Materiały źródłowe

• #1 The diagnostics of colorectal cancer

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4037991/

  Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most frequent human malignant neoplasms. CRC has an estimated incidence of more than 1,000,000 new cases annually worldwide. […] Several markers of colon cancer, including CEA, CA-19-9, TPS, TAG-72 and lysosomal hydrolases, have been identified and are now being adopted in routine clinical practice. Increased values of these markers are often the first signal of recurrence or metastases, which is useful in prediction and prognosis of clinical outcome of patients with CRC. […] However, it has to be remembered that currently the most effective diagnostic method of CRC is endoscopy. […] Current oncological diagnostics emphasizes the necessity of early recognition of neoplasms, even in an asymptomatic or pre-cancerous stage. […] Screening examinations, in order to recognize and remove adenomatous polyps, are extremely important in prevention of colorectal cancer.

• #2 Colorectal Cancer Diagnosis: The Obstacles We Face in Determining a Non-Invasive Test and Current Advances in Biomarker Detection

  https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/8/1889

  Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common cancers in the western world. CRC originates from precursor adenomatous polyps, which may over time develop into cancer. Endoscopic evaluation remains the gold-standard investigation for the disease. […] In the absence of molecular tools for early detection, the removal of neoplastic adenomas via polypectomy remains an important measure to prevent dysplastic adenomas from evolving into invasive carcinoma. […] The screening process for abnormal adenomas and early diagnosis of CRC is currently conducted through colonoscopies, which have been recognized as the ‘gold standard’ due to both their potential in the diagnosis and removal of adenomas. […] Early detection of CRC is intimately linked to higher survival rates from the disease, ranging from as high as a 90% five-year survival rate in stage 1 disease, to as low as 10% five-year survival in stage 4 disease.

• #3 Colorectal Cancer Diagnostic Methods: The Present and Future

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10185295/

  Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a globally prevalent healthcare problem. It is the third most prevalent cancer in men and women and the second leading cause of cancer death worldwide. […] An emphasis has been placed on creating standards for these guidelines and ensuring that the populations most at risk are at the focal point. […] The American Cancer Society (ACS), US Preventative Services Task Force (USPSTF), and US Multi-Society Task Force are three prominent American organizations that oversee CRC screening recommendations. […] The organizations create the guidelines based on extensive reviews of accumulated data and trends, and the recommendations they make influence the decisions made at a legislative level. […] In 2018 the ACS provided a guideline update for CRC screening. The suggestions were categorized as either solid or qualified recommendations. The ACS advises that persons aged 45 and older with an average risk of colorectal cancer undergo routine screening using either a high-sensitivity stool-based test or a structural examination. […] The structural examinations highlighted were the colonoscopy, computerized tomography colonography examination, and flexible sigmoidoscopy.

• #4 Colon Cancer Diagnosis | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center

  https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/types/colon/diagnosis

  Colon cancer is often found after symptoms appear. But most people with early-stage colon cancer dont have symptoms. Those usually only develop with more-advanced disease. Thats why we recommend regular screening tests to detect and diagnose colon cancer at an early stage, when its easier to treat. […] If you have symptoms that suggest you may have colon cancer, your doctor will take your medical history, perform a physical examination, and likely order diagnostic tests. […] If we suspect that you have colon cancer based on those results, one of our specialists will do a colonoscopy and take a biopsy. In this test, the doctor removes a small piece of tissue with a special instrument. One of our expert pathologists (doctors who specialize in diagnosing disease) then examines the tissue sample under a microscope.

• #5 Rectal Cancer Diagnosis | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center

  https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/types/rectal/diagnosis

  Rectal cancer is often found after symptoms appear. But most people with early-stage rectal cancer don’t have symptoms. Those usually only develop with more-advanced disease. That’s why we recommend regular screening tests to detect the disease at an early stage, when it’s easier to treat. […] If you have symptoms that suggest you may have rectal cancer, your doctor will take your medical history, perform a physical examination, and likely order diagnostic tests. […] If we suspect that you may have rectal cancer based on those results, one of our specialists will do a colonoscopy and take a biopsy. In this test, a doctor removes a small piece of tissue with a special instrument. One of our expert pathologists (doctors who specialize in diagnosing disease) then examines the tissue sample under a microscope.

• #6 Colon Cancer: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/277496-overview

  Colon cancer is often detected during screening procedures. Common clinical presentations include the following: Iron-deficiency anemia, Rectal bleeding, Abdominal pain, Change in bowel habits, Intestinal obstruction or perforation. […] Laboratory studies that may be helpful include the following: Complete blood count, Chemistries and liver function tests, Serum carcinoembryonic antigen. […] Imaging studies that may facilitate staging include the following: Chest radiography, Chest computed tomography, Abdominal barium study, Abdominal/pelvic CT, Contrast ultrasonography of the abdomen and liver, Abdominal/pelvic MRI, Positron emission tomography, including fusion PET-CT scan. […] Other procedures that may be warranted include the following: Colonoscopy, Sigmoidoscopy, Biopsy of suspicious lesions, Double-contrast barium enema.

• #7 Diagnosing bowel cancer | Bowel Cancer UK | Bowel Cancer UK

  https://www.bowelcanceruk.org.uk/about-bowel-cancer/diagnosis/

  In this section, we talk about how bowel cancer is diagnosed, the tests you might have, and what happens when you visit your GP or the hospital. […] There are a few ways that bowel cancer can be diagnosed. Some people may notice symptoms of bowel cancer and speak to their GP before completing an at-home test. […] Others may be referred to the hospital for tests after completing a screening test, or after having other medical tests or procedures. […] The pages below break down this information to try and help you understand what tests you might have when you visit your GP and what will happen if you’re referred to a hospital for further tests.

• #8

  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/colorectal-cancer

  Colorectal cancer is often diagnosed at advanced stages when treatment options are limited. […] Regular screenings are crucial for early detection. […] Diagnostic methods for colorectal cancer include physical examination, imaging (such as abdominal ultrasound, computed tomography scans, and magnetic resonance imaging), examination of the inside of the colon using colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy, taking a sample of tissue (biopsy) for histopathology examination, and molecular testing to identify specific genetic mutations or biomarkers to guide the best treatment option. […] Regular screening for colorectal cancer (secondary prevention) is the best way to catch the disease early. […] Studies have shown that screening can reduce both the incidence and mortality of colorectal cancer through early detection and removal of precancerous growths.

