious consequences of prenatal alcohol exposure with its serious effects on the affected individual, the family, and the society, priorities should be given to improve our current pathophysiological understanding of FASD and to develop strategies for preventive management and treatment to reduce or eliminate harmful effects of alcohol exposure.

• #53 Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: Clinical features and diagnosis – UpToDate

  https://www.uptodate.com/contents/fetal-alcohol-spectrum-disorder-clinical-features-and-diagnosis

  Prenatal exposure to alcohol is the leading preventable cause of congenital anomalies and developmental disabilities. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) is a term that is used to describe the range of physical, behavioral, and neurodevelopmental effects that can occur in an individual who was prenatally exposed to alcohol and may have lifelong implications and high societal costs. […] FASD is an umbrella term that encompasses the range of physical, mental health, behavioral, and cognitive effects that can occur in individuals with prenatal alcohol exposure. In most classification systems, FASD is not a diagnostic term but describes a group of specific conditions with mild to severe phenotypes; the conditions include fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) and partial fetal alcohol syndrome (pFAS).

• #54 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome – StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf

  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK448178/

  Fetal alcohol syndrome is one of the five disorders that comprise fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD). […] All of the conditions that comprise fetal alcohol spectrum disorders stem from one common cause, which is prenatal exposure to alcohol. Alcohol is extremely teratogenic to a fetus. Its effects are wide-ranging and irreversible. […] In summary, any amount of alcohol consumed at any point during pregnancy has the potential cause of irreversible damage that can lead to a fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. […] Prenatal alcohol exposure is the leading cause of preventable congenital disabilities. […] The exact mechanism by which alcohol causes its teratogenic effects is not known. […] We do know that alcohol is a teratogen that causes irreversible damage to the central nervous system (CNS).

• #55 Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: MedlinePlus

  https://medlineplus.gov/fetalalcoholspectrumdisorders.html

  Alcohol can harm your baby at any stage during a pregnancy. […] Drinking during pregnancy can cause a group of conditions called fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs). […] Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is the most serious type of FASD. […] There is no known safe amount of alcohol during pregnancy. To prevent FASDs, you should not drink alcohol while you are pregnant, or when you might get pregnant.

• #56 Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) – Health Care for Adults with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

  https://iddtoolkit.vkcsites.org/health-watch-tables/fetal-alcohol-spectrum-disorder-fasd/

  Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder is an umbrella term for the range of effects that can occur in an individual exposed to alcohol in utero. […] The range of deficits in FASD is associated with many factors, including the amount, time and frequency of exposure, as well as the state of health/nutrition of the mother and the genetic makeup of the mother and the fetus. […] There is no time during pregnancy when it is shown to be safe for mothers to consume alcohol. While binge drinking is especially dangerous, no amount of alcohol has been shown to be safe for all women.

• #57 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders | AAFP

  https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2017/1015/p515.html

  The diagnostic criteria for FAS or PFAS do not require confirmed alcohol use if characteristic findings are present.1,11 However, a confirmed absence of alcohol exposure rules out the diagnoses. […] Although they are not included in the diagnostic criteria for FAS or PFAS, multiple congenital abnormalities associated with prenatal alcohol exposure have been described for nearly every organ system. […] There is no cure for FASD.5 There is a lack of evidence on which to base recommendations for optimal management; therefore, much of the management is based on expert opinion. […] The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the American Academy of Family Physicians, the American Academy of Pediatrics, and the American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recognize no safe amount of alcohol consumption during pregnancy and recommend complete abstinence.26,4143

• #58 Assessment of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders

  https://iris.paho.org/handle/10665.2/52216

  Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) represent a range of physical, mental, and behavioral disabilities caused by alcohol use during pregnancy, or prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE). FASDs are considered to be one of the leading preventable causes of developmental disability. […] Despite its high prevalence, FASD is often misdiagnosed or underdiagnosed, making interventions more challenging or delayed. […] Most importantly, diagnosis provides a context for understanding a child’s behavior. […] Diagnosis of FASD is further beneficial to the extent that it leads to a reduction of future births of children with FASD.

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