• #9 Screening Tests to Detect Colorectal Cancer and Polyps – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/colorectal/screening-fact-sheet

  Colorectal cancer (cancer that develops in the colon and/or the rectum) is a disease in which abnormal cells in the colon or rectum divide uncontrollably, ultimately forming a malignant tumor. […] Most colorectal cancers begin as an abnormal growth, or lesion, in the tissue that lines the inner surface of the colon or rectum. […] Colorectal cancer is the third most common type of non-skin cancer in both men (after prostate cancer and lung cancer) and women (after breast cancer and lung cancer). It is the second leading cause of cancer death in the United States after lung cancer. […] Expert medical groups, including the US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF), strongly recommend screening for colorectal cancer. […] Most groups now generally recommend that people at average risk of colorectal cancer get screened at regular intervals beginning at age 45.

• #10 Recommendation: Colorectal Cancer: Screening | United States Preventive Services Taskforce

  https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf/recommendation/colorectal-cancer-screening

  Adults aged 50 to 75 years The USPSTF recommends screening for colorectal cancer in all adults aged 50 to 75 years. […] Adults aged 45 to 49 years The USPSTF recommends screening for colorectal cancer in adults aged 45 to 49 years. […] Adults aged 76 to 85 years The USPSTF recommends that clinicians selectively offer screening for colorectal cancer in adults aged 76 to 85 years. Evidence indicates that the net benefit of screening all persons in this age group is small. […] The USPSTF expanded the recommended ages for colorectal cancer screening to 45 to 75 years (previously, it was 50 to 75 years). […] The USPSTF concludes with high certainty that screening for colorectal cancer in adults aged 50 to 75 years has substantial net benefit. […] The USPSTF concludes with moderate certainty that screening for colorectal cancer in adults aged 45 to 49 years has moderate net benefit.

• #11 Screening Tests to Detect Colorectal Cancer and Polyps – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/colorectal/screening-fact-sheet

  Several different screening tests are available that can help doctors find colorectal cancer before symptoms begin, when it may be more treatable. […] Some types of colorectal cancer screening may allow for cancer prevention in addition to early detection. […] If an abnormality is found during a standard colonoscopy it will be removed (polypectomy) or a biopsy performed, and the cells will be examined to see if cancer is present. […] Researchers are studying new blood markers to detect colorectal cancer early. […] Another approach being tested is whether artificial intelligence (AI)-based technology called computer-aided detection (CAD) can improve the interpretation of colonoscopy imaging by experienced doctors. […] Researchers are continuing to improve the sensitivity of stool-based screening for detecting advanced adenomatous polyps, which can potentially become colorectal cancer, by testing for the presence of other (non-DNA) types of biomarkers.

• #12 Colorectal Cancer: What You Should Know About Screening | FDA

  https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/colorectal-cancer-what-you-should-know-about-screening

  There are several FDA-reviewed and approved or cleared choices for colorectal cancer screening. […] The only way to find a polyp, precancerous growth, or colorectal cancer is to do a screening test or procedure. […] The benefits of screening are so great that doctors recommend most people start colorectal cancer screening by age 45. Some people who are at higher risk may need to start screening before age 45. […] The U.S. Food and Drug Administration reviews and clears or approves colorectal cancer tests, prescription medicines, and medical devices used during colorectal cancer screening. […] Today there are 2 types of screening recommended for colorectal cancer: Stool (poop) sample tests and Visual screening procedures such as colonoscopy. […] If the test shows blood or possible DNA from cancer or a precancerous polyp, your doctor will order a colonoscopy or other type of visual screening to get more information.

• #13 Colorectal Cancer Screening | Cancer Trends Progress Report

  https://progressreport.cancer.gov/detection/colorectal_cancer

  Fecal occult blood test (FOBT) and fecal immunochemical test (FIT) – These tests identify hidden blood in the stool, which can be a sign of cancer. The USPSTF suggests FOBT or FIT annually, using a home-based kit. […] Fecal DNA test – In addition to checking for hidden blood in the stool like a FIT, this test also looks for abnormal genetic material that may be a sign of colorectal cancer. The USPSTF suggests fecal DNA testing at least every 3 years. […] Even though the National Health Interview Survey colorectal cancer screening measures have limitations, it is the best nationally representative data we have available to assess colorectal cancer screening rates. It is frequently used by governmental and other organizations to track screening use over time in the US.

• #14 The diagnostics of colorectal cancer

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4037991/

  Fecal occult blood test is a simple, cheap and noninvasive diagnostic examination. […] The immunohistochemical fecal occult blood test (FIT) reveals human globin, a protein which builds hemoglobin along with heme and is also applied in CRC diagnostics. […] Improvement of current CRC diagnostics is connected with non-enzymatic tumor markers. […] Increased values of tumor markers evaluate recurrences or metastases, especially to the liver. […] There is an urgent search for new, more sensitive and specific biomarkers of CRC. […] The best solution seems to be estimation of at least two or three markers at the same time in order to increase their diagnostic applicability. […] It has to be mentioned that noninvasive tests should be conducted only during screening examination and therapy monitoring. […] Screening examination using tumor markers and intervention in early stages of CRC may significantly decrease the mortality rate connected with CRC. However, endoscopy is the most precise diagnostic method.

• #15 Colorectal Cancer Screening Tests | Sigmoidoscopy & Colonoscopy | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/colon-rectal-cancer/detection-diagnosis-staging/screening-tests-used.html

  Several tests can be used to screen for colorectal cancer. The most important thing is to get screened, no matter which test you choose. Colonoscopy, a screening test, can even prevent colorectal cancer by finding polyps before they turn into cancer. […] If you choose to be screened with a test other than colonoscopy, any abnormal test result should be followed up with a timely colonoscopy. […] If the result from a stool-based test is abnormal, you will still need a colonoscopy to see if you have colorectal cancer. […] If the test result is positive (that is, if hidden blood is found), a colonoscopy will be needed to investigate further. […] If you choose one of these tests, it should be done every 3 years. […] If the test result is positive (if it finds DNA changes, RNA changes, or blood), a colonoscopy will need to be done.

• #16 Colorectal Cancer Screening Tests: MedlinePlus Medical TestLock

  https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/colorectal-cancer-screening-tests/

  Some of the tests used to screen for colorectal cancer may also be used as diagnostic tests. They can help your provider make a diagnosis when you are having symptoms of a colonic disease. […] There are two main types of colorectal cancer screening tests: visual exams and stool tests. […] Visual exams are procedures that allow your provider to look inside your colon and rectum. […] Types of visual exams include: Colonoscopy. This test lets your provider view your entire rectum and colon (large intestine). […] If you have polyps, your provider may remove them or tissue samples using special tools inserted through the scope. […] Stool tests look at stool samples for blood or other signs of cancer you can’t see. […] Your provider usually prescribes the test, which can be done at home.

• #17 Bowel cancer | Causes, Symptoms & Treatments | Cancer Council

  https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/types-of-cancer/bowel-cancer

  The best test for bowel cancer is a colonoscopy, which examines the length of the large bowel. Air is pumped into the colon through a flexible tube that is inserted into the anus. A camera on the end of the tube allows your doctor to look for abnormal tissue that is removed for further examination. […] Flexible sigmoidoscopy is used to examine the rectum and left side of the lower colon. Any unusual tissue can be removed for further examination. […] An MRI scan produces detailed cross-sectional pictures of the body and can show the extent of any tumours. […] CT scans produce three-dimensional pictures of several organs at the same time and can be used to examine the bowel. […] In a positron emission tomography (PET) scan, a small amount of radioactive glucose is injected into the body. When scanned, cancer cells will appear brighter.

• #18 Colon cancer | Macmillan Cancer Support

  https://www.macmillan.org.uk/cancer-information-and-support/bowel-cancer/colon-cancer

  If you have symptoms, you will usually begin by seeing your GP, who will examine you. If they think that your symptoms could be caused by cancer, they will refer you to a specialist doctor. […] The specialist doctor will examine you and you will usually have some tests. These include a rectal examination and a blood test. […] You usually also have test called a colonoscopy. A doctor or nurse uses a thin tube with a camera at the end to examine the inside of the whole bowel. […] Or you might have a sigmoidoscopy to examine the inside of the rectum and the part of the colon closest to the rectum. […] Some people are diagnosed with colon cancer through the NHS Bowel Screening Programme. We have more information about bowel cancer screening. […] We have more information about the tests you may have and how colon cancer is diagnosed.

• #19 Colorectal Cancer Screening Tests | Sigmoidoscopy & Colonoscopy | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/colon-rectal-cancer/detection-diagnosis-staging/screening-tests-used.html

  Several tests can be used to screen for colorectal cancer. The most important thing is to get screened, no matter which test you choose. Colonoscopy, a screening test, can even prevent colorectal cancer by finding polyps before they turn into cancer. […] If you choose to be screened with a test other than colonoscopy, any abnormal test result should be followed up with a timely colonoscopy. […] If the result from a stool-based test is abnormal, you will still need a colonoscopy to see if you have colorectal cancer. […] If the test result is positive (that is, if hidden blood is found), a colonoscopy will be needed to investigate further. […] If you choose one of these tests, it should be done every 3 years. […] If the test result is positive (if it finds DNA changes, RNA changes, or blood), a colonoscopy will need to be done.

• #20 Recommendation: Colorectal Cancer: Screening | United States Preventive Services Taskforce

  https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf/recommendation/colorectal-cancer-screening

  The USPSTF concludes with moderate certainty that screening for colorectal cancer in adults aged 76 to 85 years who have been previously screened has small net benefit. […] This assessment of net benefit applies to stool-based tests with high sensitivity, colonoscopy, computed tomography (CT) colonography, and flexible sigmoidoscopy. […] The USPSTF recommendation for screening for colorectal cancer does not include serum tests, urine tests, or capsule endoscopy for colorectal cancer screening because of the limited available evidence on these tests and because other effective tests (ie, the recommended screening strategies) are available. […] This recommendation applies to asymptomatic adults 45 years or older who are at average risk of colorectal cancer (ie, no prior diagnosis of colorectal cancer, adenomatous polyps, or inflammatory bowel disease; no personal diagnosis or family history of known genetic disorders that predispose them to a high lifetime risk of colorectal cancer [such as Lynch syndrome or familial adenomatous polyposis]).

• #21 Colorectal Cancer Screening | Cancer Trends Progress Report

  https://progressreport.cancer.gov/detection/colorectal_cancer

  Colonoscopy – A procedure where a doctor looks into the rectum and the entire colon using a flexible narrow tube to identify colorectal cancer or precancerous polyps. Used not only as a screening test, colonoscopies are also used as a diagnostic procedure to follow up after positive results from a fecal occult blood test (FOBT) or fecal immunochemical test (FIT), fecal DNA test, sigmoidoscopy, or CT colonography. The USPSTF suggests a screening colonoscopy once every 10 years. […] Computed tomography (CT) colonography (otherwise known as a virtual colonoscopy) – Produces a three-dimensional image of the colon which your doctor examines for colorectal cancer and precancerous polyps. The USPSTF suggests CT colonography once every 5 years. […] Sigmoidoscopy – A procedure where a doctor looks into the rectum and part of the colon using a flexible narrow tube to identify colorectal cancer or precancerous polyps. The USPSTF suggests sigmoidoscopy once every 5 years, or once every 10 years when conducted along with FIT every year.

• #22 Colon and Rectal Cancer Detection & Diagnosis | WVCI

  https://www.oregoncancer.com/colorectal-cancer/diagnosis

  If you are considered at high risk for colorectal cancer, your doctor may recommend earlier and more frequent screening. […] Suppose you have screening test results that suggest colorectal cancer or you have symptoms. […] If your physical exam and test results do not suggest cancer, your doctor may decide that no further tests are needed, and no treatment is necessary. […] However, your doctor may recommend a schedule for checkups. […] When any test other than a colonoscopy indicates abnormalities, your doctor will typically order a colonoscopy to view the colon in its entirety. […] Additional tests that may be used to help diagnose colorectal cancer include blood tests, endorectal ultrasound, PET-CT scan, chest X-ray, CT scan, and MRI. […] Any polyps biopsied during a colonoscopy will be sent for testing. […] It is important to remember that not all polyps are cancerous.

• #23 Testing for Colorectal Cancer | How Is Colorectal Cancer Diagnosed? | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/colon-rectal-cancer/detection-diagnosis-staging/how-diagnosed.html

  If you have symptoms that might be from colorectal cancer, or if a screening test shows something abnormal, your doctor will recommend one or more of the exams and tests below to find the cause. […] Your doctor might also order certain blood tests to help determine if you have colorectal cancer. These tests also can be used to help monitor your disease if you’ve been diagnosed with cancer. […] A diagnostic colonoscopy is just like a screening colonoscopy, but it’s done because a person is having symptoms, or because something abnormal was found on another type of screening test. […] If a suspected colorectal tumor is found during a screening or diagnostic test, it usually is biopsied. […] Biopsy samples (from colonoscopy or surgery) are sent to the lab where they are looked at closely. If cancer is found, other lab tests may also be done on the biopsy samples to help better classify the cancer and guide specific treatment options. […] Imaging tests may be done for a number of reasons, such as: To look at suspicious areas that might be cancer, To learn how far cancer might have spread, To help determine if treatment is working, To look for signs of cancer coming back after treatment.

• #24 Diagnosis of colorectal cancer | Canadian Cancer Society

  https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/colorectal/diagnosis

  Diagnosis is the process of finding out the cause of a health problem. Diagnosing colorectal cancer usually begins with a visit to your family doctor. Your doctor will ask you about any symptoms you have and may do a physical exam. Based on this information, your doctor may refer you to a specialist or order tests to check for colorectal cancer or other health problems. […] The following tests are usually used to rule out or diagnose colorectal cancer. Many of the same tests used to diagnose cancer are used to find out the stage (how far the cancer has spread). Your doctor may also order other tests to check your general health and to help plan your treatment. […] A colonoscopy is the most common test used to diagnose colorectal cancer. During a colonoscopy, the doctor looks inside the colon and rectum using a flexible tube with a light and lens on the end (called an endoscope).

• #25 Colorectal Cancer Diagnosis – AL BORG DIAGNOSTICS

  https://alborgdx.com/ksa/en/colorectal_cancer_diagnosis/

  Colon and rectal cancer refers to cancer that affects both the colon and rectum. It occurs due to the formation of small noncancerous clusters in the colon, known as polyps, which later develop into cancers. […] For this reason, doctors and experts recommend that individuals with these polyps undergo regular screenings to prevent colon cancer and detect it early. […] The diagnostic options for colon and rectal cancer include the following: […] During your first clinic visit, the doctor will start by asking about your medical history; the doctor may inquire about the following: […] After gathering all the information about your medical history, the doctor will perform a physical examination by palpating the abdominal area to look for any masses or swelling. […] The digital rectal examination is a physical examination performed by a doctor. During this examination, the doctor inserts a gloved, lubricated finger into the patients rectum to check for any masses or swelling.

• #26 Diagnosis of colorectal cancer | Canadian Cancer Society

  https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/colorectal/diagnosis

  Diagnosis is the process of finding out the cause of a health problem. Diagnosing colorectal cancer usually begins with a visit to your family doctor. Your doctor will ask you about any symptoms you have and may do a physical exam. Based on this information, your doctor may refer you to a specialist or order tests to check for colorectal cancer or other health problems. […] The following tests are usually used to rule out or diagnose colorectal cancer. Many of the same tests used to diagnose cancer are used to find out the stage (how far the cancer has spread). Your doctor may also order other tests to check your general health and to help plan your treatment. […] A colonoscopy is the most common test used to diagnose colorectal cancer. During a colonoscopy, the doctor looks inside the colon and rectum using a flexible tube with a light and lens on the end (called an endoscope).

• #27 Colon cancer – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/colon-cancer/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20353674

  Colonoscopy During a colonoscopy, a healthcare professional puts a colonoscope into the rectum to check the entire colon. […] Tests and procedures used for colon cancer diagnosis include: […] Using a scope to examine the inside of the colon. Colonoscopy uses a long, flexible and slender tube attached to a video camera and monitor to view the whole colon and rectum. A doctor may pass surgical tools through the tube to take tissue samples and remove polyps. […] Removing a sample of tissue for testing. A biopsy is a procedure to remove a sample of tissue for testing in a lab. For colon cancer, the tissue sample is often collected during a colonoscopy. Sometimes surgery is needed to get the tissue sample. In the lab, tests can show whether the cells are cancerous and how quickly they’re growing. Other tests can give more information about the cancer cells. Your health care team uses the results to understand your prognosis and create a treatment plan.

• #28 Testing for Colorectal Cancer | How Is Colorectal Cancer Diagnosed? | American Cancer Society

  https://www.cancer.org/cancer/types/colon-rectal-cancer/detection-diagnosis-staging/how-diagnosed.html

  If you have symptoms that might be from colorectal cancer, or if a screening test shows something abnormal, your doctor will recommend one or more of the exams and tests below to find the cause. […] Your doctor might also order certain blood tests to help determine if you have colorectal cancer. These tests also can be used to help monitor your disease if you’ve been diagnosed with cancer. […] A diagnostic colonoscopy is just like a screening colonoscopy, but it’s done because a person is having symptoms, or because something abnormal was found on another type of screening test. […] If a suspected colorectal tumor is found during a screening or diagnostic test, it usually is biopsied. […] Biopsy samples (from colonoscopy or surgery) are sent to the lab where they are looked at closely. If cancer is found, other lab tests may also be done on the biopsy samples to help better classify the cancer and guide specific treatment options. […] Imaging tests may be done for a number of reasons, such as: To look at suspicious areas that might be cancer, To learn how far cancer might have spread, To help determine if treatment is working, To look for signs of cancer coming back after treatment.

• #29 Screening Tests to Detect Colorectal Cancer and Polyps – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/colorectal/screening-fact-sheet

  Several different screening tests are available that can help doctors find colorectal cancer before symptoms begin, when it may be more treatable. […] Some types of colorectal cancer screening may allow for cancer prevention in addition to early detection. […] If an abnormality is found during a standard colonoscopy it will be removed (polypectomy) or a biopsy performed, and the cells will be examined to see if cancer is present. […] Researchers are studying new blood markers to detect colorectal cancer early. […] Another approach being tested is whether artificial intelligence (AI)-based technology called computer-aided detection (CAD) can improve the interpretation of colonoscopy imaging by experienced doctors. […] Researchers are continuing to improve the sensitivity of stool-based screening for detecting advanced adenomatous polyps, which can potentially become colorectal cancer, by testing for the presence of other (non-DNA) types of biomarkers.

• #30 Colon cancer – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/colon-cancer/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20353674

  Colonoscopy During a colonoscopy, a healthcare professional puts a colonoscope into the rectum to check the entire colon. […] Tests and procedures used for colon cancer diagnosis include: […] Using a scope to examine the inside of the colon. Colonoscopy uses a long, flexible and slender tube attached to a video camera and monitor to view the whole colon and rectum. A doctor may pass surgical tools through the tube to take tissue samples and remove polyps. […] Removing a sample of tissue for testing. A biopsy is a procedure to remove a sample of tissue for testing in a lab. For colon cancer, the tissue sample is often collected during a colonoscopy. Sometimes surgery is needed to get the tissue sample. In the lab, tests can show whether the cells are cancerous and how quickly they’re growing. Other tests can give more information about the cancer cells. Your health care team uses the results to understand your prognosis and create a treatment plan.

• #31 Diagnosis of colorectal cancer | Canadian Cancer Society

  https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/colorectal/diagnosis

  A biopsy is usually done during a colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy (called an endoscopic biopsy) to remove polyps or small amounts of tissue from the colon or rectum. […] Tumour markers are substances found in blood, tissues or fluids removed from the body. An abnormal amount of a tumour marker may mean that a person has colorectal cancer. Tumour marker tests are also used to check your response to cancer treatment. […] Stool tests check for hidden (occult) blood in the stool. A guaiac-based fecal occult blood test (gFOBT) or a fecal immunochemical test (FIT) may be done during diagnosis if it was not used during screening. […] Sigmoidoscopy is a procedure that uses a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and lens on the end (called an endoscope). It is used to look at the sigmoid colon (the last part of the colon) and the rectum. A biopsy sample may be collected during a sigmoidoscopy. A sigmoidoscopy may be done if you have symptoms of colorectal cancer.

• #32 Colon cancer – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/colon-cancer/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20353674

  Colonoscopy During a colonoscopy, a healthcare professional puts a colonoscope into the rectum to check the entire colon. […] Tests and procedures used for colon cancer diagnosis include: […] Using a scope to examine the inside of the colon. Colonoscopy uses a long, flexible and slender tube attached to a video camera and monitor to view the whole colon and rectum. A doctor may pass surgical tools through the tube to take tissue samples and remove polyps. […] Removing a sample of tissue for testing. A biopsy is a procedure to remove a sample of tissue for testing in a lab. For colon cancer, the tissue sample is often collected during a colonoscopy. Sometimes surgery is needed to get the tissue sample. In the lab, tests can show whether the cells are cancerous and how quickly they’re growing. Other tests can give more information about the cancer cells. Your health care team uses the results to understand your prognosis and create a treatment plan.

• #33 Colon cancer – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/colon-cancer/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20353674

  Blood tests aren’t used to diagnose colon cancer. But blood tests can give clues about overall health, such as how well the kidneys and liver are working. A blood test might be used to look for a low level of red blood cells. This result might indicate that a colon cancer is causing bleeding. […] After a colon cancer diagnosis, other tests might be needed to find out the extent of the cancer. This is called the cancer’s stage. The health care team considers the cancer’s stage when creating a treatment plan. […] Staging tests might include imaging scans of the abdomen, pelvis and chest. Imaging tests take pictures of the body. They show the location and the size of the colon cancer. Often, doctors can’t be certain of the cancer’s stage until after colon cancer surgery.

• #34 Screening and Diagnosis of Colon and Rectal Cancer | Northwestern Medicine

  https://www.nm.org/conditions-and-care-areas/cancer-care/gastrointestinal-cancers/colorectal-cancer/screening-and-diagnosis

  Regular colonoscopy screenings are recommended for anyone aged 45 years and older. […] There are a variety of leading-edge tools available to diagnose colorectal cancer. Most commonly they include: […] Blood tests look for anemia, which can result from a bleeding tumor. […] Imaging tests: Procedures such as CT scan, PET scan, ultrasound or MRI of the abdomen may be done to look for tumors or other problems. These tests may also be done if you have been diagnosed with colon or rectal cancer to help determine the extent (stage) of the cancer.

• #35 Colon Cancer Workup: Approach Considerations, Blood Studies, Imaging Studies

  https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/277496-workup

  After tissue diagnosis is confirmed, laboratory studies are done with a goal of assessing patients organ function (liver, kidneys) in anticipation of diagnostic and therapeutic procedures and also to estimate tumor burden. Adequate imaging of the chest and abdomen should be obtained for staging purposes, ideally preoperatively. […] Laboratory studies are done with a goal of assessing patients organ function (liver, kidneys) in anticipation of diagnostic and therapeutic procedures and also to estimate tumor burden. […] A baseline CEA level should be obtained preoperatively as it carries prognostic value and when highly elevated may indicate more advanced, disseminated disease. Increased levels of serum CEA have been associated with an adverse prognosis in patients with resectable colorectal cancer; however, this biochemical marker has not as of yet been included in colorectal cancer staging guidelines.

• #36 Colon cancer – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/colon-cancer/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20353674

  Blood tests aren’t used to diagnose colon cancer. But blood tests can give clues about overall health, such as how well the kidneys and liver are working. A blood test might be used to look for a low level of red blood cells. This result might indicate that a colon cancer is causing bleeding. […] After a colon cancer diagnosis, other tests might be needed to find out the extent of the cancer. This is called the cancer’s stage. The health care team considers the cancer’s stage when creating a treatment plan. […] Staging tests might include imaging scans of the abdomen, pelvis and chest. Imaging tests take pictures of the body. They show the location and the size of the colon cancer. Often, doctors can’t be certain of the cancer’s stage until after colon cancer surgery.

• #37 Colon cancer – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/colon-cancer/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20353674

  Blood tests aren’t used to diagnose colon cancer. But blood tests can give clues about overall health, such as how well the kidneys and liver are working. A blood test might be used to look for a low level of red blood cells. This result might indicate that a colon cancer is causing bleeding. […] After a colon cancer diagnosis, other tests might be needed to find out the extent of the cancer. This is called the cancer’s stage. The health care team considers the cancer’s stage when creating a treatment plan. […] Staging tests might include imaging scans of the abdomen, pelvis and chest. Imaging tests take pictures of the body. They show the location and the size of the colon cancer. Often, doctors can’t be certain of the cancer’s stage until after colon cancer surgery.

• #38 Diagnosis of colorectal cancer | Canadian Cancer Society

  https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/colorectal/diagnosis

  A CT scan is used to check if colorectal cancer has spread to lymph nodes or organs in the chest, abdomen and pelvis. A CT scan of the pelvis may be used to measure how far a rectal tumour is from the anus. A biopsy sample may be collected during a CT scan to see if cancer has spread to organs such as the liver. […] An ultrasound uses high-frequency sound waves to make images of parts of the body. It may be used to check if colorectal cancer has spread to the liver. […] An MRI of the pelvis may be used to find out the stage of rectal cancer and where it has spread within the pelvis. It may also be used to measure how far a rectal tumour is from the anus.

• #39 Diagnosis of colorectal cancer | Canadian Cancer Society

  https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/colorectal/diagnosis

  A CT scan is used to check if colorectal cancer has spread to lymph nodes or organs in the chest, abdomen and pelvis. A CT scan of the pelvis may be used to measure how far a rectal tumour is from the anus. A biopsy sample may be collected during a CT scan to see if cancer has spread to organs such as the liver. […] An ultrasound uses high-frequency sound waves to make images of parts of the body. It may be used to check if colorectal cancer has spread to the liver. […] An MRI of the pelvis may be used to find out the stage of rectal cancer and where it has spread within the pelvis. It may also be used to measure how far a rectal tumour is from the anus.

• #40 Diagnosis of colorectal cancer | Canadian Cancer Society

  https://cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-types/colorectal/diagnosis

  A CT scan is used to check if colorectal cancer has spread to lymph nodes or organs in the chest, abdomen and pelvis. A CT scan of the pelvis may be used to measure how far a rectal tumour is from the anus. A biopsy sample may be collected during a CT scan to see if cancer has spread to organs such as the liver. […] An ultrasound uses high-frequency sound waves to make images of parts of the body. It may be used to check if colorectal cancer has spread to the liver. […] An MRI of the pelvis may be used to find out the stage of rectal cancer and where it has spread within the pelvis. It may also be used to measure how far a rectal tumour is from the anus.

• #41 How to Test & Diagnose Colorectal (Rectal or Colon) Cancer

  https://www.cancercenter.com/cancer-types/colorectal-cancer/diagnosis-and-detection

  Several types of imaging tests are used to diagnose colorectal cancer. […] A positron emission tomography-computed tomography (PET/CT) scan may be used to determine whether the colorectal cancer has spread to lymph nodes or other areas of the body, such as the liver or lungs. […] A barium enema is used to take X-rays of the large intestine, which includes the colon and rectum. It helps doctors diagnose and stage colorectal cancer, and in some cases, it is used when a colonoscopy is not an option.

• #42 Colon cancer – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/colon-cancer/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20353674

  Blood tests aren’t used to diagnose colon cancer. But blood tests can give clues about overall health, such as how well the kidneys and liver are working. A blood test might be used to look for a low level of red blood cells. This result might indicate that a colon cancer is causing bleeding. […] After a colon cancer diagnosis, other tests might be needed to find out the extent of the cancer. This is called the cancer’s stage. The health care team considers the cancer’s stage when creating a treatment plan. […] Staging tests might include imaging scans of the abdomen, pelvis and chest. Imaging tests take pictures of the body. They show the location and the size of the colon cancer. Often, doctors can’t be certain of the cancer’s stage until after colon cancer surgery.

• #43 Colon Cancer Diagnosis | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center

  https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/types/colon/diagnosis

  Your care team may recommend CT and MRI scans to determine the stage of the cancer and to see if it has spread to other organs. […] For some advanced cancers, pathologists at Memorial Sloan Kettering will do molecular testing on a tumor to find somatic mutations. These mutations can predict how a tumor might react to treatments. Knowing as much as possible about a tumors genetic makeup can help your care team choose the treatments that are most likely to help you. […] If the cancer has spread outside the colon, your doctor will test biopsy samples for mutations in genes called EGFR, KRAS, and BRAF. These are common in colon cancer. We will also test for mutations in less common genes.

• #44 Colon Cancer Diagnosis | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center

  https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/types/colon/diagnosis

  Your care team may recommend CT and MRI scans to determine the stage of the cancer and to see if it has spread to other organs. […] For some advanced cancers, pathologists at Memorial Sloan Kettering will do molecular testing on a tumor to find somatic mutations. These mutations can predict how a tumor might react to treatments. Knowing as much as possible about a tumors genetic makeup can help your care team choose the treatments that are most likely to help you. […] If the cancer has spread outside the colon, your doctor will test biopsy samples for mutations in genes called EGFR, KRAS, and BRAF. These are common in colon cancer. We will also test for mutations in less common genes.

• #45 Colorectal Cancer Diagnosis: The Obstacles We Face in Determining a Non-Invasive Test and Current Advances in Biomarker Detection

  https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/8/1889

  The current use of molecular biomarkers in the detection of CRC is extremely limited. […] The only serum biomarker for CRC tested for in the UK is carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA). […] However, CEA is not tested routinely in worldwide practice to aid in the diagnosis of CRC as levels may be raised in various other inflammatory conditions such as diverticulitis and inflammatory bowel disease. […] Current advances in biomarker use for early detection of CRC have shown great potential in past years, and even though use of the Epi proColon blood test has been approved for use by the FDA, it is still only reserved for patients who refuse to participate in traditional screening for CRC. […] The advent of mSEPT9 DNA serum testing has provided a potential new screening tool for CRC, but it remains a third-line alternative for patients who do not want to participate in traditional screening and given that more accuracy is still needed.

• #46 Screening Tests to Detect Colorectal Cancer and Polyps – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/colorectal/screening-fact-sheet

  Several different screening tests are available that can help doctors find colorectal cancer before symptoms begin, when it may be more treatable. […] Some types of colorectal cancer screening may allow for cancer prevention in addition to early detection. […] If an abnormality is found during a standard colonoscopy it will be removed (polypectomy) or a biopsy performed, and the cells will be examined to see if cancer is present. […] Researchers are studying new blood markers to detect colorectal cancer early. […] Another approach being tested is whether artificial intelligence (AI)-based technology called computer-aided detection (CAD) can improve the interpretation of colonoscopy imaging by experienced doctors. […] Researchers are continuing to improve the sensitivity of stool-based screening for detecting advanced adenomatous polyps, which can potentially become colorectal cancer, by testing for the presence of other (non-DNA) types of biomarkers.

• #47 Screening Tests to Detect Colorectal Cancer and Polyps – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/colorectal/screening-fact-sheet

  Several different screening tests are available that can help doctors find colorectal cancer before symptoms begin, when it may be more treatable. […] Some types of colorectal cancer screening may allow for cancer prevention in addition to early detection. […] If an abnormality is found during a standard colonoscopy it will be removed (polypectomy) or a biopsy performed, and the cells will be examined to see if cancer is present. […] Researchers are studying new blood markers to detect colorectal cancer early. […] Another approach being tested is whether artificial intelligence (AI)-based technology called computer-aided detection (CAD) can improve the interpretation of colonoscopy imaging by experienced doctors. […] Researchers are continuing to improve the sensitivity of stool-based screening for detecting advanced adenomatous polyps, which can potentially become colorectal cancer, by testing for the presence of other (non-DNA) types of biomarkers.

• #48 Screening Tests to Detect Colorectal Cancer and Polyps – NCI

  https://www.cancer.gov/types/colorectal/screening-fact-sheet

  Several different screening tests are available that can help doctors find colorectal cancer before symptoms begin, when it may be more treatable. […] Some types of colorectal cancer screening may allow for cancer prevention in addition to early detection. […] If an abnormality is found during a standard colonoscopy it will be removed (polypectomy) or a biopsy performed, and the cells will be examined to see if cancer is present. […] Researchers are studying new blood markers to detect colorectal cancer early. […] Another approach being tested is whether artificial intelligence (AI)-based technology called computer-aided detection (CAD) can improve the interpretation of colonoscopy imaging by experienced doctors. […] Researchers are continuing to improve the sensitivity of stool-based screening for detecting advanced adenomatous polyps, which can potentially become colorectal cancer, by testing for the presence of other (non-DNA) types of biomarkers.

• #49 Colorectal Cancer Diagnostic Methods: The Present and Future

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10185295/

  In 2021 the USPSTF issued an updated recommendation statement for CRC screening. The recommendations assessed the benefits of screening at different age intervals and classified them by substantial and moderate levels. […] For those average-risk populations, the USPSTF recommends a high-sensitivity gFOBT and FIT test every year and a multitarget stool DNA test every one to three years. […] Colonoscopy has been utilized in various studies of hsFOBT, FIT, mt-sDNA, and other non-colonoscopic test modalities as the gold standard comparative test. […] A colonoscopy can assess the lesion’s features, such as differentiating between an adenoma and a hyperplastic polyp or determining whether a lesion is precancerous or in the early stages of malignancy. […] The guanosine triphosphate protein (GTP)-binding protein Septin 9 (SEPT9) is a member of the GTP family, and SEPT9 methylation is connected to carcinogenesis and acts as a biomarker for CRC. […] The USPSTF recommendations warn against utilizing methylated Septin 9 (mSEPT9) for this reason since it is more likely to detect advanced-stage neoplasia than CRC.

• #50 Colorectal Cancer Diagnosis: The Obstacles We Face in Determining a Non-Invasive Test and Current Advances in Biomarker Detection

  https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/8/1889

  Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common cancers in the western world. CRC originates from precursor adenomatous polyps, which may over time develop into cancer. Endoscopic evaluation remains the gold-standard investigation for the disease. […] In the absence of molecular tools for early detection, the removal of neoplastic adenomas via polypectomy remains an important measure to prevent dysplastic adenomas from evolving into invasive carcinoma. […] The screening process for abnormal adenomas and early diagnosis of CRC is currently conducted through colonoscopies, which have been recognized as the ‘gold standard’ due to both their potential in the diagnosis and removal of adenomas. […] Early detection of CRC is intimately linked to higher survival rates from the disease, ranging from as high as a 90% five-year survival rate in stage 1 disease, to as low as 10% five-year survival in stage 4 disease.

• #51 Colon Cancer: Symptoms, Stages & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/14501-colorectal-colon-cancer

  There are five stages of colon cancer. […] According to U.S. National Cancer Institute (NCI) data, more than 90% of people treated for early-stage colorectal cancer were alive five years after diagnosis. […] NCI data shows that overall, 65% of people with colorectal cancer were alive five years after diagnosis. […] If you have colon cancer, ask your healthcare provider about newer treatments that may be appropriate for your situation.

• #52 Colon Cancer: Symptoms, Stages & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/14501-colorectal-colon-cancer

  There are five stages of colon cancer. […] According to U.S. National Cancer Institute (NCI) data, more than 90% of people treated for early-stage colorectal cancer were alive five years after diagnosis. […] NCI data shows that overall, 65% of people with colorectal cancer were alive five years after diagnosis. […] If you have colon cancer, ask your healthcare provider about newer treatments that may be appropriate for your situation.

• #53 Bowel cancer

  https://www.cancervic.org.au/cancer-information/types-of-cancer/bowel_cancer/diagnosing_bowel_cancer.html

  It is particularly important for bowel cancer, which often has no symptoms in its early stages. […] If the screening test is positive, it means there were traces of blood in your sample and you need more tests. It is important to do the screening test, as it can find early cancers and some precancerous polyps in the bowel. […] Removing polyps reduces the risk of developing bowel cancer. Finding bowel cancer early improves the chance of surviving the disease. […] This is the main test to look for bowel cancer. It lets your doctor look at the lining of the entire large bowel. […] During the colonoscopy, any precancerous polyps will be removed this is called a polypectomy. […] If the doctor sees abnormal-looking areas, including polyps, they will remove a sample of the tissue. This is called a biopsy.

• #54 Colon Cancer: Symptoms, Stages, Outlook, and More

  https://www.healthline.com/health/colon-cancer

  Colon cancer occurs when cells in your large intestine grow out of control. Treatment can vary by the stage and type of colon cancer. […] According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), colorectal cancer is the fourth most common type of cancer in the United States. […] Learn more about colon cancer stages, causes, and risk factors plus resources to help you find support. […] Doctors use staging as a general guideline to help them determine how far along the cancer is. This could help them develop the best treatment plan and better predict your long-term outlook. […] An early diagnosis of colon cancer gives you the best chance of curing it. […] Since colon cancer often has no symptoms during the early stages, it is usually caught during routine screenings like colonoscopy.

• #55 Colon Cancer: Symptoms, Stages & Treatment

  https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/14501-colorectal-colon-cancer

  Colon cancer develops from certain polyps or growths in the inner lining of your colon. Healthcare providers have screening tests that detect precancerous polyps before they can become cancerous tumors. […] Thanks to screening tests, early treatment and new kinds of treatment, fewer people are dying from colon cancer. […] Healthcare providers use several tests to diagnose colon cancer. Those tests include: Complete blood count (CBC), Comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP), Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) assay: Cancer cells and normal cells release CEA into your bloodstream. High CEA levels may be a sign of colon cancer. […] A colonoscopy is the most common screening test for colon cancer. […] Healthcare providers use the TNM cancer staging system developed by the American Joint Committee on Cancer to stage colon cancer.

• #56 Rectal cancer – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/rectal-cancer/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20352889

  If you’re diagnosed with rectal cancer, the next step is to determine the cancer’s extent, called the stage. Your healthcare team uses the cancer staging test results to help create your treatment plan. […] Staging tests include: […] CT scan of the chest, abdomen and pelvis. This imaging test helps determine whether rectal cancer has spread to other organs, such as the liver or lungs. […] MRI of the pelvis. An MRI provides a detailed image of the muscles, organs and other tissues surrounding cancer in the rectum. An MRI also shows the lymph nodes near the rectum and different layers of tissue in the rectal wall more clearly than a CT does. […] The stages of rectal cancer range from 0 to 4. A stage 0 rectal cancer is small and only involves the superficial lining of the rectum. As the cancer gets larger and grows deeper into the rectum, the stages get higher. A stage 4 rectal cancer has spread to other parts of the body.

• #57 Diagnosis and Tests for Colon Cancer | Nebraska Hematology Oncology – Cancer Care Treatment Blood Disorders Clinical Trials Lincoln Nebraska (NE)

  https://www.yourcancercare.com/types-of-cancer/colon-cancer/diagnosis-and-tests-for-colon-cancer

  Colon cancer is typically diagnosed during a colonoscopy which is performed because an individual has concerning signs or symptoms of colon cancer or as part of routine screening in individuals 45-50 or older. During a colonoscopy, abnormal areas of the colon and polyps are biopsied. The tissue obtained during the biopsy is examined by a pathologist to confirm a diagnosis of colon cancer. Genomic profiling or biomarker testing should also be performed to see if the cancer can be targeted with precision cancer medicines. When colon cancer is confirmed additional tests are required to stage or determine the extent of spread of the cancer. […] Following surgical removal of colon cancer and examination of removed tissue under a microscope, a final pathologic stage will be given. […] In addition to colonoscopy determining the stage of the colon cancer or the extent of the spread requires a number of tests and is ultimately confirmed by surgical removal of the cancer and exploration of the abdominal cavity. The following tests may be used to look for cancer in the chest, abdomen and pelvis. A colon cancers stage is a key factor in determining the best treatment.

• #58 Colorectal Cancer Screening and Diagnosis | Colorectal Cancer | UT Southwestern Medical Center

  https://devtest.utswmed.org/conditions-treatments/colorectal-cancer/colorectal-cancer-screening-and-diagnosis/

  Our patient care team includes specialized radiologists who use established criteria for interpreting and recording the results of imaging scans. This allows for improved communication between team members. […] Our multidisciplinary team includes surgeons, oncologists, radiation oncologists, radiologists, and pathologists who meet every week to discuss cases and devise an individualized care strategy for each patient. Patients who undergo cancer surgery routinely have follow-up examinations and imaging scans to check on their cancer status.

• #59 Colon cancer – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic

  https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/colon-cancer/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20353674

  Colonoscopy During a colonoscopy, a healthcare professional puts a colonoscope into the rectum to check the entire colon. […] Tests and procedures used for colon cancer diagnosis include: […] Using a scope to examine the inside of the colon. Colonoscopy uses a long, flexible and slender tube attached to a video camera and monitor to view the whole colon and rectum. A doctor may pass surgical tools through the tube to take tissue samples and remove polyps. […] Removing a sample of tissue for testing. A biopsy is a procedure to remove a sample of tissue for testing in a lab. For colon cancer, the tissue sample is often collected during a colonoscopy. Sometimes surgery is needed to get the tissue sample. In the lab, tests can show whether the cells are cancerous and how quickly they’re growing. Other tests can give more information about the cancer cells. Your health care team uses the results to understand your prognosis and create a treatment plan.

• #60 Colorectal Cancer Diagnosis

  https://www.baptistmdanderson.com/cancer-types/colorectal-diagnosis

  As part of the diagnosis process, several tests help evaluate the cancer stage. Once you know the stage of your cancer, you and your doctor can use this information to decide on the best treatment option for you. […] A second opinion can be a game-changer for patients. While it is rare for a diagnosis to change from malignant to benign, a second opinion may reveal other information. Our team verifies whether your staging is correct, your tumor size is correct and your overall assessment is correct. All of these factors can affect which treatment options you are offered. […] Colorectal cancer is treated in our gastrointestinal (GI) cancer clinic.

• #61 Colorectal Cancer Diagnostic Methods: The Present and Future

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10185295/

  Numerous significant and encouraging developments have taken place in CRC screening in the last ten years, such as the development of novel screening procedures and the improvement of current technology to detect colonic neoplasia better. […] In summary, to remain a relevant participant in CRC screening, it is important to understand the various screening options’ strengths and weaknesses, including those just now emerging. […] Even though new treatments are available for primary and metastatic colorectal cancer and subsequent improvement in survival rates, screening rates have not appreciably increased. […] To improve the identification and prevention of this illness, finding more highly accurate, non-invasive, and tolerable CRC screening tests has become the need of the hour.

• #62 Colorectal Cancer Diagnostic Methods: The Present and Future

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10185295/

  Numerous significant and encouraging developments have taken place in CRC screening in the last ten years, such as the development of novel screening procedures and the improvement of current technology to detect colonic neoplasia better. […] In summary, to remain a relevant participant in CRC screening, it is important to understand the various screening options’ strengths and weaknesses, including those just now emerging. […] Even though new treatments are available for primary and metastatic colorectal cancer and subsequent improvement in survival rates, screening rates have not appreciably increased. […] To improve the identification and prevention of this illness, finding more highly accurate, non-invasive, and tolerable CRC screening tests has become the need of the hour.

• #63 The diagnostics of colorectal cancer

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4037991/

  Fecal occult blood test is a simple, cheap and noninvasive diagnostic examination. […] The immunohistochemical fecal occult blood test (FIT) reveals human globin, a protein which builds hemoglobin along with heme and is also applied in CRC diagnostics. […] Improvement of current CRC diagnostics is connected with non-enzymatic tumor markers. […] Increased values of tumor markers evaluate recurrences or metastases, especially to the liver. […] There is an urgent search for new, more sensitive and specific biomarkers of CRC. […] The best solution seems to be estimation of at least two or three markers at the same time in order to increase their diagnostic applicability. […] It has to be mentioned that noninvasive tests should be conducted only during screening examination and therapy monitoring. […] Screening examination using tumor markers and intervention in early stages of CRC may significantly decrease the mortality rate connected with CRC. However, endoscopy is the most precise diagnostic method.

• #64 The diagnostics of colorectal cancer

  https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4037991/

  Fecal occult blood test is a simple, cheap and noninvasive diagnostic examination. […] The immunohistochemical fecal occult blood test (FIT) reveals human globin, a protein which builds hemoglobin along with heme and is also applied in CRC diagnostics. […] Improvement of current CRC diagnostics is connected with non-enzymatic tumor markers. […] Increased values of tumor markers evaluate recurrences or metastases, especially to the liver. […] There is an urgent search for new, more sensitive and specific biomarkers of CRC. […] The best solution seems to be estimation of at least two or three markers at the same time in order to increase their diagnostic applicability. […] It has to be mentioned that noninvasive tests should be conducted only during screening examination and therapy monitoring. […] Screening examination using tumor markers and intervention in early stages of CRC may significantly decrease the mortality rate connected with CRC. However, endoscopy is the most precise diagnostic method.

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